The day, month, and Singapore a natural phenomenon known celestial bodies.
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No. 3
The distribution of objects in the universe, run, etc. phenomena
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◎ astronomical tiānwén
Astronomy lunisolar count. - "Later Han Heng Chuan"
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No. 5
Moon and stars and other celestial bodies in the universe distribution is running and so on. Ancient wind, clouds, rain, dew, frost, snow, etc. are also included in the astronomical range of cultural phenomena. "Yi Ben": "Looking at astronomy in order to detect time-varying." Jin Ge Hong "Bao Pu Bo Yu": "Mountain Dove know rain or shine in the future, not tomorrow, Man." "Sui Shu Jing Ji Zhi 3": "astronomical, it had the stars of the changes the police, but also those who participate in government." Lao She's "Teahouse" Act II: "You have so much knowledge, Shang Zhi astronomer and geographer."
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Astronomy
Astronomy. Qing Chen Kangqi "Lang potential Ji Wen" Volume: "Westerners employed as professors, who in homes in China Jinshen to Qi Xu intelligent children are going to vote dispatch hall, study astronomy, saying shares, shipbuilding, the making of tools dharmas."
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The history of astronomy
Astronomy, the origin of the seeds of human culture can be traced back to the era. Ancient times, people to the direction, determine the time and season, and the sun, moon and stars were observed to determine their location, find out the variation of them, and accordingly the preparation of the calendar. From that point on, the astronomy is the oldest one of the natural science disciplines. Content of early astronomy, it is by its very nature astrometry. From the mid-sixteenth century, Copernicus proposed theory of heliocentric system began the development of astronomy has entered a new phase. Prior to the natural sciences, including astronomy, theology seriously hindered by religion. Copernican theory of astronomy out of the shackles of religion, and in the next century and a half of pure description from the main positions of celestial bodies, motion of the classic astrometry, causing this movement toward a mechanical mechanism for the development of celestial mechanics. Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, classical celestial mechanics has reached its peak. Meanwhile, spectroscopy, photometry and extensive use of photography, astronomy began moving in-depth study of the physical structure of objects and physical processes of development, the birth of astrophysics. Twentieth century development of modern physics and high technology, and observational studies in astronomy to find a wide arena, so as astronomy, astrophysics in the mainstream subjects, and to facilitate the classic celestial mechanics and astrometry have a new development of the universe and the universe in all kinds of astronomical objects and phenomena to an unprecedented understanding of the depth and breadth. Astronomy for essentially an observational science. Astronomy and research all that is inseparable from astronomy tools - telescopes and the back-end receiving equipment. In the seventeenth century ago, despite making a number of astronomical observation instruments, such as China's armillary sphere, Jane instrument, but the observations can only rely on the naked eye. In 1608, the Dutch invented the telescope Li Boer race, made 1609 the first Galileo telescopes, and made many important discoveries, from the era of astronomy into the telescope. In the following people constantly to improve the performance of the telescope to observe much fainter objects and to obtain higher resolution. Jansky 1932 Americans with his rotating antenna array observed radio waves from celestial bodies, creating a radio astronomy. 1937 Birth of the first parabolic reflector radio telescope. Later, as the radio telescope in the aperture and receiving the wavelength and sensitivity performance continues to expand, improve, radio astronomy technology to the development of astronomy has made important contributions. After 50 years of the twentieth century, with the detector and the development of space technology and in-depth research, astronomical observations further from the visible light, radio band expanded to include infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays and electromagnetic waves, including the various γ-ray band, the formation of a multi-band astronomy and to explore the various types of astronomical objects and phenomena of the physical nature of the observation provided a powerful means of astronomy developed into a new phase. The back end of the receiving equipment in the telescope, the mid-nineteenth century, photography, spectral and photometric techniques are widely used in astronomical observations, for exploring the movement of celestial bodies, structure, chemical composition and physical state played a significant role in promoting the objects can be said Physics is only after these technologies can be applied gradually developed into the mainstream of astronomical subjects.
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Astronomy Overview
Astronomy and meteorology is different from its object of study is outside the Earth's atmosphere, the nature of various objects and celestial phenomena that occur - Sky and Earth's weather is the object of study of various phenomena occurring within the atmosphere - meteorology. Involved in the study of astronomy space objects of various objects, large moon, sun, planets, stars, Milky Way, extragalactic universe as a whole, small asteroids, meteorites and even distribution in the vast universe of large and small dust particles . All these objects, astronomers collectively referred to as objects. Earth is a celestial body, but only the study of astronomy and the overall nature of the earth generally do not discuss its details. In addition, satellites, spacecraft, space stations and other man-made nature of the movement of aircraft belonging to the scope of study of astronomy, can be called man-made objects. Objects in the universe, from near and far can be divided into several levels: (1) solar system objects: including the sun, the planets (including Earth), planetary satellites (including the moon), asteroids, comets, meteoroids and interplanetary medium, etc. . (2) various types of stars in the Milky Way and stars Group: include variable stars, binary stars, multiple star, star clusters, nebulae and the interstellar medium. (3) external galaxy, called galaxies, that is located outside our galaxy and our galaxy of stars similar to the large systems, and galaxies formed from the larger group of objects, such as binary systems, multiple galaxies, galaxy clusters, superclusters, etc. . There are also distributed in the galaxy and the intergalactic medium between galaxies. Astronomy is also exploring a whole we now observed throughout the universe, the origin, structure, evolution and future of the outcome, which is a branch of astronomy - cosmology research. Content according to the study of astronomy can be divided into astrometry, celestial mechanics and astrophysics three branches. Astronomy has always been the philosophy of the guide, it is always standing in the forefront of debate. Basic research as a discipline in many aspects of astronomy is closely related to human society. Time, alternating day and night, seasonal changes have to be strict rules to determine the astronomical method. Mankind has entered the space age, space exploration astronomy for the successful conduct of all types play an irreplaceable role. Astronomy and the earth for human disaster prevention, mitigation for his own contribution. Astronomers will also pay close attention to catastrophic astronomical events - such as the comet collided with the Earth may occur, in a timely manner to prevent, and to make corresponding countermeasures.
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Solar System
(Note: In the August 24, 2006, held in Prague 26 in the world by the International Astronomical Union Resolution No. 5, Pluto was classified as a dwarf planet, named asteroid No. 134340, from the nine planets in the solar system was removed. so now only eight planets solar system. text of all involved, "nine planets" and have been changed to "eight planets.") Solar system (solar system) from the sun, eight planets, 66 satellites and numerous asteroids, comets and meteorites formed. Planet from the sun out of order: Mercury (mercury), Venus (venus), earth (earth), Mars (mars), Jupiter (jupiter), Saturn (saturn), Uranus (uranus) and Neptune (neptune). Closer from the sun Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars is called the terrestrial planets (terrestrial planets). Spacecraft have carried out their exploration, had also landed on Mars and Venus, obtained important results. Their common characteristic is density (greater than 3.0 grams / cubic centimeter), small size, slow rotation, the satellite less, mainly by the stone and iron structure, the internal components are mainly silicate (silicate) and has a solid shell. Farther from the sun, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune called the Jovian planets (jovian planets). Spacecraft also has detected them, but not landing. They have a very thick atmosphere, composed primarily of hydrogen, helium, ice, methane, ammonia, etc., are much larger than the Earth's mass and radius, but the density is lower, the surface features difficult to understand, the general inference that they have and the terrestrial planets similar to the solid core. Between Mars and Jupiter, more than 100,000 asteroids (asteroid) (that is, from rock stars composed of small irregular). Speculated that they may be bound by the position between Mars and Jupiter is made of a broken planet, or is unable to accumulate a number of stone fragments into a unified planet. Present in meteorites between planets, components of stone or iron. Star, from (au), radius (Earth), quality (Earth), orbital inclination (degrees), orbital eccentricity, inclination, density (g/cm3) Sun, 0, 109, 332,800, ---, ---, ---, 1.410 Mercury, 0.39, 0.38, 0.05, 7, 0.2056, 0.1 °, 5.43 Venus, 0.72, 0.95, 0.89, 3.394, 0.0068, 177.4 °, 5.25 Earth, 1.0, 1.00, 1.00, 0.000, 0.0167, 23.45 °, 5.52 Mars, 1.5, 0.53, 0.11, 1.850, 0.0934, 25.19 °, 3.95 Jupiter, 5.2, 11.0, 318, 1.308, 0.0483, 3.12 °, 1.33 Saturn, 9.5, 9.5, 95, 2.488, 0.0560, 26.73 °, 0.69 Uranus, 19.2, 4.0, 17, 0.774, 0.0461, 97.86 °, 1.29 Neptune, 30.1, 3.9, 17, 1.774, 0.0097, 29.56 °, 1.64 Distance from the sun planets have regular, from near to far from the sun by the calculated distance of the planet to the sun (with a expressed) a = 0.4 +0.3 * 2n-2 (AU) where n, said the first from near to far n planets (see table) Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune's rotation period of 12 hours to a day or so, but Mercury, Venus, Pluto's rotation period is very long, were 58.65 days, 243 days and 6.387 days, most of the direction of the planet's rotation and revolution in the same direction, but Venus is the opposite. In addition to Mercury and Venus, the other planets have satellites revolving to form the satellite system.
