国语

别史》国语 Mandarin 》国语 Mandarin 左丘明 Zuoqiu Ming

Mandarin
　　《国语》是中国最早的一部国别史著作。记录了周朝王室和鲁国、齐国、晋国、郑国、楚国、吴国、越国等诸侯国的历史。上起周穆王十二年（前990）西征犬戎（约前947年），下至智伯被灭（前453年）。
　　
　　【题解】
　　
　　关于国语的作者是谁，自古至今学界多有争论，现在还没有形成定论。司马迁最早提到国语的作者是左丘明（左丘失明，厥有《国语》），其后班固、刘知几等都认为是左丘明所著，还把国语称为《春秋外传》或《左氏外传》。但是在晋朝以后，许多学者都怀疑国语不是左丘明所著。直到现在，学界仍然争论不休，一般都否认左丘明是国语的作者，但是缺少确凿的证据。普遍看法是，国语是战国初期一些熟悉各国历史的人，根据当时周朝王室和各诸侯国的史料，经过整理加工汇编而成。国语按照一定顺序分国排列，在内容上偏重于记述历史人物的言论。这是国语体例上最大的特点。
　　
　　【评价】
　　
　　国语在内容上有很强的伦理倾向，弘扬德的精神，尊崇礼的规范，认为“礼”是治国之本。而且非常突出忠君思想。
　　
　　国语的政治观比较进步，反对专制和腐败，重视民意，重视人才，具有浓重的民本思想。
　　
　　国语记录了春秋时期的经济、财政、军事、兵法、外交、教育、法律、婚姻等各种内容，对研究先秦时期的历史非常重要。
　　
　　【研究参考书目】
　　
　　• 薛安勤、王连生《国语译注》，吉林文史出版社，1991年 ISBN 780626138
　　
　　• 董立章《国语译注辨析》，暨南大学出版社，1993年
　　
　　2、汉语的一种语音体系名
　　
　　1949年中华人民共和国成立前推行的把北京话作为汉民族共同语的运动。它提出“言文一致”和“国语统一”两大口号。“言文一致”是书面语不用古代文言，改用现代白话。“国语统一”是现代白话要以北京话为全国通用的国语。这个运动对于现代汉民族共同语的建立和推行，对于文体改革和文字拼音化，都有一定的贡献。
　　
　　【产生的经过】
　　
　　由于受到日本明治维新的影响，在清末的后十年,就已经提出统一国语的问题。最早提到“国语”这个名称的，是当时被委任为京师大学堂总教习的桐城派古文名家吴汝纶。1902年他去日本考察学政，看到日本推行国语（东京话）的成绩，深受感动，回国后写信给管学大臣张百熙，主张在学校教学王照的官话合声字母,推行以“京话”（北京话）为标准的国语。1909年，清政府资政院开会，议员江谦提出把“官话”正名为“国语”，设立“国语编查委员会”，负责编订研究事宜。1911年学部召开“中央教育会议”，通过《统一国语办法案》，决议在京城成立国语调查总会，各省设分会，进行语词、语法、音韵的调查，审定“国语”标准，编辑国语课本、国语辞典和方言对照表等。1912年民国成立后，召开“临时教育会议”，决定先从统一汉字的读音做起，召开“读音统一会”。 1913年“读音统一会”开会，议定了汉字的国定读音（即“国音”）和拼切国音的字母“注音字母”(也叫“国音字母”)。议定以后，北洋政府迟迟不予公布。于是在1916年，北京教育界人士组织“中华民国国语研究会”（简称“国语研究会”）掀起了一个催促北洋政府公布注音字母和改学校“国文”科为“国语”科的运动。
　　
