The Middle Ages are commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire (or by some scholars, before that) in the 5th century to the beginning of the Early Modern Period in the 16th century, marked by the rise of nation-states, the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion which allowed for the Columbian Exchange.
The Middle Ages witnessed the first sustained urbanization of northern and western Europe. Many modern European states owe their origins to events unfolding in the Middle Ages; present European political boundaries are, in many regards, the result of the military and dynastic achievements during this tumultuous period.
Medieval (Middle Ages) Middle Ages (about AD 476-AD 1453), was an era in European history (mainly in Western Europe), the Western Roman Empire (476 AD) the number of years later, in the world, dominated by the feudal system period until after the Renaissance (AD 1453), the period until the rise of capitalism. The term "Middle Ages" is from the late 15th century humanist use. Europe does not have a strong regime to rule this period. Feudal separatism brought frequent wars, resulting in the development of technology and productivity stagnation, people living in hopeless misery, so medieval or early Middle Ages in Europe generally known as the "Dark Ages", which is traditionally considered the history of European civilization relatively slow period. Also called the Ancient Medieval History, due to different concepts, origins and destinations of the world's ancient history in understanding different. Traditional domestic fixed upper limit on the past 476 years the Western Roman Empire, the lower limit for the 1640 British bourgeois revolution, it is revolutionary seizure of power as a standard dash, now more than not. Now textbooks as the lower limit of the late 15th century before the great geographical discovery, but the ceiling is still the fifth century. Feudal formation, development and disintegration is the main line of this period of European history. However, the development of feudal society around the world is unbalanced, when Western Europe in the 5th century, when feudal society just entered, China had 500 years ago at the end of a more than 1,000-year history of feudal society. (Note: This "feudal society" is not something we usually associated with "slave society, capitalist society" and compared the "feudal society", but to society under the feudal system is mainly the Xia, Shang, North Korea on Wednesday to most Western Zhou Dynasty. Typical Such social consistent with the European feudal society) Another view: Until the 9th century, the vast majority of Late Antiquity (Late Antiquity) scholars follow St. Augustine's view that human beings are at a historic sixth stage and final stage, the "Bible" in " Revelation "in prophecy," Doom ", and therefore there is a dark meaning; an historian generally accepted theory is that" Dark Ages "of the word, by the fourteenth century by the Italian Renaissance humanist scholar Petrarch invention. He traveled in Europe to rediscover and publishing classical Latin and Greek writings, aiming to restore the Roman classical Latin language, art and culture change since 2010 AD Four fall of Rome and what happened, that is not worth studying. Humanists do not look at the history of religious terminology by Augustine, but by the term social (school), that by classical culture, literature and art to look at history; therefore humanist development on this 900-year period of stagnation classical culture called "dark period." Petrarch the history of Europe is divided into two stages: First, the ancient Greek and Roman periods; second is the "dark ages." Humanists believe that one day the Roman Empire will rise again, to regain the purity of classical culture. Late 14th century and early 15th century, humanists believe that a modern period (Modern Age) has already begun, so logically speaking, a "medieval" has been formed. Thus, starting from the humanists, historians of the "dark period" and the "Middle Ages" is also more negative outlook. In the 16th century with the Protestant Reformation Christianity in the 17th century, the Catholic Protestants have written this history of corruption. The accusations against the Protestants, Catholic reformers and also gives a "dark period" opposite picture: a period of social and religious harmony, is not darkness. While the "Dark Ages", many modern negative perceptions from the 17th and 18th century Enlightenment in the works of Kant and Voltaire. Early 19th century, the Romantic movement to change this negative concept "dark period" one-sided trend. It gives a picture of harmony: a harmonious society and the environment, rooted in the life of nature; while also responded to Enlightenment rationalism completely beyond rational inductive approach, as well as the emerging industrial revolution brought environmental damage and pollution. Romantics treat "dark period" point of view, you can still celebrate today, some cultural events and festivals that period, as demonstrated by historical events occurred out of customs and see. Romantic genre painting of the 19th century after exercise half of archeology take a lot of progress, many not previously known to scholars of historical documents and artifacts have been excavated and sorted out. The 1939 discovery of around 625 AD epiphyseal Sutton (Sutton Hoo) Baoku well-known scholar of medieval studies Charlie Haskins (Charles H. Haskins) study found that making the "Dark Ages" looks are no longer an appropriate vocabulary. After the mid-20th century, professional scholars of literature in English-speaking countries, the "dark ages" of the word gradually disappear. Charlie Haas Kim wrote: "historical continuity between excluded Medieval and Renaissance historical period followed by two huge differences in the likelihood of Modern research shows that not once thought of the Middle Ages so dark, nor is it So stagnation; Renaissance is not so bright, not so suddenly before the Italian Renaissance, a similar movement, even if it is not so widely spread. Therefore, the original "Medieval Dark Ages" is now being replaced by specifically refers to the year 410 (or 455) to AD 754 (or 800 years) period of European history.