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Cosmic Space
Big Bang Theory (Big-bang cosmology), Department of the modern universe, the most influential doctrine, also known as Big Bang cosmology. Compared with other models of the universe, it could indicate more observed facts. Its main point is that our universe had a period from hot to cold evolutionary history. During this period, the universe system is not static, but constantly expanding, so that the density of matter to evolve from the dense to dilute. This from hot to cold, from dense to dilute the process as a huge outbreak. According to the views of Big Bang cosmology, Big Bang, the whole process is: in the early universe, the temperature is extremely high at 100 million degrees or more. Density of matter is quite large, the whole system to balance the universe. The universe is only neutrons, protons, electrons, photons and neutrinos and some elementary forms of matter. But because the whole system is constantly expanding, the result the temperature dropped quickly. When the temperature dropped to 10 million degrees or so, free neutrons begin to lose existing conditions, which either decay, or with a proton combine to form heavy hydrogen, helium and other elements; chemical element is formed from the beginning of this period. The temperature dropped further to 100 million degrees, the early formation of the end of the process of chemical elements (see element synthesis theory). The material universe, mainly protons, electrons, photons, and some of the more light nuclei. When the temperature dropped to a few thousand degrees, the radiation loss, the universe is mainly gaseous material, the gas gradually condensed into a gas cloud, and then further to form a variety of star systems, as the universe we see today. Big Bang model can be unified in the fact that the following observations: (1) the Big Bang theory holds that all stars are created in the temperature dropped, so the age should be more than any celestial body since the temperature dropped to a shorter period of time today, which should be less than 200 million years. Proof of age, measurements of various objects to this. (2) observed extragalactic objects systemic redshift of spectral lines, and generally proportional to the redshift and distance. If you use the Doppler effect to explain, then the red shift is reflected in expansion of the universe. (3) in a variety of different objects, the helium abundance is relatively large and mostly 30%. With the stellar nuclear reaction mechanisms are not adequate to explain why there are so many helium. According to the Big Bang theory, the early high temperature, resulting in high efficiency helium, you can illustrate this fact. (4) According to the speed and the expansion of the universe such as helium abundance, the universe can be calculated for each specific historical period of the temperature. Founder of the Big Bang theory of the Gamow had predicted, the universe has been very cold today, only the absolute temperature a few degrees. In 1965, indeed in the microwave band to detect thermal radiation spectrum with the microwave background radiation, the temperature is about 3k. Man long ago the thought of a dip in space. On Earth in 1903 opened the first Luna Park. Will be able to spend 50 cents to board a cigar-shaped, winged car, and then body shaking violently, and finally boarded a moon model. That same year, the Wright brothers in the air, the sound of da da fly for 59 seconds, while black man named Constantine Khodorkovsky focus, self-taught Russian speech entitled "Using counter instrumentation for space exploration" article. His calculations in the text, a missile to overcome the force of gravity to have to fly 18,000 miles an hour. He also proposed the construction of a liquid-driven multistage rocket. 50's, there is a recognized basic idea is that any country has successfully established the first permanent space station, which sooner or later will be able to control the entire planet. Von Braun described to the American ICBMs, submarines, missiles, space travel mirror and possible moon landing. He had envisaged the establishment of a regular manned, and space station capable of launching nuclear missiles. He said: "If you take into account all of the space station on earth flying over populated areas, then people will be able to recognize that this technology will make the satellite manufacturer of nuclear war in the war in an absolutely dominant position. In 1961, Gagarin became the first man into space. Russians with his description of flying in the sky is not the angel, nor God. United States John F. Kennedy campaign's slogan is "New Frontier." He explained: "Once again we live in an era of discovery. Space is a new frontier we can not measure." Kennedy, the Soviets were the first into space is "Over the years the U.S. experienced the most painful failure" . The only way out is to the offensive. In 1958 the U.S. established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and in the same year launched the first satellite "Explorer" number. 1962 John Glenn into Earth orbit to become the first Americans. Many scientists have been dangerous for manned space flight of the doubt, they are more willing to use aircraft to probe the solar system. The Americans were to achieve a breakthrough: three astronauts by "Apollo" spacecraft around the moon. In this context, the plan implemented in January 1969 the first two manned spacecraft docking with special significance. 80 20th century, the Soviet Union's third-generation space station "Peace" orbital station to the peak of space activities, all Americans feel envious. "Peace" as the "man-made temple", February 20, 1986 launch to heaven, is by far the man in the long-running near-Earth space to the only manned orbital space station. It is connected with its relatively "quantum 1", "quantum 2", "crystal" cabin, "spectrum" space, "natural" class of the formation of a compartment weighing 140 tons, a large working volume of 400 cubic meters of joint space orbit body. In this "small factory space" have been investigated in the Russian and foreign astronauts 106, for the expedition up to 22,000 items, focusing on project 600. In the "Peace" of the most interesting experiment is to extend the stay in space. Extended stay in space, the cradle of the human fly their own Earth, Mars and other celestial bodies into the most crucial step to overcome this difficult problem to solve weightlessness, cosmic radiation in space and the psychological barriers. Russian astronauts made significant progress in this area, including astronauts Polyakov in the "Peace" to create a single continuous flight record of 438 days, which can not but be regarded as the 20th century, an important outcome of aerospace history . Station in orbit such as training on quail, salamanders, and a lot of wheat and other life science experiments. If the Mir space station as the third generation of human beings, belonging to the International Space Station is the fourth generation of the space station. International Space Station project will cost 600 billion, the largest so far of human manned space flight project. It is from the initial concept and final competition began as a product of the year the Soviet Union, but also the results of the current US-Russian cooperation, from the side reflects the history of a process. U.S. and Russian joint construction of the International Space Station-15, indicating a development of all countries in space exploration and the era of peace is coming. However, decades of manned space activities, the results are far from meeting their desire for space. "The road ahead is long off-Xi Yuan, happiness of the bottom and search", the human heart has always been the desire of the conquest of space and the peaceful use of space resources of the determination. November 1998, the first human into Earth orbit, American astronaut, 77-year-old Glen with his ambition does not obliterate the space once again embarked on a journey, which seems to tell the man: if things go on, conquest of space is not a dream . Astronomy, the origin of the seeds of human culture can be traced back to the era. Ancient times, people to the direction, determine the time and season, and the sun, moon and stars were observed to determine their location, find out the variation of them, and accordingly the preparation of the calendar. From that point on, the astronomy is the oldest one of the natural science disciplines. Content of early astronomy, it is by its very nature astrometry. From the sixteenth century, Copernicus heliocentric system proposed theory began the development of astronomy has entered a new phase. Prior to the natural sciences, including astronomy, theology seriously hindered by religion. Copernican theory of astronomy out of the shackles of religion, and in the next century and a half of pure description from the main positions of celestial bodies, motion of the classic astrometry, causing this movement toward a mechanical mechanism for the development of celestial mechanics. Polish astronomer, the founder of the heliocentric theory of Copernicus (1473-1543). Telescopes into the first Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). Galileo and assistants together. The famous German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630). Reflecting telescope invented the famous physicist Isaac Newton (1642-1727). British astronomer Halley (1656-1742). French astronomer Messier (1730-1817). The discoverer of Uranus, British astronomer William Herschel (1738-1822). American astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889-1953). Famous physicist Albert Einstein (1879-1955). The founder of radio astronomy, radio, an American engineer in Jansky. Astronomers 苏布拉马尼 Yang Chandrasekhar (1910-1995). Telescope Refracting telescope In 1608, the Dutch businessman Li Boer race glasses with two lenses can be found by chance to see the distant scene, Inspired, he created the first telescope in human history. In 1609, Galileo produced a diameter of 4.2 centimeters, about 1.2 meter telescope. He is plano-convex lens as the lens, concave lens as the eyepiece, this telescope optical system called Galileo. Galileo used the telescope to the heavens, has been a series of important discoveries, astronomy, the telescope has now entered the era. In 1611, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler, respectively, with two pairs of convex lens as the objective and the eyepiece, the magnification has been significantly improved, after which people will be called the Kepler telescope optical system. Now people use the refracting telescope, or both forms, is the use of Kepler-type telescope. Should be noted that, because of the use of a single lens as a telescope lens, there is a serious color, in order to obtain good observational results, need to use a very small curvature of the lens, which is bound to result mirrors the body longer. So in a very long period of time, astronomers have been longer in the dream of making a telescope, many attempts have failed. In 1757, Dulong and water through the study of glass refraction and dispersion, established the theoretical basis of the achromatic lens, and with the crown glass and flint glass achromatic lens. Since then, completely achromatic refractor telescope replaced the long lens body. However, due to technical constraints, is difficult to cast a large flint glass achromatic telescope in the early stages, can only grind a 10-cm lens. The late nineteenth century, with the improvement of manufacturing technology, manufacturing large diameter refracting telescope as possible, with the attendant on the emergence of a manufacturing large diameter refracting telescope in the climax. 8 available in the world more than 70 cm refracting telescope with seven in the period 1885 to 1897 built one of the most representative is built in 1897, the Yerkes telescope 102 cm diameter and the caliber of 1886 completed Rick 91 cm telescope. Refracting telescope has the advantage of focal length, large scale film on the tube bend-insensitive, the most suitable for astrometric work to do. But it is always a residual chromatic aberration, while the ultraviolet and infrared radiation absorption band is very powerful. The huge cast of optical glass is also very difficult system to the Yerkes telescope built in 1897, reflects the culmination of the development of the telescope, the next hundred years in the refractor no more appear. This is mainly because technically perfect can not be cast out large glass lens, and, due to gravity so that the deformation of large-size lens will be very obvious, and thus lose the focus of the Octavia. Reflecting telescope The birth of the first frame reflecting telescope in 1668. Newton repeated grinding of aspheric lenses have failed, decided to use spherical mirror as the primary mirror. He used 2.5 cm diameter metal, grinding into a concave mirror, the focus in the primary mirror placed in front of a mirror into a 45o angle with the main reflector, so that by the primary mirror will be reflected after the condenser to 90o by the mirror reflecting angle eyepiece tube arrived. This system, known as Newtonian reflector telescope. It's spherical mirror, although it will have some as bad, but instead of using reflector refractor is a great success. James Gregory in 1663 proposed a solution: the use of side mirror, side of the secondary mirror, they are concave mirror, secondary mirror placed outside the focus of the primary mirror, and left in the primary mirror central hole to light by the primary mirror and secondary mirror after reflection from the two holes in the shot to reach the eyepiece. The purpose of this design is to simultaneously eliminate spherical aberration and chromatic aberration, which requires a parabolic primary mirror and a sub-ellipsoid mirror, which in theory is correct, but then can not reach this level of manufacturing requirements So Gregory could not be of use to him the mirror. 