　　研究会规定了5项任务：①调查各省方言；②选定标准语；③编辑标准语的语法辞典；④用标准语编辑国民学校教科书及参考书；⑤编辑国语刊物。提出学校的“国文”教科书改称“国语”教科书。运动得到各地教育界人士的响应。国语研究会的会员4年中增加到12000多人。1918年北洋政府教育部召开“全国高等师范校长会议”，决定在全国高等师范附设“国语讲习科”,专教注音字母及国语,并于11月公布了“注音字母”。同年，《新青年》等刊物提出“文学革命”的口号，开始用白话文写作。1919年“五四”运动爆发，在这个运动的推动下，北洋政府教育部成立政府的推行机构“国语统一筹备会”，并训令全国各国民学校改“国文”科为“国语”科。与此同时，又通令修改原来的《国民学校令》，规定首先教授注音字母，改革教科书的文体和教学方法等，这样，国语运动在学校方面得到了初步的成功。
　　
　　【“国语”的推行】
　　
　　“五四”以后，国语运动进入推行期。主要工作是修订注音字母方案，制订国语罗马字拼音法式，调整“国音”标准，扩大国语的教育和应用，以及出版、宣传等。
　　
　　
　　
　　台湾语言与族群密切相关。按通俗的分法，台湾人可分为4大族群，其中闽南人约占74%，客家人约12%，外省人约 13%，原住民为1%左右。闽南人以闽南话为母语，客家人以客家话为母语，外省人以“国语”为母语。原住民分为11个民族，分别使用不同的原住民语，并把它们当做母语。
　　
　　闽南话其实是正宗的中原古语。从汉末到唐末藩镇之乱，黄河沿岸的中原人陆续向南方迁移，把河洛古语带到东南沿海；明清时期一些大陆移民渡过海峡，又把这一语言带到台湾，因此闽南话又被称为“河洛语”。后来，台湾闽南话演变出“台南腔”、“台北腔”和“宜兰腔”等，其中以“台南腔”最具代表性。
　　
　　唐代以来，中国北方持续动荡，外族侵扰不断，中原各民族的语言相互融合，相互吸收，逐渐形成元代白话、明清官话，最后演变为北平话，中原古语在北方完全消失。民国初期，北平话改名“国语”，成为中华民族的通用语。国民党退踞台湾后，设立“国语推行委员会”，研究并推广“国语”。由于外省人中苏、浙、闽、粤人较多，势力较大，所以台湾“国语”受到江浙方言及闽南方言的影响，带有明显的吴越腔调。新中国成立后，大陆以北京语音为标准音、以北方方言为基础方言，对异读字、轻声和儿化等语言现象进行了进一步规范，两岸“国语”差别由此拉大。
　　
　　除了上述语言外，外语在台湾也有一定地位。受过中学以上教育的人都会说一些英语。在涉外学术、商贸和旅游领域，英语是通用语。现今70岁以上的台湾人一般还会说一些日语。大量来自菲律宾、印尼和越南的外来劳工则使用其本国语言。
　　
　　大部分台湾人能够使用母语及“国语”。“国语”是岛内各族群的通用语，是学校教育使用的正式语言，是新闻、出版和公文中使用的官方语言。有研究说，在台湾各地火车站，旅客使用频率最高的语言是“国语”，平均约49%；闽南话次之，约 47%；“国语”∕闽南话混用约1.7%；客家话约1.7%；原住民语约0.3%；其他语言约0.3%。一般来说，越是都市地区，越是经济发达地区，使用 “国语”频率越高，越是农村地区，越是经济落后地区，闽南话使用频率越高。年龄越小，使用“国语”频率越高，年龄越大，使用闽南话频率越高。女性比男性更倾向使用“国语”。

