Acetylcholine (acetylcholine, ach) is a neurotransmitter, can act on specific types of cholinergic receptors, cholinesterase within the organization was quickly destroyed, and its role in a wide range, _select_ivity is not high. Clinically as a medicinal. In nerve cells, acetylcholine and choline acetyl-CoA by a shift in the enzyme choline acetyltransferase (choline acetyltransferase), the catalyst synthesis. As the enzyme present in the cytoplasm, the synthesis of acetylcholine in the cytoplasm, after synthesis and uptake by the vesicles stored. Norepinephrine synthesis by tyrosine as raw material, the first catalyst in the synthesis of tyrosine hydroxylase dopa, dopa decarboxylase in another (amino acids de-Jun enzyme) synthesize dopamine (catechol B amine), this second step is carried out in the cytoplasm; and uptake of dopamine into vesicles by the vesicle catalyzed by dopamine β-hydroxylase and further synthesis of norepinephrine, and stored in vesicles within. The synthesis of dopamine and norepinephrine Kyu-Min first two steps are exactly the same, but dopamine into vesicles in the synthesis of norepinephrine after it no longer, because the storage of dopamine in non-small-Tang dopamine β-hydroxylase. 5 - hydroxy tryptamine with tryptophan for the synthesis of raw materials, first in the tryptophan hydroxylase synthesize 5 - hydroxy tryptophan, and then in the 5 - hydroxytryptamine de-carboxylic acid enzyme (amino acid de-Jun enzyme) under the action of the 5-- HTP synthesis of 5 - hydroxytryptamine, this second step is carried out in the cytoplasm; then 5 - HT uptake into the vesicles was, and stored in vesicles within. γ-aminobutyric acid is glutamic acid catalysis in the synthesis of glutamic acid decarboxylase. Peptide neurotransmitters and other peptide hormones prime the synthesis of exactly the same, it is gene regulation, and through translation and ribosome synthesis. Into the synaptic cleft of acetylcholine in the synaptic membrane play a physiological role, you are cholinesterase hydrolysis into choline and acetic acid, so that the destruction of acetylcholine was to promote a role, a process called inactivation. Norepinephrine into the synaptic cleft and play a physiological role, the part was taken away by the blood circulation, and then be destroyed in the liver inactivation; another part of the effects of catecholamines in cells from the shift from the catecholamine-methyltransferase enzymes and monoamine oxidase destruction of the role of inactivation; but most are from the presynaptic membrane to norepinephrine reuptake at the presynaptic membrane recycling to the cytoplasm of the shaft and re-use it. 1914, ewins found in ergot acetylcholine, which is the first time in non-neuronal cells, acetylcholine found in the report. Subsequently, it gradually in a variety of bacteria, fungi, lower plants and higher plants found in acetylcholine and related enzymes and receptors. As the cholinergic system found in plants and in-depth study, it seems that at the molecular level is expected to be another similarity between animals and plants, which botanists with great enthusiasm into the research in this area. However, due to time constraints means of research, the lack of understanding the difference between animals and plants, and some studies in other laboratories is difficult to repeat the reason, making the plant more than the study of acetylcholine in the sporadic, non-system of the state, the depth of research and breadth of far less compared with the animals. So far, it has not been the mechanism in plants to propose a reasonable explanation. In recent years, we and several other laboratories abroad acetylcholine re-launched a physiological role in plants and mechanism studies, to reveal the mechanism of action of acetylcholine plants provides new clues Acetylcholine on the regulation of plant physiological processes Of metabolism, regulation of growth and development Seed germination of acetylcholine and acetylcholinesterase may be involved in regulation of certain plant seed germination and seedling early growth, acetylcholine affect these physiological processes may be involved in the mechanism of regulation of storage of plant material from the rapid growth of the hypocotyl parts transported. Acetylcholine on the need to light the germination of the studies have many conflicting reports. tretyn such as acetylcholine and its analogues in the study, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors on the germination of seeds of different photoperiod effects were found, both in light of these compounds in the dark or light insensitive seed germination of plants are not affected. However, in light can be light to promote seed germination, but no effect in the dark. For without the light seeds, acetylcholine inhibited germination in light, acetylcholine analogues choline on the process was not affected. Because acetylcholine and acetylcholinesterase in the seed widespread, it was justifiable to speculate that acetylcholine involved in regulation of seed germination, the mechanism may be involved in light regulation of seed in the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity. Growth effects of acetylcholine