1672, the French-Cassegrain reflecting telescope made the third design, structure and Gregory telescope similar to the difference is that the primary mirror secondary mirror to focus in advance prior to and for the convex mirror, which is now the most commonly used The Kasaigelin reflector telescope. So that by the secondary mirror mirror slightly divergent reflected light, reducing the magnification, but it eliminates the spherical aberration, so the telescope can also be made to very short focal length. Cassegrain telescope's primary mirror and secondary mirror can have many different forms, optical properties also vary. As the focal length Cassegrain telescope body is long and the short lens, magnification is also large, clear images obtained; both Cassegrain focus of the venue can be used to study the overlooked objects, can be configured Newton focus, to capture a large area objects. Therefore, Cassegrain telescope has been very widely used. Herschel reflecting telescope is to produce a master of his early years as a music teacher, because the love of astronomy, began to grind telescope from 1773, the lifetime of the telescope produced hundreds of aircraft. Herschel telescope is to produce objective ramp on the tube, it has been reflected by the parallel light converge on the side of the tube. In the reflecting telescope was invented nearly 200 years, reflective materials has been an obstacle to its development: cast bronze mirror with easy corrosion, shall not be polished from time to time, money and time-consuming, and corrosion resistance, good metal, more than Bronze high density and very expensive. 1856 German chemist Justus von Libi Xi has developed a method to get a thin layer of silver coated glass by gently polishing, you can efficiently reflect light. This makes manufacturing more and larger reflecting telescope possible. The end of 1918, 254 cm in diameter Hooker telescope put into use, which is chaired by the Haier built. Astronomers used the telescope for the first time revealed the true size of the galaxy and the location in which we live, more importantly, the Hubble expansion of the universe theory is the result of observations by Hooker Telescope. Reflecting telescope has many advantages, such as: no color, can record a wide range of visible objects within the message, and relatively easy compared to making refracting telescope. However, it also has inherent disadvantages: such as the larger diameter, the smaller field of view, the need for regular lens coating and so on. Catadioptric telescope Catadioptric telescope, first appeared in 1814. In 1931, the German optical house close to Schmidt with a unique non-parallel plate as a thin lens to correct spherical mirror, and with the spherical mirror, made of a can eliminate spherical aberration and off-axis aberrations of the Schmidt-type fold reflector, this light and strong telescope, large field of view, like the difference is small, suitable for a large area of sky taken pictures, especially for the photographic effect faint nebula is very prominent. Schmidt telescope has become an important tool for astronomical observation. 1940 Maksutov lens with a meniscus shape as a correction lens, creating another type of catadioptric telescope, its two surfaces are two different spherical curvature of an insignificant difference, but the curvature and thickness are large. It's all surfaces are spherical, than the Schmidt telescope in the correct board easy to grind, the tube is relatively short, but the field of view smaller than the Schmidt telescope, the requirements of the glass higher. As catadioptric telescope telescope both refraction and reflection of the advantages of both, very suitable for amateur astronomy and astronomical photography, and the majority of amateur astronomers alike. Light gathering ability of the telescope diameter increases with the increase, the telescope's light gathering capacity of the stronger to be able to see fainter objects farther away, this is in fact able to see more early universe. The need for greater development of astrophysics diameter telescope. However, with the telescope diameter increases, the number of technical problems one after another. Hale telescope lens from the weight of 14.5 tons, the weight of moving parts is 530 tons, while the mirror is 6 meters weighs 800 tons. Weight of the telescope lens distortion caused considerable non-uniform temperature so that the distortion also affects the mirror image quality. From the manufacturing side, the cost of traditional methods to manufacture the telescope aperture is almost proportional to the square or cube, so the manufacture of larger diameter telescope to open up new paths. Since the seventies has been the development of the manufacture of the telescope a lot of new technology, optics, mechanics, computers, automatic control and precision machinery and other fields. These technologies enable the manufacture of the telescope mirror diameter exceeded the limits, and reduce cost and simplify the telescope structure. In particular the emergence of active optical technology and applications, so that the telescope's design had a leap. Since the eighties, the international _set_ off a wave of manufacturing a new generation of large telescopes. Among them, the European Southern Observatory's vlt, the United States, Britain, Canada cooperation gemini, Japan's subaru's primary mirror using a thin mirror; U.S. keck i, keck ii and het telescope's main mirror with a mosaic technique. Tradition of excellence in the best telescope Cassegrain focus of the work of state, 80% of the geometry can be concentrated in the energy 0 ".6 range, and the introduction of new technology to produce a new generation of large telescopes can keep 80% of the light concentrated in the 0 ".2 ~ 0" .4, even better. The following are representative of several large telescopes to make some description were: Keck telescope (keck i, keck ii) keck ii keck i and, respectively, in 1991 and completed in 1996, this is the current work has been put into the world's largest optical telescope diameter, is mainly funded by entrepreneurs in their Keck (keck wm) donations (keck i to $ 94,000,000 , keck ii was $ 74,600,000) and name. This two identical telescopes placed Mauna Kea in Hawaii, put them together to make interference observation. Their diameter is 10 meters, from 36 hexagonal mirror mosaic, each block were 1.8 m diameter mirror, and thickness of only 10 cm, supported by active optics system that allows the mirror to maintain high accuracy. Focal plane devices are three: near-infrared camera, high resolution ccd detector and high dispersion spectroscopy. "Such a large telescope like the keck, allowing us along the waters of time to explore the origin of the universe, keck is allows us to see the birth of the first moment of the universe." European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope (vlt) European Southern Observatory, developed since 1986 by the 4 _set_s of 8 m aperture telescope composed of a 16 m equivalent diameter of the optical telescope. This 8-meter telescope 4 are arranged in a straight line, they are rc optical system, focal ratio is f / 2, using horizon device, the primary mirror active optical system with support, point to an accuracy of 1 ", the tracking accuracy of 0.05" tube weight of 100 tons, fork arm weighs less than 120 tons. This can form a 4 telescope interferometric array, to do two two interference observations can also be used alone each telescope. Has now completed two of them are expected to be completed in 2000. Gemini telescope (gemini) Gemini Telescope is an international U.S. based devices (including the United States accounted for 50%, UK 25%, 15% in Canada, Chile, 5%, Argentina 2.5%, Brazil 2.5%), from the American University Astronomy Union (aura) is responsible for implementation. It is composed of two 8-meter telescopes, one on the northern hemisphere, one on the southern hemisphere, to carry out systematic observations throughout the day. The primary mirror active optics using controlled secondary mirror to correct for fast steering mirror, an adaptive optics system will also enable infrared region close to the diffraction limit. The project was started in September 1993, the first in July 1998 in Hawaii, the opening, the second in September 2000, Chile 利赛拉帕琼 Sites in the opening, in 2001, the entire system is expected to put into acceptance use. Pleiades (Japan) 8-meter telescope (subaru) This is a 8-meter diameter optical / infrared telescope. It has three characteristics: First, thin mirror, through the active optics and adaptive optics to obtain high image quality; the second is to achieve 0.1 "high-precision tracking; third is the use of cylindrical observation chamber, automatic control of ventilation and air filtration device, the exclusion of the thermal turbulence to achieve the best conditions. This telescope uses serrurier truss, make the main frame and sub frame parallel to the move. This telescope will be installed on Mauna Kea in Hawaii, since 1991, is expected to 9 years to complete. Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope (lamost) This is a construction in our country is an effective aperture of 4 meters, the focal length of 20 meters, 20 square degrees field of view of the star ceremony, reflecting Schmidt telescope. Its technical features are: 1. The active optics technology used in reflective Schmidt system, for tracking objects in real time the movement of spherical aberration correction, achieving large-diameter and large field of both functions. 2. Spherical primary mirror and a mirror are used splicing. 3. Multi-Object Fiber (up to 4000, only 600 general telescope) spectroscopic techniques will be an important breakthrough. lamost general survey of the galaxy limiting magnitude pushed to 20.5m, higher than the 2 other sdss plans about 107 galaxies to achieve a general survey of the spectrum, the observed number of targets increased by 1 order of magnitude. 1932 Jansky (jansky. k. g) detected with a radio antenna from the center of our galaxy (Sagittarius direction) of the radio emission, which marks the man opened the outside of the traditional optical-band observations of the first window. After World War II, radio astronomy come to the fore, radio telescopes to the development of radio astronomy has played a key role, such as: Astronomy of the four found in the sixties, quasars, pulsars, interstellar molecules, and cosmic microwave background radiation, Radio telescopes are used to get. Radio telescope will be significant progress every time, without exception, to the development of radio astronomy, a milestone. University of Manchester, built in 1946, 66.5 meters in diameter, fixed parabolic radio telescope, built in 1955 and was the world's largest rotating parabolic radio telescope; Sixties, the town of Arecibo in Puerto Rico, the United States built 305 meters in diameter parabolic radio telescope, which is fixed to the ground surface along the slopes, and can not move, this is the world's largest single-aperture radio telescope. In 1962, ryle invented the aperture synthesis radio telescope, and thus he won the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics. Aperture synthesis radio telescope achieved by the smaller number of large-diameter antenna structure to obtain the equivalent effect of a single antenna that can be achieved. Et al 1967 broten to vlbi first recorded interference fringes. Seventies, Federal Republic of Germany in Bonn, built around the entire diameter of 100 m radio telescope dish to the rotation, which is the world's largest rotating single-antenna radio telescope. Since the eighties, the European vlbi Network (evn), the United States vlba front, Japan's space vlbi (vsop) have been put into use, which is representative of a new generation of radio telescopes, their sensitivity, resolution and observation band greatly over the previous telescope. Shanghai Astronomical Observatory and Urumqi Astronomical Station of the two 25-meter radio telescope as a full member of the United States, continuous rotation of the Earth Observation Programme (core) and the European Very Long Baseline Interferometry Network (evn), these two schemes are used to the Earth and high-precision astrometry of rotation (core) and astrophysics (evn). The radio telescope from the United States for long baseline interferometry observations of the way, played a single nation with large telescopes can not be achieved. In addition, four National Observatory (naro) developed the 100-meter single-antenna telescopes (gbt), with no occlusion (partial feed), active optics design, the antenna is currently being installed in 2000, may be put into use. United Development International will be an area of 1 square kilometer to receive low-frequency radio telescope array (ska), the program will the sensitivity of low-frequency radio observations are about two orders of magnitude improvement in a variety of pre-study countries concerned being. Band radio observations in increasing coverage, the United States Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the China Taiwan Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics building in Hawaii International submillimeter interferometric array first (sma), which consists of eight 6-meter antenna, operating frequency from 190ghz to 85z, some equipment has been installed. U.S. Millimeter Array (mma), and Europe south array (las) will merge into a new millimeter-wave array scheme ╠ ╠ alma. The plan will be composed of 64 antennas of 12 meters, the longest baseline of 10 km above the operating frequency from 70 to 950ghz, Chile, atacama placed near, if the merger goes well, will begin construction in 2001, Japan is also considering to participate in the possibility of the scheme. In improving the angular resolution radio observations, the majority of the new generation of large equipment interferometric array of programs to consider; To further improve the angular resolution of space vlbi observation and sensitivity, the second-generation space vlbi plan ╠ ╠ arise (25 meter diameter) have been proposed. I believe these devices will be built and put into