　　"Mandarin" is the earliest works on the history of a country. Lu Zhou royal family and the records, Qi, Jin, Zheng, Chu, Wu, Yue and other vassal state history. The years since King Mu of Zhou (formerly 990) expedition Quanrong (about 947 years ago), were destroyed down to the Zhi Bo (formerly 453).
　　
　　【Title】
　　
　　Evaluation】【
　　
　　Mandarin in a strong ethical content tend to carry forward the spirit of Germany, respected ritual norms, that "gift" is to govern. And very prominent loyalist thought.
　　
　　Mandarin more progressive political outlook, oppose tyranny and corruption, public opinion and talent, with a heavy thought of the people.
　　
　　Mandarin records the Spring and Autumn Period of the economic, financial, military, military science, diplomacy, education, law, marriage and other content, the study of the history of the Qin Dynasty is very important.
　　
　　References】【Research
　　
　　• Xuean Qin, Lian-Sheng Wang, "Mandarin Annotation", Jilin Literature and History Press, 1991 ISBN 780626138
　　
　　• Dong Li Zhang, "Analysis of Mandarin Annotation", Jinan University Press, 1993
　　
　　2, the Chinese name of a voice system
　　
　　Before the establishment of the PRC in 1949 introduced the Beijing dialect as the common language of the movement of Han nationality. It proposed "Genbunitchi" and the "national language unification," the two slogans. "Genbunitchi" is not written in ancient classical Chinese, use modern vernacular. "Mandarin reunification" is a modern vernacular to the Beijing dialect of Mandarin as the national general. The campaign for the modern Chinese nation to establish and implement a common language for writing style and spelling of the reform, there is some contribution.
　　
　　After】【generated
　　
　　As a result of the impact of the Meiji Restoration in Japan, after decades in the late Qing Dynasty to the problem have been proposed unified national language. The earliest reference to "national language" of this name, was appointed as the Imperial instructors of the classical masters Tongcheng lun. In 1902 he went to Japan to study political science, see the implementation of Mandarin in Japan (Tokyo words) the results, deeply moved, after returning home wrote to the Minister Zhang Baixi management science, and holds teaching Mandarin king chorus according to the letter, the implementation of " If Beijing "(Beijing dialect) as the standard Mandarin. In 1909, the Qing government advisory council meeting, Mr Qian Jiang made the "official words" Name of "national language", a "Mandarin Code Review Committee", responsible for compiling the research matters. 1911 Division held a "meeting of the Central Education", through "the case of a unified national language approach", the resolution established national language survey in the capital Federation, the provinces _set_ up branches, the words, syntax, phonology investigation, validation "national language" standards, edit Mandarin textbooks Mandarin and other dialects table. After the founding of the Republic in 1912, held a "temporary educational conference", decided to start with the pronunciation of Chinese characters start with a unified, held a "unity of pronunciation will be." 1913, "the pronunciation of unity would" meet agreed national pronunciation of Chinese characters (ie the "National Music") and cut the country sounds of the letters spell "phonetic alphabet" (also known as the "National accented letters"). Agreed later, the Northern Government has been not published. Then in 1916, Beijing, the education sector organization "national language of the Republic of China will" (referred to as "Mandarin Research") _set_ off a press release phonetic alphabet and the Northern Government to change school "Chinese" subjects as the "national language" Section of movement.
　　
　　Research tasks will require a 5: ① provincial dialect survey; ② standard language _select_ion; ③ Grammatical Dictionary of editorial standards; ④ national school with a standard language editing textbooks and reference books; ⑤ edit Mandarin publications. Made the school's "Chinese" textbook was renamed the "national language" textbook. Movement around the education sector received a response. Mandarin Research Council increased to 12,000 members in more than 4 years. Northern Government in 1918, the Ministry of Education held a "meeting of the National Teachers president," the decision attached at the National Higher Education Teachers "workshop Mandarin Branch", designed to teach phonetic alphabet and Mandarin, and in November announced the "phonetic alphabet." In the same year, the "New Youth" and other publications put forward the "Literary Revolution" slogan, starting with the vernacular writing. 1919 "May Fourth" movement broke out, under the impetus of this movement, the Northern Government's implementation of the Ministry of Education _set_ up a government agency "unified national language preparatory" and instructions to change the national schools across the country, "Chinese" subjects as the "national language" Section. At the same time, also issued an order to modify the original "National School Order", provides the first Professor of phonetic alphabet, reform the style of textbooks and teaching methods, so that National Language Movement in schools has been initially successful.
　　
　　【"National language" of the implementation】
　　
　　"May Fourth Movement" after the Language Movement into the implementation period. Main task is to amend the phonetic alphabet programs, development of French Mandarin Romanization, adjust the "national voice" standard, and expand the education and application of Mandarin, as well as publishing, publicity and so on.
　　
　　Closely related to language and ethnic groups in Taiwan. The points system by popular people in Taiwan can be divided into 4 major groups, which account for about 74% of Taiwanese, Hakka, about 12%, and mainlanders, about 13%, indigenous 1% or so. Taiwanese people to the Minnan dialect is the mother tongue to Hakka-speaking Hakka, and mainlanders to the "national language" as the mother tongue. Divided into 11 indigenous ethnic groups were different aboriginal languages, and use them as a mother tongue.
　　
　　Minnan dialect is authentic in the Central Plains as the old saying. From the late Han to Tang Military Rebellion, one after another along the Yellow River in the Central Plains of migration to the south, to the southeast coast of the Luo as the old saying; number of immigrants from the mainland through the Ming and Qing Dynasties Strait to Taiwan again this language, so Taiwanese then also known as "Hokkien." Later, Taiwan's Minnan dialect evolved, "Tainan cavity", "Taipei cavity" and "Ilan cavity", of which the "Tainan chamber" the most representative.
　　
　　In addition to the above language, the language has a certain status in Taiwan. Who had secondary or higher education will speak some English. In the foreign academic, business and tourism areas, English is the lingua franca. Today the people of Taiwan over the age of 70 will generally say something in Japanese. A lot from the Philippines, Indonesia and Vietnam, use of foreign workers in their own language.

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【资料来源】百度国学

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