on growth due to the different experimental conditions, different plant species or the same plant tissue to another. Acetylcholine can simulate the role of red light inhibition of soybean lateral root development, but also can cause the growth of wheat seedlings and the dry weight increase. In in vitro tissue, acetylcholine can stimulate oat coleoptile and cucumber hypocotyl elongation and the growth of mung bean hypocotyls, stimulate the growth of broad bean hypocotyl and epicotyl inhibiting its growth. In short, acetylcholine effects on plant physiological processes and the use of tissue and is closely related to experimental conditions, the maximum effect in ph acidic region. Role of acetylcholine into the flower can simulate the role of red, far-red light to stimulate the inhibition of peroxidase activity increased, so that spinach under inducing conditions in non-flowering. Acetylcholine can inhibit the continuous light conditions (24 h light / 0 h dark) g1 of long-day duckweed flowering and non-stimulated short-day conditions induced by short-day duckweed torr of flowering. Atropine can inhibit the growth of Lemna minor under continuous light g3 flower and tube curare had no effect, indicating that acetylcholine on induction of flowering may be a class through the plasma membrane muscarinic receptor-mediated. Acetylcholine on the induction of flowering and it may also regulate ion permeability of the membrane. Photoperiodic induction of flowering effects related to changes in leaf membrane potential, acetylcholine may also affect the membrane potential by participating in flower induction. Acetylcholine respiration rate of oxygen consumption can cause an increase in root tip cells. jaffe free of mitochondria to the results obtained for the material has confirmed this. Accompanied by oxygen consumption, decreased tissue levels of atp 10 times, 14 times higher levels of free phosphate. This role of acetylcholine may be the respiratory electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation caused by coupling to resolve. Based on these experimental results, jaffe proposed acetylcholine on soybean root tip cells of the mode of action, that is, when intercellular acetylcholine concentration, the acetylcholine reaches its role in the target site, followed by secretion of protons, oxygen consumption and atp hydrolysis increased, while These processes are related to the increase in membrane cation permeability associated. Photosynthesis acetylcholine can not affect the case of electron transfer to the atp synthesis in chloroplasts decreased 80%. In addition, concentrations of less than 0.1 mmol acetylcholine can stimulate non-ring-type photosynthetic phosphorylation, whereas concentrations greater than 0.1 mmol ring when the non-photosynthetic phosphorylation is inhibited. In both cases, acetylcholine does not affect the nadp + reduction. Neostigmine (neostigmine) can inhibit the synthesis of atp, but does not affect the electrons from water to cytochrome f or nadp + delivery. Muscarine and atropine can also inhibit the nadp + reduction and non-ring-type photosynthetic phosphorylation. In addition, acetylcholine can also affect the in vitro chloroplast uptake of oxygen, inhibiting the expansion of light stimulation of the chloroplast; stimulate sodium and potassium ions flow from the chloroplast. Thus, acetylcholine may control chloroplast in the chloroplast membrane permeability of ions and electron transport and coupling between the synthesis of atp. And membrane permeability of the regulation of physiological process Field effects of red shed to promote the green beans and barley yellow apical adsorption to negatively charged glass wall, while the far-red light is released into the apical solution from Beibi. This phenomenon is known as the studio field effect (tanada effect). Acetylcholine in the dark can make the in vitro adsorption of soybean root tip to the negatively charged glass wall, and prevent the far-red light-induced apical from Beibi, acetylcholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine (eserine) to increase the organization of the acetylcholine the sensitivity. These instructions may be endogenous acetylcholine in the physiological processes controlling role. Red light can increase acetylcholine levels in the organization, the reason may be related to the formation of red for pfr, while the latter and acetylcholine synthesis. Tissue levels of acetylcholine can stimulate the proton flow from the root cells into the solution, to form the surface of the positive potential, which is adsorbed to the tip of the glass with a negatively charged inner wall; promote phytochrome far-red light from the far-red light absorption ( pfr) into the red absorption (pr), resulting in apical release from the glass wall into the solution. However, there are experiments that acetylcholine in the process is only about the role of monovalent cations. Leaf movement jaffe make acetylcholine may control the movement of Mimosa leaves. Large wing bean alfalfa is a common pasture, in strong light can drop their leaves in order to avoid high-intensity direct damage on the leaves. According to reports, the bright light from the tropical