use to make astronomy radio astronomy as an important research tool, and the development of astronomy will bring unexpected opportunities. We know, deep in the Earth's surface layer of the atmosphere, the Earth's atmosphere, particles and objects of various interactions of radiation (mainly absorption and reflection), making the most of the objects within the band of radiation can not reach the ground. It can reach the ground band to the image as the "atmospheric window", this "window" has three. Optical window: This is the most important window wavelengths between 300 to 700 nm, including visible light (400 ~ 700 nm), optical telescope has been the main tool for astronomical observation ground. Infrared window: infrared range between 0.7 to 1000 microns, due to different molecules in Earth's atmosphere absorb infrared wavelengths is inconsistent, resulting in the situation is more complicated infrared band. Commonly used for astronomical research, seven infrared window. Radio window: the radio band is larger than 1 mm wavelength electromagnetic waves. Radio bands, the atmosphere of a small amount of absorption, but in the 40 mm within 30 meters of the atmosphere is almost completely transparent, we generally put 1 mm to 30 mm area known as the radio window. The atmosphere for other bands, such as ultraviolet, x-ray, γ ray, and others are opaque, and in satellite after the realization of God's astronomical observations of these bands. Infrared Telescope Infrared observations can be traced back as early eighteenth century. However, due to the Earth's atmosphere caused by the absorption and scattering in ground-based infrared observations is only limited to a few near-infrared window, to get more information about infrared, infrared observations in space to be. Modern infrared astronomy flourished in the nineteenth century, sixties and seventies, when is the use of high-altitude balloons and aircraft to carry the infrared telescope or the detectors were observed. January 23, 1983 charge by the United States and Britain jointly launched the first infrared astronomical satellite iras. Its main feature is a 57 cm diameter telescope, mainly in sky survey work. iras greatly promoted the success of infrared astronomy at all levels of development. Until now, iras observations of astronomers to study the source is still a hot target. November 17, 1995 by the European, U.S. and Japan co-Infrared Space Observatory (iso) and launch into orbit. iso's main feature is a 60 cm aperture telescope rc, its functionality and performance than iras a lot to improve, it carries the four telescopes, respectively, to achieve imaging, polarization, spectral, grating, f-p interference spectrophotometry, metering and other functions. Compared with the iras, iso from the near infrared to far infrared, a wider band range; has a higher spatial resolution; higher sensitivity (about iras 100 times); and more. iso actual working life of 30 months, the target fixed-point observation (iras observations are sky survey), which can be targeted to resolve issues raised by astronomers. Expected in the next few years, the iso data-based research will become a hot topic of astronomy. Large-scale solar system to the universe from the infrared telescope and optical telescopes, many of the same or similar, so the optical telescopes on the ground can make some modifications so that it can also be observed in the infrared. So that you can use these binoculars on a moonlit night or daytime infrared observations, the greater the efficiency of observation equipment to play. Ultraviolet Telescope Ultraviolet and visible light is between x-ray frequency range between the observation wavelength of 3100 to 100 angstroms. UV observations are put to the height of 150 km to avoid the ozone layer and atmospheric absorption. The first UV observations the telescope is _set_ on the high-altitude balloon, later used rockets, space shuttles and satellites and other space technology only to have a real development of UV observations. Ultraviolet observations in astrophysics has important significance. UV band is between x-ray and visible light between the frequency range of ultraviolet and visible light in the history of the division line in 3900 and Egypt, when the criteria for the classification to the naked eye can see. Band ultraviolet observations of modern astronomy for the 3100 to 100 angstroms, and the x-ray phase, because the ozone layer, the absorption of electromagnetic waves limits here. 1968 United States launched oao-2, also launched in Europe after td-1a, their task is the sky ultraviolet radiation to make a general survey observations. Copernicus was named No. oao-3 was launched in 1972, it carried an ultraviolet telescope 0.8 meters, running for 9 years, 950 objects observed in the UV spectrum of Egypt 3500. Launched in 1978 by the International UV detection (iue), although the telescope's aperture smaller than the number of Copernicus, but the detection sensitivity has been greatly improved. iue of observational data has become an important astrophysical research resources. December 1990 from 2 to 11, carrying the space shuttle Columbia made the astro-1 Observatory, a space laboratory for the first time on the UV spectra of astronomical observations; March 2, 1995 start, astro-2 Observatory, completed the 16-day UV astronomical observations. In 1992 NASA launched a satellite ╠ ╠ observed very far ultraviolet exploration satellite (euve), is made in a far ultraviolet sky survey. June 24, 1999 satellite launch fuse, this is nasa's "Origins Program" one of its task is to answer astronomy questions about the fundamental evolution of the universe. Full-band ultraviolet astronomy is an important part of astronomy, Copernicus, lifted off from the 30 years since has developed a UV band euv (extreme ultraviolet), fuv (ultraviolet), uv (ultraviolet) and other detection satellite, covering all the UV band. x-ray telescope: x-ray radiation wavelength range of 0.01-10 nm, where the shorter wavelength (higher energy) is referred to as hard x-rays, the longer wavelength is called the soft x-ray. Celestial x-rays can not reach the ground, only in the sixties days of artificial earth satellites, astronomers have gained significant observation results, x-ray astronomy was developed. Mainly for the early x-ray observations of the sun. June 1962, Massachu_set_ts Institute of Technology research team first discovered the power of direction from the Scorpio x-ray source, which makes non-solar x-ray astronomy has entered a rapid stage of development. Seventies, Energy Astronomical Observatory 1, 2, was successfully launched two satellites, the first time the x-ray band of the sky survey, so that x-ray observations of a major step forward, the formation of x-ray observations of the boom. Since entering the eighties, countries have been launching satellites to study on the x-ray bands: April 1987, the rocket will be from the former Soviet Union, Germany, Britain, the former Soviet Union, and the Netherlands, developed countries such as x-ray detector into space; 1987 x-ray detection of Japan launched the satellite ginga; 1989 years ago the Soviet Union launched a high-energy astrophysics experimental satellite ╠ ╠ granat, it contains the former Soviet Union, France, Bulgaria and Denmark, 7 _set_s of detection instrument developed, the main work for the imaging, spectroscopy and observation of the phenomenon of the outbreak and monitoring; June 1990, Roentgen x-ray astronomy satellite (referred to rosat) into Earth orbit, the research has a large number of important observations, and now it has basically completed the scheduled observation mission; December 1990 "Columbia" space shuttle to the United States, "Broadband x-ray telescope" into the space over a period of 9 days of observation; February 1993, Japan's "bird" x-ray probing satellite into orbit by the rocket; In 1996 the U.S. launched the "x-ray luminosity probe satellite" (xte), July 23, 1999 the United States successfully launched an advanced x-ray astrophysics equipment (chandra) of a satellite, and the other one will be launched in 2000; December 13, 1999 launch of a European Space Agency satellite named xmm. 2000 Japan will launch a x-ray observation equipment. These projects and programs that the next few years will be an x-ray observation and research to a climax. γ-ray telescope: γ-rays than hard x-ray of the shorter wavelength, higher energy, due to the absorption of the Earth's atmosphere, γ-ray astronomy can only be equipped with high-altitude balloon and satellite instruments. In 1991, the United States Compton (γ-ray) Space Observatory (compton gro or cgro) into Earth orbit by the space shuttle. Its main task is to conduct the first sky survey γ band, but also on the strong cosmic γ-ray sources for high-sensitivity, high resolution imaging, spectroscopy measurements and optical variable measurement, made many significant scientific value results. cgro instrument equipped with a 4, their size and performance in the detection equipment than the previous order of magnitude improvement in the successful development of these devices for the high-energy astrophysics has brought profound changes, also marks the γ-ray Astronomy began to mature. cgro carry four instruments are: a temporary source of the outbreak and experimental (batse), variable to the flash spectroscopy experiments (osse), 1mev ~ 30mev work within the imaging telescope (comptel), 1mev ~ 30mev work into the context of like a telescope (comptel). Compton was encouraged by the success of Space Observatory, European and U.S. research institutions to develop a new γ-ray telescope program-integral, into space in 2001 to prepare it for heaven after the Compton γ Space Observatory ray astronomy lay the foundation for further development. Hubble Space Telescope (hst): It is chaired by the NASA Space Observatory built in the four giant's first, but for all astronomical observations, the largest project, the largest investment, the most public attention by a. It is build in 1978, the design took 7 years to complete in 1989, and in April 25, 1990 carried by the space shuttle launch, costing 3.0 billion. However, due to human causes of the primary mirror optical system of the spherical aberration, had to December 2, 1993 was the restoration in size. Successful performance of the repair to hst the original design met or exceeded the target, observations show that its resolution is higher than the large telescopes on the ground a few times. hst when the initial launch scientific instruments to carry out 5: Wide / planetary camera, faint object camera, faint object spectrometer, high resolution spectroscopy and high-speed photometer. Maintenance in 1997, for the hst installed a second-generation instruments: a space telescope imaging spectrometer, near-infrared camera and multi-objective spectrograph, the hst observations extended to the near infrared and improve the efficiency of the ultraviolet spectrum. December 1999 replaced the maintenance of the hst gyroscopes and a new computer, and install a third-generation high-level survey instruments ╠ ╠ video camera, which will improve the hst in the UV - optical - near infrared sensitivity and mapping performance. hst the development of the international astronomical community have very important implications. The beginning of the twenty-first century, space telescopes: "The ball all day astrophysics astrometric interferometer" (gaia) will be the overall geometric structure of the Milky Way and its kinematics to do a comprehensive and thorough survey, on this basis to open up vast areas of astrophysics. gaia by fizeau intervention programs, field of view is 1 °. gaia and sim task to a large extent complementary. Based on the Hong Kong Observatory: Since no one to rely on the space pre-designed astronomical observation mode automatically, very passive, if based on the lunar surface to establish the Hong Kong Observatory, will be able to regain the initiative, greatly improving the observation accuracy. "Apollo 16" moon landing astronauts on the surface in the Large Magellanic Cloud taken pictures show the moon's surface is ideal for astronomical observation sites. Established based on the Hong Kong Observatory has the following advantages: 1. To a high degree of vacuum on the moon than the space astronomical observation equipment which is even lower than a million times. 2. Moon for the telescope provides a stable, strong and great observation platforms, simply observing the moon very simple tracking system. 3. March earthquakes seismic activity is only equivalent to 10-8, which is established for the surface in several months to several hundred kilometers of long baseline radio, optical and infrared interferometry is very beneficial. 4. Gravity on the surface of the moon the Earth's surface gravity is only 1 / 6, which will bring convenience to the construction of the observatory. In addition, astronomical observations on the earth all the factors, such as atmospheric refraction, scattering and absorption, radio interference, do not exist on the moon. United States, Europe and Japan are planning lunar again within the next few years and the establishment of permanent _set_tlements on the moon, can be expected to establish a permanent human base on the moon, the establishment of the Observatory on the base is inevitable. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the field in terms of scientific research, space observation project in terms of personnel or funds on the scale are considerable, as the world's largest ground-based optical telescopes such as the construction cost keck (7000 ~ 9000 million U.S. dollars) only very in a common space exploration satellite development and launch costs. And the difficulty of high astronomical observation in space, the instrument receiving area is small, running short life, difficult to repair, so it does not replace ground-astronomical observations. In the twenty-first century, space-based observations with ground-based observations will be complementary to the two wings of astronomical observation.
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The history of astronomy
Astronomy is to observe and study the universe, celestial discipline, which studies the distribution of objects, motion, position, status, structure, composition, nature and the origin and evolution, is a natural science based disciplines. Astronomy and other natural sciences a significant difference is that the experimental method is astronomical observations, to collect objects by observing a variety of information. Thus the observation methods and means of observation, the astronomers to study in one direction. In ancient times, the development of astronomy calendar also the inseparable relationship. Observations of modern astronomy has become all the electromagnetic science. Astronomy, the origin of the seeds of human culture can be traced back to the era. Ancient times, people to the direction, determine the time and season, and the sun, moon and stars were observed to determine their location, find out the variation of them, and accordingly the preparation of the calendar. From that point on, the astronomy is the oldest one of the natural science disciplines. First to recognize who is Egyptian astronomy. In ancient times, people observed with the naked eye by the sun, moon, and stars to determine the time and direction of development of the calendar to guide agricultural production, this is the beginning of the earliest astrometry. Content of early astronomy, it is by its very nature astrometry. From the mid-sixteenth century, Copernicus proposed theory of heliocentric system began the development of astronomy has entered a new phase. Prior to the natural sciences, including astronomy, theology seriously hindered by religion. Copernican theory of astronomy out of the shackles of religion, and in the next century and a half of pure description from the main positions of celestial bodies, motion of the classic astrometry, causing this movement toward a mechanical mechanism for the development of celestial mechanics. Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, classical celestial mechanics has reached its peak. Meanwhile, spectroscopy, photometry and extensive use of photography, astronomy began moving in-depth study of the physical structure of objects and physical processes of development, the birth of astrophysics. Twentieth century development of modern physics and high technology, and observational studies in astronomy to find a wide arena, so as astronomy, astrophysics in the mainstream subjects, and to facilitate the classic celestial mechanics and astrometry have a new development of the universe and the universe in all kinds of astronomical objects and phenomena to an unprecedented understanding of the depth and breadth. Astronomy for essentially an observational science. Astronomy and research all that is inseparable from astronomy tools - telescopes and the back-end receiving equipment. In the seventeenth century ago, despite making a number of astronomical observation instruments, such as China's armillary sphere, Jane instrument, but the observations can only rely on the naked eye. In 1608, the Dutch invented the telescope Li Boer race, made 1609 the first Galileo telescopes, and made many important discoveries, from the era of astronomy into the telescope. In the following people constantly to improve the performance of the telescope to observe much fainter objects and to obtain higher resolution. Jansky 1932 Americans with his rotating antenna array observed radio waves from celestial bodies, creating a radio astronomy. 1937 Birth of the first parabolic reflector radio telescope. Later, as the radio telescope in the aperture and receiving the wavelength and sensitivity performance continues to expand, improve, radio astronomy technology to the development of astronomy has made important contributions. After 50 years of the twentieth century, with the detector and the development of space technology and in-depth research, astronomical observations further from the visible light, radio band expanded to include infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays and electromagnetic waves, including the various γ-ray band, the formation of a multi-band astronomy and to explore the various types of astronomical objects and phenomena of the physical nature of the observation provided a powerful means of astronomy developed into a new phase. The back end of the receiving equipment in the telescope, the mid-nineteenth century, photography, spectral and photometric techniques are widely used in astronomical observations, for exploring the movement of celestial bodies, structure, chemical composition and physical state played a significant role in promoting the objects can be said Physics is only after these technologies can be applied gradually developed into the mainstream of astronomical subjects. Man long ago the thought of a dip in space. On Earth in 1903 opened the first Luna Park. Will be able to spend 50 cents to board a cigar-shaped, winged car, and then body shaking violently, and finally boarded a moon model. That same year, the Wright brothers in the air, the sound of da da fly for 59 seconds, while black man named Constantine Khodorkovsky focus, self-taught Russian speech entitled "Using counter instrumentation for space exploration" article. His calculations in the text, a missile to overcome the force of gravity to have to fly 18,000 miles an hour. He also proposed the construction of a liquid-driven multistage rocket. 50's, there is a recognized basic idea is that any country has successfully established the first permanent space station, which sooner or later will be able to control the entire planet. Von Braun described to the American ICBMs, submarines, missiles, space travel mirror and possible moon landing. He had envisaged the establishment of a regular manned, and space station capable of launching nuclear missiles. He said: "If you take into account all of the space station on earth flying over populated areas, then people will be able to recognize that this technology will make the satellite manufacturer of nuclear war in the war in an absolutely dominant position. In 1961, Gagarin became the first man into space. Russians with his description of flying in the sky is not the angel, nor God. United States John F. Kennedy campaign's slogan is "New Frontier." He explained: "Once again we live in an era of discovery. Space is a new frontier we can not measure." Kennedy, the Soviets were the first into space is "Over the years the U.S. experienced the most painful failure" . The only way out is to the offensive. In 1958 the U.S. established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and in the same year launched the first satellite "Explorer" number. 1962 John Glenn into Earth orbit to become the first Americans. Many scientists have been dangerous for manned space flight of the doubt, they are more willing to use aircraft to probe the solar system. The Americans were to achieve a breakthrough: three astronauts by "Apollo" spacecraft around the moon. In this context, the plan implemented in January 1969 the first two manned spacecraft docking with special significance. 80 20th century, the Soviet Union's third-generation space station "Peace" orbital station to the peak of space activities, all Americans feel envious. "Peace" as the "man-made temple", February 20, 1986 launch to heaven, is by far the man in the long-running near-Earth space to the only manned orbital space station. It is connected with its relatively "quantum 1", "quantum 2", "crystal" cabin, "spectrum" space, "natural" class of the formation of a compartment weighing 140 tons, a large working volume of 400 cubic meters of joint space orbit body. In this "small factory space" have been investigated in the Russian and foreign astronauts 106, for the expedition up to 22,000 items, focusing on project 600. In the "Peace" of the most interesting experiment is to extend the stay in space. Extended stay in space, the cradle of the human fly their own Earth, Mars and other celestial bodies into the most crucial step to overcome this difficult problem to solve weightlessness, cosmic radiation in space and the psychological barriers. Russian astronauts made significant progress in this area, including astronauts Polyakov in the "Peace" to create a single continuous flight record of 438 days, which can not but be regarded as the 20th century, an important outcome of aerospace history . Station in orbit such as training on quail, salamanders, and a lot of wheat and other life science experiments. If the Mir space station as the third generation of human beings, belonging to the International Space Station is the fourth generation of the space station. International Space Station project will cost 600 billion, the largest so far of human manned space flight project. It is from the initial concept and final competition began as a product of the year the Soviet Union, but also the results of the current US-Russian cooperation, from the side reflects the history of a process. U.S. and Russian joint construction of the International Space Station-15, indicating a development of all countries in space exploration and the era of peace is coming. However, decades of manned space activities, the results are far from meeting their desire for space. "The road ahead is long off-Xi Yuan, happiness of the bottom and search", the human heart has always been the desire of the conquest of space and the peaceful use of space resources of the determination. November 1998, the first human into Earth orbit, American astronaut, 77-year-old Glen with his ambition does not obliterate the space once again embarked on a journey, which seems to tell the man: if things go on, conquest of space is not a dream .
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Cosmic Space
Big Bang Theory (Big-bang cosmology), Department of the modern universe, the most influential doctrine, also known as Big Bang cosmology. Compared with other models of the universe, it could indicate more observed facts. Its main point is that our universe had a period from hot to cold evolutionary history. During this period, the universe system is not static, but constantly expanding, so that the density of matter to evolve from the dense to dilute. This from hot to cold, from dense to dilute the process as a huge outbreak. According to the views of Big Bang cosmology, Big Bang, the whole process is: in the early universe, the temperature is extremely high at 100 million degrees or more. Density of matter is quite large, the whole system to balance the universe. The universe is only neutrons, protons, electrons, photons and neutrinos and some elementary forms of matter. But because the whole system is constantly expanding, the result the temperature dropped quickly. When the temperature dropped to 10 million degrees or so, free neutrons begin to lose existing conditions, which either decay, or with a proton combine to form heavy hydrogen, helium and other elements; chemical element is formed from the beginning of this period. The temperature dropped further to 100 million degrees, the early formation of the end of the process of chemical elements (see element synthesis theory). The material universe, mainly protons, electrons, photons, and some of the more light nuclei. When the temperature dropped to a few thousand degrees, the radiation loss, the universe is mainly gaseous material, the gas gradually condensed into a gas cloud, and then further to form a variety of star systems, as the universe we see today. Big Bang model can be unified in the fact that the following observations: (1) the Big Bang theory holds that all stars are created in the temperature dropped, so the age should be more than any celestial body since the temperature dropped to a shorter period of time today, which should be less than 200 million years. Proof of age, measurements of various objects to this. (2) observed extragalactic objects systemic redshift of spectral lines, and generally proportional to the redshift and distance. If you use the Doppler effect to explain, then the red shift is reflected in expansion of the universe. (3) in a variety of different objects, the helium abundance is relatively large and mostly 30%. With the stellar nuclear reaction mechanisms are not adequate to explain why there are so many helium. According to the Big Bang theory, the early high temperature, resulting in high efficiency helium, you can illustrate this fact. (4) According to the speed and the expansion of the universe such as helium abundance, the universe can be calculated for each specific historical period of the temperature. Founder of the Big Bang theory of the Gamow had predicted, the universe has been very cold today, only the absolute temperature a few degrees. In 1965, indeed in the microwave band to detect thermal radiation spectrum with the microwave background radiation, temperature of about 3K. There is also steady state cosmology, hierarchical cosmology, antimatter cosmology, inflation cosmology.
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Famous astronomers
Polish astronomer, the founder of the heliocentric theory of Copernicus (1473-1543). Telescopes into the first Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). The famous German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630). Reflecting telescope invented the famous physicist Isaac Newton (1642-1727). British astronomer Halley (1656-1742). French astronomer Messier (1730-1817). The discoverer of Uranus, British astronomer William Herschel (1738-1822). American astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889-1953). Famous physicist Albert Einstein (1879-1955). The founder of radio astronomy, radio, an American engineer in Jansky. Astronomers 苏布拉马尼 Yang Chandrasekhar (1910-1995).
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Telescope