species than temperate species of leaves from drooping fast, light intensity decreased faster recovery after the sagging state. Determination of such a plant leaf tissue acetylcholine mattress results show that changes in the level of acetylcholine is closely associated with the leaves. From tropical species and changes in levels of magnitude larger, exogenous acetylcholine can recover it from sagging state. Further studies showed that the leaves change in the level of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase control, while acetylcholinesterase is mainly distributed in the surrounding vascular bundles, which speculated that acetylcholine may influence the ion out of the bundle, thereby affecting the water out and ultimately blade movement control. Membrane phospholipid metabolism of acetylcholine can influence plant lipid metabolism. If it can inhibit the incorporation of phosphorus into the yellow soybean stem segments of the phospholipid molecules, but mainly under aerobic conditions inhibit the incorporation of phosphatidyl ethanolamine phosphate and phosphatidyl choline, and in anaerobic conditions, inhibition of acetylcholine mainly phosphorus-doped into phosphatidylinositol. These results suggest that the phospholipids of plant and animal similarities between the phospholipids, acetylcholine can also affect plant phospholipid metabolism. Acetylcholine in the mechanism of plant cells Can stimulate protoplast swelling red yellow wheat mesophyll protoplasts volume expansion, such a stimulus for the subsequent reversal of the far-red light irradiation, indicating that this reaction is carried out under the control of phytochrome. Red light on protoplast volume expansion stimulus requires medium containing ca2 + [44]. Acetylcholine can replace the red light in the darkness caused by the expansion of protoplasts. Red light-induced reactions with different acetylcholine not only in the medium containing ca2 + caused swelling of protoplasts, and in or with na + k + medium can also cause swelling of protoplasts. In the acetylcholine-induced protoplast swelling during acetylcholine to receptors accepted signal transduction may be related to the ca2 + and cam, because the ca2 + channel blocker nitrendipine (nifedipine, nif) and la3 + can be completely inhibited acetylcholine-induced protoplast ca2 +-containing medium in the expansion. Similarly, inhibitors of calmodulin and g protein inhibitors have such a role, and these compounds with na + k + medium or no effect. Activity of acetylcholine in plants in addition to the mechanism involved in the regulation of membrane ion permeability, the plants may involve the regulation of some activity. Acetylcholine on lentils (lens culinaris) root growth inhibition and in vivo activity of peroxidase isozymes closely related, it can stimulate the activity of some isozymes inhibit the activity of some isozymes. Acetylcholine may also interact with endogenous gibberellin. It can be partially replaced by gibberellin-induced elongation of cucumber hypocotyl, but also can lead to free state in plants gibberellin levels increased, this increase can be off_set_ by atropine. Substantia nigra cell degeneration and necrosis of the reasons so far unknown, may be related to genetic and environmental factors. Some scholars believe that the protein, fruits, dairy products intake, alcohol, trauma, overwork and certain mental factors, may be risk factors for disease. Unexplained reduction of dopamine caused by paralysis agitans, in medicine called "essential tremor paralysis," that Parkinson's disease;
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Understanding of the human acetylcholine
1914, Ewins found in ergot acetylcholine, which is the first time in non-neuronal cells, acetylcholine found in the report. Subsequently, it gradually in a variety of bacteria, fungi, lower plants and higher plants found in acetylcholine and related enzymes and receptors. As the cholinergic system found in plants and in-depth study, it seems that at the molecular level is expected to be another similarity between animals and plants, which botanists with great enthusiasm into the research in this area. However, due to time constraints means of research, the lack of understanding the difference between animals and plants, and some studies in other laboratories is difficult to repeat the reason, making the plant more than the study of acetylcholine in the sporadic, non-system of the state, the depth of research and breadth of far less compared with the animals. So far, it has not been the mechanism in plants to propose a reasonable explanation. In recent years, we and several other laboratories abroad acetylcholine re-launched a physiological role in plants and mechanism studies, to reveal the mechanism of action of acetylcholine plants provides new clues
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乙酰胆碱对植物生理过程的调控