Refracting telescope In 1608, the Dutch businessman Li Boer race glasses with two lenses can be found by chance to see the distant scene, Inspired, he created the first telescope in human history. In 1609, Galileo produced a diameter of 4.2 centimeters, about 1.2 meter telescope. He is plano-convex lens as the lens, concave lens as the eyepiece, this telescope optical system called Galileo. Galileo used the telescope to the heavens, has been a series of important discoveries, astronomy, the telescope has now entered the era. In 1611, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler, respectively, with two pairs of convex lens as the objective and the eyepiece, the magnification has been significantly improved, after which people will be called the Kepler telescope optical system. Now people use the refracting telescope, or both forms, is the use of Kepler-type telescope. Should be noted that, because of the use of a single lens as a telescope lens, there is a serious color, in order to obtain good observational results, need to use a very small curvature of the lens, which is bound to result mirrors the body longer. So in a very long period of time, astronomers have been longer in the dream of making a telescope, many attempts have failed. In 1757, Dulong and water through the study of glass refraction and dispersion, established the theoretical basis of the achromatic lens, and with the crown glass and flint glass achromatic lens. Since then, completely achromatic refractor telescope replaced the long lens body. However, due to technical constraints, is difficult to cast a large flint glass achromatic telescope in the early stages, can only grind a 10-cm lens. The late nineteenth century, with the improvement of manufacturing technology, manufacturing large diameter refracting telescope as possible, with the attendant on the emergence of a manufacturing large diameter refracting telescope in the climax. 8 available in the world more than 70 cm refracting telescope with seven in the period 1885 to 1897 built one of the most representative is built in 1897, the Yerkes telescope 102 cm diameter and the caliber of 1886 completed Rick 91 cm telescope. Refracting telescope has the advantage of focal length, large scale film on the tube bend-insensitive, the most suitable for astrometric work to do. But it is always a residual chromatic aberration, while the ultraviolet and infrared radiation absorption band is very powerful. The huge cast of optical glass is also very difficult system to the Yerkes telescope built in 1897, reflects the culmination of the development of the telescope, the next hundred years in the refractor no more appear. This is mainly because technically perfect can not be cast out large glass lens, and, due to gravity so that the deformation of large-size lens will be very obvious, and thus lose the focus of the Octavia. Reflecting telescope The birth of the first frame reflecting telescope in 1668. Newton repeated grinding of aspheric lenses have failed, decided to use spherical mirror as the primary mirror. He used 2.5 cm diameter metal, grinding into a concave mirror, the focus in the primary mirror placed in front of a mirror into a 45o angle with the main reflector, so that by the primary mirror will be reflected after the condenser to 90o by the mirror reflecting angle eyepiece tube arrived. This system, known as Newtonian reflector telescope. It's spherical mirror, although it will have some as bad, but instead of using reflector refractor is a great success. James Gregory in 1663 proposed a solution: the use of side mirror, side of the secondary mirror, they are concave mirror, secondary mirror placed outside the focus of the primary mirror, and left in the primary mirror central hole to light by the primary mirror and secondary mirror after reflection from the two holes in the shot to reach the eyepiece. The purpose of this design is to simultaneously eliminate spherical aberration and chromatic aberration, which requires a parabolic primary mirror and a sub-ellipsoid mirror, which in theory is correct, but then can not reach this level of manufacturing requirements So Gregory could not be of use to him the mirror. 1672, the French-Cassegrain reflecting telescope made the third design, structure and Gregory telescope similar to the difference is that the primary mirror secondary mirror to focus in advance prior to and for the convex mirror, which is now the most commonly used The Kasaigelin reflector telescope. So that by the secondary mirror mirror slightly divergent reflected light, reducing the magnification, but it eliminates the spherical aberration, so the telescope can also be made to very short focal length. Cassegrain telescope's primary mirror and secondary mirror can have many different forms, optical properties also vary. As the focal length Cassegrain telescope body is long and the short lens, magnification is also large, clear images obtained; both Cassegrain focus of the venue can be used to study the overlooked objects, can be configured Newton focus, to capture a large area objects. Therefore, Cassegrain telescope has been very widely used. Herschel reflecting telescope is to produce a master of his early years as a music teacher, because the love of astronomy, began to grind telescope from 1773, the lifetime of the telescope produced hundreds of aircraft. Herschel telescope is to produce objective ramp on the tube, it has been reflected by the parallel light converge on the side of the tube. In the reflecting telescope was invented nearly 200 years, reflective materials has been an obstacle to its development: cast bronze mirror with easy corrosion, shall not be polished from time to time, money and time-consuming, and corrosion resistance, good metal, more than Bronze high density and very expensive. 1856 German chemist Justus von Libi Xi has developed a method to get a thin layer of silver coated glass by gently polishing, you can efficiently reflect light. This makes manufacturing more and larger reflecting telescope possible. The end of 1918, 254 cm in diameter Hooker telescope put into use, which is chaired by the Haier built. Astronomers used the telescope for the first time revealed the true size of the galaxy and the location in which we live, more importantly, the Hubble expansion of the universe theory is the result of observations by Hooker Telescope. Reflecting telescope has many advantages, such as: no color, can record a wide range of visible objects within the message, and relatively easy compared to making refracting telescope. However, it also has inherent disadvantages: such as the larger diameter, the smaller field of view, the need for regular lens coating and so on. Catadioptric telescope Catadioptric telescope, first appeared in 1814. In 1931, the German optical house close to Schmidt with a unique non-parallel plate as a thin lens to correct spherical mirror, and with the spherical mirror, made of a can eliminate spherical aberration and off-axis aberrations of the Schmidt-type fold reflector, this light and strong telescope, large field of view, like the difference is small, suitable for a large area of sky taken pictures, especially for the photographic effect faint nebula is very prominent. Schmidt telescope has become an important tool for astronomical observation. 1940 Maksutov lens with a meniscus shape as a correction lens, creating another type of catadioptric telescope, its two surfaces are two different spherical curvature of an insignificant difference, but the curvature and thickness are large. It's all surfaces are spherical, than the Schmidt telescope in the correct board easy to grind, the tube is relatively short, but the field of view smaller than the Schmidt telescope, the requirements of the glass higher. As catadioptric telescope telescope both refraction and reflection of the advantages of both, very suitable for amateur astronomy and astronomical photography, and the majority of amateur astronomers alike. Light gathering ability of the telescope diameter increases with the increase, the telescope's light gathering capacity of the stronger to be able to see fainter objects farther away, this is in fact able to see more early universe. The need for greater development of astrophysics diameter telescope. However, with the telescope diameter increases, the number of technical problems one after another. Hale telescope lens from the weight of 14.5 tons, the weight of moving parts is 530 tons, while the mirror is 6 meters weighs 800 tons. Weight of the telescope lens distortion caused considerable non-uniform temperature so that the distortion also affects the mirror image quality. From the manufacturing side, the cost of traditional methods to manufacture the telescope aperture is almost proportional to the square or cube, so the manufacture of larger diameter telescope to open up new paths. Since the seventies has been the development of the manufacture of the telescope a lot of new technology, optics, mechanics, computers, automatic control and precision machinery and other fields. These technologies enable the manufacture of the telescope mirror diameter exceeded the limits, and reduce cost and simplify the telescope structure. In particular the emergence of active optical technology and applications, so that the telescope's design had a leap. Since the eighties, the international _set_ off a wave of manufacturing a new generation of large telescopes. Among them, the European Southern Observatory's VLT, the United States, Britain, Canada cooperation GEMINI, Japan SUBARU primary mirror using a thin mirror; U.S. Keck I, Keck II telescope and HET primary mirror using a mosaic technique. Tradition of excellence in the best telescope Cassegrain focus of the work of state, 80% of the geometry can be concentrated in the energy 0 ".6 range, and the introduction of new technology to produce a new generation of large telescopes can keep 80% of the light concentrated in the 0 ".2 ~ 0" .4, even better. The following are representative of several large telescopes to make some description were: Keck telescope (Keck I, Keck II) Keck I and Keck II, respectively, in 1991 and completed in 1996, this is the current work has been put into the world's largest optical telescope diameter, is mainly funded by entrepreneurs in their Keck (Keck WM) donations (Keck I to $ 94,000,000 , Keck II is $ 74,600,000) and name. This two identical telescopes placed Mauna Kea in Hawaii, put them together to make interference observation. Their diameter is 10 meters, from 36 hexagonal mirror mosaic, each block were 1.8 m diameter mirror, and thickness of only 10 cm, supported by active optics system that allows the mirror to maintain high accuracy. Focal plane devices are three: near-infrared camera, high-resolution CCD detector and high dispersion spectroscopy. "Such a large telescope like the Keck, allows us along the river of time to explore the origin of the universe, Keck is allows us to see the birth of the first moment of the universe." European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope (VLT) European Southern Observatory, developed since 1986 by the 4 _set_s of 8 m aperture telescope composed of a 16 m equivalent diameter of the optical telescope. This 8-meter telescope 4 are arranged in a straight line, they are the RC optical system, focal ratio is F / 2, using horizon device, the primary mirror active optical system with support, point to an accuracy of 1 ", the tracking accuracy of 0.05" tube weight of 100 tons, fork arm weighs less than 120 tons. This can form a 4 telescope interferometric array, to do two two interference observations can also be used alone each telescope. Has now completed two of them are expected to be completed in 2000. Gemini telescope (GEMINI) Gemini Telescope is an international U.S. based devices (including the United States accounted for 50%, UK 25%, 15% in Canada, Chile, 5%, Argentina 2.5%, Brazil 2.5%), from the American University Astronomy Alliance (AURA) is responsible for implementation. It is composed of two 8-meter telescopes, one on the northern hemisphere, one on the southern hemisphere, to carry out systematic observations throughout the day. The primary mirror active optics using controlled secondary mirror to correct for fast steering mirror, an adaptive optics system will also enable infrared region close to the diffraction limit. The project was started in September 1993, the first in July 1998 in Hawaii, the opening, the second in September 2000, Chile 利赛拉帕琼 Sites in the opening, in 2001, the entire system is expected to put into acceptance use. Pleiades (Japan) 8 m telescopes (SUBARU) This is a 8-meter diameter optical / infrared telescope. It has three characteristics: First, thin mirror, through the active optics and adaptive optics to obtain high image quality; the second is to achieve 0.1 "high-precision tracking; third is the use of cylindrical observation chamber, automatic control of ventilation and air filtration device, the exclusion of the thermal turbulence to achieve the best conditions. This telescope uses Serrurier truss, make the main frame and sub frame parallel to the move. This telescope will be installed on Mauna Kea in Hawaii, since 1991, is expected to 9 years to complete. Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope (LAMOST) It started in China in 1996 and completed by the end of 2008 to develop and test run of an effective aperture of 4 meters, the focal length of 20 meters, 20 square degrees field of view of the star ceremony, reflecting Schmidt telescope . Its technical features are: 1. The active optics technology used in reflective Schmidt system, for tracking objects in real time the movement of spherical aberration correction, achieving large-diameter and large field of both functions. 2. Spherical primary mirror and a mirror are used splicing. 3. Multi-Object Fiber (up to 4000, only 600 general telescope) spectroscopic techniques will be an important breakthrough. LAMOST general survey of galaxies to the limiting magnitude pushed to 20.5m, higher than the 2 other SDSS plans about 107 galaxies to achieve a general survey of the spectrum, the observed number of targets increased by 1 order of magnitude. 1932 Jansky (Jansky. K. G) detected with a radio antenna from the center of our galaxy (Sagittarius direction) of the radio emission, which marks the man opened the outside of the traditional optical-band observations of the first window. After World War II, radio astronomy come to the fore, radio telescopes to the development of radio astronomy has played a key role, such as: Astronomy of the four found in the sixties, quasars, pulsars, interstellar molecules, and cosmic microwave background radiation, Radio telescopes are used to get. Radio telescope will be significant progress every time, without exception, to the development of radio astronomy, a milestone. University of Manchester, built in 1946, 66.5 meters in diameter, fixed parabolic radio telescope, built in 1955 and was the world's largest rotating parabolic radio telescope; Sixties, the town of Arecibo in Puerto Rico, the United States built 305 meters in diameter parabolic radio telescope, which is fixed to the ground surface along the slopes, and can not move, this is the world's largest single-aperture radio telescope. 1962, Ryle invention of aperture synthesis radio telescope, and thus he won the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics. Aperture synthesis radio telescope achieved by the smaller number of large-diameter antenna structure to obtain the equivalent effect of a single antenna that can be achieved. Broten, who in 1967 first recorded the VLBI fringes. Seventies, Federal Republic of Germany in Bonn, built around the entire diameter of 100 m radio telescope dish to the rotation, which is the world's largest rotating single-antenna radio telescope. Since the eighties, the European VLBI Network (EVN), the United States VLBA array, the Japanese space VLBI (VSOP) have been put into use, which is representative of a new generation of radio telescopes, their sensitivity, resolution and observation band greatly over the previous telescope. Shanghai Astronomical Observatory and Urumqi Astronomical Station of the two 25-meter radio telescope as a full member of the United States, continuous rotation of the Earth Observation Programme (CORE) and the European Very Long Baseline Interferometry Network (EVN), the two plans were for the Earth of rotation and high-precision astrometry (CORE) and astrophysics (EVN). The radio telescope from the United States for long baseline interferometry observations of the way, played a single nation with large telescopes can not be achieved. In addition, four National Observatory (NARO) developed the 100-meter single-antenna telescope (GBT), with no occlusion (partial feed), active optics design, the antenna is currently being installed in 2000, may be put into use. United Development International will be an area of 1 square kilometer to receive low-frequency radio telescope array (SKA), the program will the sensitivity of low-frequency radio observations are about two orders of magnitude improvement in a variety of pre-study countries concerned being. Band radio observations in increasing coverage, the United States Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the China Taiwan Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics building in Hawaii International submillimeter interferometric array first (SMA), which consists of eight 6-meter antenna, operating frequency from 190GHz to 85z, some equipment has been installed. U.S. Millimeter Array (MMA), and Europe south array (LAS) will be merged into a new plan Millimeter Array - ALMA. The program will have 64 12-meter antenna composed of up to 10 km above Jixian operating frequency from 70 to 950GHz, placed near the Atacama in Chile, if the merger goes well, will begin construction in 2001, the Japanese side to consider participating in Yezai the possibility of the scheme. In improving the angular resolution radio observations, the majority of the new generation of large equipment interferometric array of programs to consider; To further improve the space VLBI observations of the angular resolution and sensitivity, the second-generation space VLBI program - ARISE (25 meter diameter) have been proposed. I believe these devices will be built and put into use to make astronomy radio astronomy as an important research tool, and the development of astronomy will bring unexpected opportunities. We know, deep in the Earth's surface layer of the atmosphere, the Earth's atmosphere, particles and objects of various interactions of radiation (mainly absorption and reflection), making the most of the objects within the band of radiation can not reach the ground. It can reach the ground band to the image as the "atmospheric window", this "window" has three. Optical window: This is the most important window wavelengths between 300 to 700 nm, including visible light (400 ~ 700 nm), optical telescope has been the main tool for astronomical observation ground. Infrared window: infrared range between 0.7 to 1000 microns, due to different molecules in Earth's atmosphere absorb infrared wavelengths is inconsistent, resulting in the situation is more complicated infrared band. Commonly used for astronomical research, seven infrared window. Radio window: the radio band is larger than 1 mm wavelength electromagnetic waves. Radio bands, the atmosphere of a small amount of absorption, but in the 40 mm within 30 meters of the atmosphere is almost completely transparent, we generally put 1 mm to 30 mm area known as the radio window. The atmosphere for other bands, such as ultraviolet, X-ray, γ ray, and others are opaque, in the satellite after the realization of God's astronomical observations of these bands. Infrared Telescope Infrared observations can be traced back as early eighteenth century. However, due to the Earth's atmosphere caused by the absorption and scattering in ground-based infrared observations is only limited to a few near-infrared window, to get more information about infrared, infrared observations in space to be. Modern infrared astronomy flourished in the nineteenth century, sixties and seventies, when is the use of high-altitude balloons and aircraft to carry the infrared telescope or the detectors were observed. January 23, 1983 charge by the United States and Britain jointly launched the first infrared astronomical satellite IRAS. Its main feature is a 57 cm diameter telescope, mainly in sky survey work. The success of IRAS infrared astronomy has greatly promoted the development at all levels. Until now, IRAS observations of astronomers to study the source is still a hot target. November 17, 1995 by the European, U.S. and Japan co-Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) and launch into orbit. ISO's main feature is a diameter of 60 cm RC telescope, its capabilities and performance increase than many of IRAS, which carries the four telescopes, respectively, to achieve imaging, polarization, spectral, grating, F-P interferometer spectrophotometry, metering and other functions. Compared with the IRAS, ISO from the near infrared to far infrared, a wider band range; has a higher spatial resolution; higher sensitivity (about 100 times IRAS); and more. ISO's real working life of 30 months, the target fixed-point observations (IRAS sky survey observations is), which can be targeted to resolve issues raised by astronomers. Expected in the next few years, the ISO data-based research will become a hot topic of astronomy. Large-scale solar system to the universe from the infrared telescope and optical telescopes, many of the same or similar, so the optical telescopes on the ground can make some modifications so that it can also be observed in the infrared. So that you can use these binoculars on a moonlit night or daytime infrared observations, the greater the efficiency of observation equipment to play. Ultraviolet Telescope X-ray band is between UV and visible frequency range between the observation wavelength of 3100 to 100 angstroms. UV observations are put to the height of 150 km to avoid the ozone layer and atmospheric absorption. The first UV observations the telescope is _set_ on the high-altitude balloon, later used rockets, space shuttles and satellites and other space technology only to have a real development of UV observations. Ultraviolet observations in astrophysics has important significance. X-ray band is between UV and visible light frequencies between the range of ultraviolet and visible light in the history of the division line in 3900 and Egypt, when the criteria for the classification to the naked eye can see. Band ultraviolet observations of modern astronomy for the 3100 to 100 angstroms, and the X-ray phase, because the ozone layer, the absorption of electromagnetic waves limits here. In 1968 the U.S. launched the OAO-2, also launched in Europe after the TD-1A, their task is the sky ultraviolet radiation to make a general survey observations. No. named Copernicus OAO-3 was launched in 1972, it carried an ultraviolet telescope 0.8 meters, running for 9 years, 950 objects observed in the UV spectrum of Egypt 3500. Launched in 1978 by the International UV detection (IUE), although the telescope's aperture smaller than the number of Copernicus, but the detection sensitivity has been greatly improved. IUE observations of astrophysical data has become an important research resources. December 1990 from 2 to 11, carrying the space shuttle Columbia made the Astro-1 Observatory, a space laboratory for the first time on the UV spectra of astronomical observations; March 2, 1995 began, Astro-2 observatory completed a 16-day UV astronomical observations. In 1992 NASA launched a satellite observation - a very far-UV exploration satellite (EUVE), is made in a far ultraviolet sky survey. June 24, 1999 launched FUSE satellite, which is NASA's "Origins Program" one of its task is to answer astronomy questions about the fundamental evolution of the universe. Full-band ultraviolet astronomy is an important part of astronomy, Copernicus, lifted off from the 30 years since has developed a UV-band EUV (extreme ultraviolet), FUV (far ultraviolet), UV (ultraviolet) and other detection satellite, covering all the UV band. X-ray telescope: X-ray radiation wavelength range of 0.01-10 nm, where the shorter wavelength (higher energy) is referred to as hard X-ray, the wavelength is called the soft X-ray long. Celestial X-rays can not reach the ground, only in the sixties days of artificial earth satellites, astronomers have obtained the important results of observations, X-ray astronomy was developed. Mainly for the early X-ray observations of the sun. June 1962, Massachu_set_ts Institute of Technology research team first discovered the power of direction from the Scorpio X-ray source, which makes non-solar X-ray astronomy has entered a rapid stage of development. Seventies, Energy Astronomical Observatory 1, 2, was successfully launched two satellites, the first time the X-ray band of sky surveys, the X-ray observations of a major step forward, the formation of X-ray observations of the boom. Since entering the eighties, countries have launched satellites, study of X-ray band: April 1987, the rocket will be from the former Soviet Union, Germany, Britain, the former Soviet Union, and the Netherlands and other countries developed X-ray detector into space; 1987 X-ray detector in Japan launched the satellite GINGA; 1989 years ago the Soviet Union launched a high-energy astrophysics experimental satellite - GRANAT, it contains the former Soviet Union, France, Bulgaria and Denmark, 7 _set_s of detection instrument developed, the main work for the imaging, spectroscopy and observation of the phenomenon of the outbreak and monitoring; June 1990, Roentgen X-ray astronomy satellite (referred to as the ROSAT) into Earth orbit, the research has a large number of important observations, and now it has basically completed the scheduled observation mission; December 1990 "Columbia" space shuttle to the U.S. "broadband X-ray telescope" into the space over a period of 9 days of observation; February 1993, Japan's "bird" X-ray detection satellite into orbit by the rocket; In 1996 the U.S. launched the "X-ray luminosity probe satellite" (XTE), July 23, 1999 the United States successfully launched the Advanced X-ray astrophysics equipment (CHANDRA) of a satellite, and the other one will be launched in 2000; December 13, 1999 launch of a European Space Agency satellite called XMM. 2000, Japan will launch a X-ray observation equipment. These projects and programs that the next few years will be an X-ray observations and research to a climax. γ-ray telescope: γ-rays than hard X-ray of the shorter wavelength, higher energy, due to the absorption of the Earth's atmosphere, γ-ray astronomy can only be equipped with high-altitude balloon and satellite instruments. In 1991, the United States Compton (γ-ray) Space Observatory (Compton GRO or CGRO) was launched into Earth orbit by the space shuttle. Its main task is to conduct the first sky survey γ band, but also on the strong cosmic γ-ray sources for high-sensitivity, high resolution imaging, spectroscopy measurements and optical variable measurement, made many significant scientific value results. CGRO is equipped with 4 _set_s of instruments, their performance in the size and detection equipment than the previous order of magnitude improvement in the successful development of these devices for the high-energy astrophysics has brought profound changes, also marks the γ-ray Astronomy began to mature. CGRO carried four instruments are: a temporary source of the outbreak and the experiment (BATSE), the variable to the flash spectroscopy experiment (OSSE), 1Mev ~ 30Mev work within the imaging telescope (COMPTEL), 1Mev ~ 30Mev work into the context of like a telescope (COMPTEL). Compton was encouraged by the success of Space Observatory, European and U.S. research institutions to develop a new γ-ray telescope program-INTEGRAL, prepared into space in 2001, it will be heaven after the Compton γ Space Observatory ray astronomy lay the foundation for further development. Hubble Space Telescope (HST): It is chaired by the NASA Space Observatory built in the four giant's first, but for all astronomical observations, the largest project, the largest investment, the most public attention by a. It is build in 1978, the design took 7 years to complete in 1989, and in April 25, 1990 carried by the space shuttle launch, costing 3.0 billion. However, due to human causes of the primary mirror optical system of the spherical aberration, had to December 2, 1993 was the restoration in size. Successful repair the HST performance met or exceeded the original design goals, observations show that its resolution is higher than the large telescopes on the ground a few times. HST when the initial launch scientific instruments to carry out 5: Wide / planetary camera, faint object camera, faint object spectrometer, high resolution spectroscopy and high-speed photometer. Maintenance in 1997, for the installation of the second generation of HST instruments: a space telescope imaging spectrometer, near-infrared camera and multi-objective spectrograph, the HST observations extended to the near infrared and improve the efficiency of the ultraviolet spectrum. December 1999 replaced the maintenance of the HST gyros and a new computer, and install a third-generation instruments - Advanced Survey Camera, which will improve the HST in the UV - optical - near infrared sensitivity and mapping performance. HST on the development of the international astronomical community have very important implications. The beginning of the twenty-first century, space telescopes: "The ball all day astrophysics astrometric interferometer" (GAIA) will be the overall geometric structure of the Milky Way and its kinematics to do a comprehensive and thorough survey, on this basis to open up vast areas of astrophysics. GAIA Fizeau interferometer using the program, field of view is 1 °. GAIA and SIM's mission is largely complementary. Based on the Hong Kong Observatory: Since no one to rely on the space pre-designed astronomical observation mode automatically, very passive, if based on the lunar surface to establish the Hong Kong Observatory, will be able to regain the initiative, greatly improving the observation accuracy. "Apollo 16" moon landing astronauts on the surface in the Large Magellanic Cloud taken pictures show the moon's surface is ideal for astronomical observation sites. Established based on the Hong Kong Observatory has the following advantages: 1. To a high degree of vacuum on the moon than the space astronomical observation equipment which is even lower than a million times. 2. Moon for the telescope provides a stable, strong and great observation platforms, simply observing the moon very simple tracking system. 3. March earthquakes seismic activity is only equivalent to 10-8, which is established for the surface in several months to several hundred kilometers of long baseline radio, optical and infrared interferometry is very beneficial. 4. Gravity on the surface of the moon the Earth's surface gravity is only 1 / 6, which will bring convenience to the construction of the observatory. In addition, astronomical observations on the earth all the factors, such as atmospheric refraction, scattering and absorption, radio interference, do not exist on the moon. United States, Europe and Japan are planning lunar again within the next few years and the establishment of permanent _set_tlements on the moon, can be expected to establish a permanent human base on the moon, the establishment of the Observatory on the base is inevitable. Astronomy and Astrophysics for the field in terms of scientific research, space observation project in terms of personnel or funds on the scale are considerable, as the world's largest ground-based optical telescopes like Keck's construction costs (7000 ~ 9000 million U.S. dollars) only very in a common space exploration satellite development and launch costs. And the difficulty of high astronomical observation in space, the instrument receiving area is small, running short life, difficult to repair, so it does not replace ground-astronomical observations. In the twenty-first century, space-based observations with ground-based observations will be complementary to the two wings of astronomical observation. Kepler's three laws on 1. All the stars orbit around the sun are elliptical motion. Sun is an ellipse intersection 2. For any of a planet, it connected with the sun at the same time, sweep the same area 3. All the planets of the elliptical orbit of semi-major axis of the third party and the revolution period equal to the square On the law of universal gravitation Formula: F million = G (M1M2) / R G = 6.67 × 10 ^ -11 Nm ^ 2/kg ^ 2