Acetylcholine and acetylcholinesterase may be involved in regulation of certain plant seed germination and seedling early growth, acetylcholine affect these physiological processes may be involved in the mechanism of regulation of storage of plant material from the rapid growth of the hypocotyl parts transported. Acetylcholine on the need to light the germination of the studies have many conflicting reports. Tretyn such as acetylcholine and its analogues in the study, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors on the germination of seeds of different photoperiod effects were found, both in light of these compounds in the dark or light insensitive seed germination of plants are not affected. However, in light can be light to promote seed germination, but no effect in the dark. For without the light seeds, acetylcholine inhibition of germination in light, acetylcholine analogues choline on the process was not affected. Because acetylcholine and acetylcholinesterase in the seed widespread, it was justifiable to speculate that acetylcholine involved in regulation of seed germination, the mechanism may be involved in light regulation of seed in the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity. Effects of acetylcholine on growth due to the different experimental conditions, different plant species or the same plant tissue to another. Acetylcholine can simulate the role of red light inhibition of soybean lateral root development, but also can cause the growth of wheat seedlings and the dry weight increase. In in vitro tissue, acetylcholine can stimulate oat coleoptile and cucumber hypocotyl elongation and the growth of mung bean hypocotyls, stimulate the growth of broad bean hypocotyl and epicotyl inhibiting its growth. In short, acetylcholine effects on plant physiological processes and the use of tissue and is closely related to experimental conditions, the maximum effect in the acidic pH region. 3 to take effect Acetylcholine can cause an increase in oxygen consumption rate of root tip cells. Jaffe mitochondria to free the results obtained for the material has confirmed this. Accompanied by oxygen consumption, tissue ATP levels decreased by 10 times, 14 times higher levels of free phosphate. This role of acetylcholine may be the respiratory electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation caused by coupling to resolve. Based on these experimental results, Jaffe proposed acetylcholine on soybean root tip cells of the mode of action, that is, when intercellular acetylcholine concentration, the acetylcholine reaches its role in the target site, followed by secretion of protons, oxygen consumption and ATP hydrolysis increased, while These processes are related to the increase in membrane cation permeability associated. Red light to promote the green beans and barley yellow apical adsorption to negatively charged glass wall, while the far-red light is released into the apical solution from Beibi. This phenomenon is known as the studio field effect (tanada effect). Acetylcholine in the dark can make the in vitro adsorption of soybean root tip to the negatively charged glass wall, and prevent the far-red light-induced apical from Beibi, acetylcholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine (eserine) to increase the organization of the acetylcholine the sensitivity. These instructions may be endogenous acetylcholine in the physiological processes controlling role. Acetylcholine in the mechanism of plant cells In the acetylcholine-induced protoplast swelling during acetylcholine to receptors accepted signal transduction may involve Ca2 + and CaM, because the Ca2 + channel blocker nitrendipine (nifedipine, NIF) and La3 + completely inhibited acetylcholine-induced protoplast Ca2 +-containing medium in the expansion. Similarly, inhibitors of calmodulin and G protein inhibitors have such a role, and these compounds in the Na + or K +-containing medium no effect. Parkinson's disease, also known as "paralysis agitans", is a degenerative disease of the central nervous system, mainly due to parts of the brain located in the "black mass" of cells in pathological changes, reducing the synthesis of dopamine, inhibition of acetylcholine function, the excitatory effect of acetylcholine is relatively enhanced. Imbalance between the two results will be a "tremor paralysis." The human brain has a large number of acetylcholine, but acetylcholine levels increase with age of decline. Normal elderly than the young decreased by 30%, while the more severe decline in Alzheimer's patients, up to 70% to 80%. Dr. Wu Teman observed in the U.S. elderly brain acetylcholine decrease, give older people to eat foods rich in choline, found a clear role to prevent memory loss. Britain and Canada, scientists have also conducted a study, agreed that as long as the control to supply sufficient choline, about 60 years old to avoid memory loss. Therefore, to maintain and improve the content of acetylcholine in the brain, is the fundamental way to solve the memory decline. In nature, the more acetylcholine to choline state exists in eggs, fish, meat, soybeans, and those from choline to biochemical reactions in the body only after the synthesis of a physiological activity of acetylcholine. In addition, regular use of royal jelly can increase brain levels of acetylcholine, thereby promoting activation of nerve conduction, improve information transmission speed, and enhance brain memory and comprehensively improve brain function, and can delay aging.