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Chinese History
[Solar System] solar system (solar system) is 2376.htm> Sun, 9 planets, 66 satellites and numerous asteroids, comets and meteorites formed. Planet from the sun out of order: Mercury (mercury), Venus (venus), earth (earth), Mars (mars), Jupiter (jupiter), Saturn (saturn), Uranus (uranus), Neptune (neptune) and Pluto (pluto). Closer from the sun Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars is called the terrestrial planets (terrestrial planets). Spacecraft have carried out their exploration, had also landed on Mars and Venus, obtained important results. Their common characteristic is density (> 3.0 grams / cubic centimeter), small size, slow rotation, the satellite less, the internal components are mainly silicate (silicate), with a solid shell. Farther from the sun, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto called the Jovian planets (jovian planets). Spacecraft also has detected them, but not landing. They have a very thick atmosphere, its surface features difficult to understand, the general inference, they have the terrestrial planets similar to the solid inner core. Between Mars and Jupiter, more than 100,000 asteroids (asteroid) (that is, from rock stars composed of small irregular). Speculated that they may be bound by the position between Mars and Jupiter is made of a broken planet, or is unable to accumulate a number of stone fragments into a unified planet. Present in meteorites between planets, components of stone or iron. Stars from the (AU), radius (Earth), quality (Earth), orbital inclination (degrees), orbital eccentricity, inclination, density (g/cm3) Sun, 0, 109, 332,800, ---, - -, ---, 1.410 Mercury, 0.39, 0.38, 0.05, 7, 0.2056, 0.1 °, 5.43 Venus, 0.72, 0.95, 0.89, 3.394, 0.0068, 177.4 °, 5.25 Earth, 1.0, 1.00, 1.00, 0.000, 0.0167 , 23.45 °, 5.52 Martian, 1.5, 0.53, 0.11, 1.850, 0.0934, 25.19 °, 3.95 Jupiter, 5.2, 11.0, 318, 1.308, 0.0483, 3.12 °, 1.33 Saturn, 9.5, 9.5, 95, 2.488, 0.0560, 26.73 °, 0.69 Uranus, 19.2, 4.0, 17, 0.774, 0.0461, 97.86 °, 1.29 Neptune, 30.1, 3.9, 17, 1.774, 0.0097, 29.56 °, 1.64 Pluto, 39.5, 0.18, 0.002, 17.15, 0.2482, 119.6 °, 2.03 nine planets, in general, the 3048.htm> Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars is called the terrestrial planets, their common feature is the main form from the stone and iron, the radius and mass is small but high-density . To Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune called the Jovian planets, their common feature is the main hydrogen, helium, ice, methane, ammonia, etc., stone and iron account for only a very small proportion of their quality and radii are much larger than Earth, but the density is low. Pluto is a special planet. Distance from the sun planets have regular, from near to far from the sun by the calculated distance of the planet to the sun (with a expressed) a = 0.4 +0.3 * 2n-2 (AU) where n, said the first from near to far n planets (see table) Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune's rotation period of 12 hours to a day or so, but Mercury, Venus, Pluto's rotation period is very long, were 58.65 days, 243 days and 6.387 days, most of the direction of the planet's rotation and revolution in the same direction, but Venus is the opposite. In addition to Mercury and Venus, the other planets have satellites revolving to form the satellite system. In the solar system, more than 1,600 comets have been discovered, most of the comet is moving in the same direction around the sun, but there are also reverse the revolution's. Comet around the sun changes in the present peculiar shape. There are numerous solar system the size of the meteoroid, meteoroids are some groups, these meteor streams are the product of the disintegration of the comet. Large meteoroids fall to the ground as meteorites. Solar system is extremely small part of the galaxy, it is only on the galaxy, a hundred billion stars, it is from the center of the galaxy about 8.5 kiloparsec, or less than 3 million light years. With the sun throughout the solar system rotate around the galactic center. Can be seen, the solar system is not in center of the universe, not in the center of the galaxy. The sun is 5.0 billion years ago by the collapse of interstellar clouds collapse of a group Xiaoyun made, its life about 100 million years. [Cosmic Space] universe is one of the expansive space and the existence of various objects and diffuse material in general. The universe is the physical world, it is in constant movement and development. Thousands of years, scientists have been exploring the universe is when and how formed. Even today, scientists have to be convinced that the universe is about 150 million years ago a huge explosion occurred in the formation. Before the explosion, within the universe of matter and energy are kept brought together and condensed into a small volume, high temperature, density significantly, after the big bang happened. Material scattered large blast attack, ever-expanding universe, the temperature decrease, then one after another all the galaxies in the universe, stars, planets and life are in this ever-expanding gradually during the cooling of the formation. However, the big bang theory of the universe yet produced can not be precisely explained, "In gathering material and energy stored in the point" before there is something in the end? "Big Bang Theory" is created by Gamow in 1946. Big Bang Theory (big-bang cosmology), Department of the modern universe, the most influential doctrine, also known as Big Bang cosmology. Compared with other models of the universe, it could indicate more observed facts. Its main point is that our universe had a period from hot to cold evolutionary history. During this period, the universe system is not static, but constantly expanding, so that the density of matter to evolve from the dense to dilute. This from hot to cold, from dense to dilute the process as a huge outbreak. According to the views of Big Bang cosmology, Big Bang, the whole process is: in the early universe, the temperature is extremely high at 100 million degrees or more. Density of matter is quite large, the whole system to balance the universe. The universe is only neutrons, protons, electrons, photons and neutrinos and some elementary forms of matter. But because the whole system is constantly expanding, the result the temperature dropped quickly. When the temperature dropped to 10 million degrees or so, free neutrons begin to lose existing conditions, which either decay, or with a proton combine to form heavy hydrogen, helium and other elements; chemical element is formed from the beginning of this period. The temperature dropped further to 100 million degrees, the early formation of the end of the process of chemical elements (see element synthesis theory). The material universe, mainly protons, electrons, photons, and some of the more light nuclei. When the temperature dropped to a few thousand degrees, the radiation loss, the universe is mainly gaseous material, the gas gradually condensed into a gas cloud, and then further to form a variety of star systems, as the universe we see today. Big Bang model can be unified in the fact that the following observations: (1) the Big Bang theory holds that all stars are created in the temperature dropped, so the age should be more than any celestial body since the temperature dropped to a shorter period of time today, shall be less than 200 million years. Proof of age, measurements of various objects to this. (2) observed extragalactic objects systemic redshift of spectral lines, and generally proportional to the redshift and distance. If you use the Doppler effect to explain, then the red shift is reflected in expansion of the universe. (3) in a variety of different objects, the helium abundance is relatively large and mostly 30%. With the stellar nuclear reaction mechanisms are not adequate to explain why there are so many helium. According to the Big Bang theory, the early high temperature, resulting in high efficiency helium, you can illustrate this fact. (4) According to the speed and the expansion of the universe such as helium abundance, the universe can be calculated for each specific historical period of the temperature. Founder of the Big Bang theory of the Gamow had predicted, the universe has been very cold today, only the absolute temperature a few degrees. In 1965, indeed in the microwave band to detect thermal radiation spectrum with the microwave background radiation, temperature of about 3K. .................................................. .................................................. ....................................... human space long ago thought a dip . On Earth in 1903 opened the first Luna Park. Will be able to spend 50 cents to board a cigar-shaped, winged car, and then body shaking violently, and finally boarded a moon model. That same year, the Wright brothers in the air, the sound of da da fly for 59 seconds, while black man named Constantine Khodorkovsky focus, self-taught Russian speech entitled "Using counter instrumentation for space exploration" article. His calculations in the text, a missile to overcome the force of gravity to have to fly 18,000 miles an hour. He also proposed the construction of a liquid-driven multistage rocket. 50's, there is a recognized basic idea is that any country has successfully established the first permanent space station, which sooner or later will be able to control the entire planet. Von Braun described to the American ICBMs, submarines, missiles, space travel mirror and possible moon landing. He had envisaged the establishment of a regular manned, and space station capable of launching nuclear missiles. He said: "If you take into account all of the space station on earth flying over populated areas, then people will be able to recognize that this technology will make the satellite manufacturer of nuclear war in the war in an absolutely dominant position. 1961, Gagarin became the first man into space. Russians with his description of flying in the sky is not the angel, nor God. United States John F. Kennedy campaign's slogan is "New Frontier." He explained: "Once again we live In an era full of discovery. Space that we can not measure the new frontier. "For Kennedy, the Soviets were the first into space is" Over the years the U.S. experienced the most painful failure. "The only way out is to the offensive. In 1958 the U.S. established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and fired in the same year the first satellite "Explorer" number. 1962 John Glenn into Earth orbit to become the first American. Many scientists have been dangerous for manned space flight of the doubt, they are more willing to use aircraft to probe the solar system. The Americans were to achieve a breakthrough: three astronauts by "Apollo" spacecraft around the moon. In this context, the plan implemented in January 1969 the first two manned spacecraft docking of special significance . the 20th century 80's, the third generation of Soviet space station "Peace" orbital station reached its peak in space activities, all Americans feel envious. "Peace" as the "man-made temple", February 20, 1986 emission God, is by far the man in the long-running near-Earth space to the only manned orbital space station. It is connected with its relatively "quantum 1", "quantum 2", "crystal" cabin, "spectrum" space, " natural "class of the formation of a compartment weighing 140 tons, a large working volume of 400 cubic meters of space orbit of the Commonwealth. In this" small factory space "have been investigated in the Russian and 106 foreign astronauts to carry out the scientific exploration projects and more 2.2 million, 600 key projects. In "Peace" of the most interesting experiment is to extend the stay in space. extended stay in space, flying out of their cradle of the human Earth, towards Mars The most critical step in such objects, to solve this problem to be overcome weightlessness, cosmic radiation and in the psychological barriers of space and so on. Russian astronauts made significant progress in this area, including astronauts Polyakov "peace "was to create a single continuous flight record of 438 days, which can not but be regarded as the 20th century, an important outcome of aerospace history. In orbital station such as training on quail, salamanders, and a lot of wheat and other life sciences experiment. If the Mir space station as the third generation of human beings, belonging to the International Space Station is the fourth generation of the space station. International Space Station project will cost 600 billion, the largest so far of human manned space flight project. It is from the initial Finally, both the concept and launched the US-Soviet competition, the product of the year, but also the results of the current US-Russian cooperation, from the side reflects the history of a process. International Space Station program in 3 phases of implementation. The first stage is from 1994 The preparation phase is now complete. this period, mainly for a series of joint US-Russian manned space activities. United States Space Shuttle and the Russian "Peace" orbital station 8 and the common docking flight training of U.S. astronauts at the space station the ability to live and work; the second stage started from November 1998: Russia using the "Proton-K" rocket to the space station main deck - features cargo bay into orbit. It also bears a number of military experimental task, so the space only U.S. astronaut to use. JEM completion of the launch and docking, will mark the end of the second stage, when the station has begun to take shape, the long-term residence for three astronauts; third stage is to put the U.S. living spaces, the European Space Agency and Japan's JEM and Canadian mobile service system into space. When these compartments after docking with the space station, marks the final completion of the International Space Station assembly, when the astronauts on the station can be increased to 7 people. U.S. and Russian joint construction of the International Space Station-15, indicating a development of all countries in space exploration and the era of peace is coming. However, for decades the results of manned space activities is far from the space to meet their desire. "Still a long way off-Xi Yuan, Wu Jiang bottom and search", the human heart has always been the desire of the conquest of space and the determination of the peaceful uses of space resources. November 1998, the first human into Earth orbit, American astronaut, 77 year-old Glen with his ambition does not obliterate the space once again embarked on a journey, which seems to tell the man: if things go on, conquest of space is not a dream.
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