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History
As the Western Roman Empire was destroyed by the Germans, have appeared in a number of barbarian countries. There have been Frank, Lombard, Aoduoyake, Burgundy, the Vandals Alain, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, such as the establishment. Wars between kingdoms, including the Kingdom of Anglo-Sa Johnson, Frank existed a long time. As a Germanic Franks, defeated the Gallic army in 486, established by the Clovis Merovingian rule. Clovis by the Holy See and the United occupied the entire territory of the Roman Empire in Gaul. With the continuous expansion of the Frankish kingdom, to the mid-sixth century, conquered Burgundy, Thuringia, Bavaria and some tribes Sa Johnson, became the most powerful country in Western Europe, and established a system of feudal fief. 751 years, the Palace Pepin became king of the Franks, the establishment of the Carolingian dynasty. During the reign of Charlemagne national reach height, the annexation of the Kingdom of Lombard, capturing the Spanish border, occupied East Bavaria, conquest Avar Khanate, most of the land in Western Europe have become the territory of the Kingdom of the Franks. After the death of Charlemagne, the Frankish kingdom split occurred brothers war, signed the "Treaty of Verdun" in 843 countries divided by August West Frankish kingdom, East Frankish Kingdom and the Kingdom of Italy, a modern French, German and Italian territory is With this treaty-based. Also an Anglo-Germanic people, Saxons, Jutes in the middle of the 5th century into the British Isles, in the 6th century and early 7th century, formed the seven kingdoms, known as the era of British history seven countries. 829 years, the annexation of the Kingdom of Wessex other six kingdoms, was born in England (England). 1066, Duke William of Normandy, France kinship to inherit the throne, after being rejected by force captured the king of the place, known as "William the Conqueror" (ie, William I), established the Norman dynasty, but it also causes the roots of the future of the Hundred Years War. In Henry I (1100 - 1135) during the reign, with the strengthening of royal power, social conflicts. 1215 John (no king) was forced to sign the "Magna Carta." During the civil war in 1264, and Henry III was Simon. Germany. Montfort prisoners. 1265 Montfort summoned Congress, become the beginning of the British Parliament. From 1343 onwards, the upper house of parliament and representatives into a knight by the nobles, the lower house of the people, established a parliamentary monarchy. Meanwhile, the West Frankish kingdom evolved into the kingdom of France, and to strengthen the monarchy, the Vatican was forced to move to Avignon in southern France, and held three meetings from top to bottom (level to senior clerics, two of aristocracy, three for wealthy people), also formed a parliamentary monarchy. German East Frankish kingdom predecessor local government is very powerful. 911 years after the end of the Carolingian kings elected by local dignitaries, but more fame, the king's rights and equality of local leaders. This feature is believed to be the reason of its historians interested in foreign expansion. In 951, Otto I the army occupied the Lombard region, followed by Otto II into Rome. 1155 Frederick I captured Milan, for the coronation of Pope became the Holy Roman Empire, during the heyday of the German territory includes the whole territory, in Italy, in northern Sicily, Czech Republic, Switzerland, Estonia, Prussia. Frederick I was in 15 cities combined resistance (ie, the Lombard League), and was defeated. Frederick I in the Third Crusade drowned, in the occupied territories have also independently.
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Culture
Medieval Gothic cathedral glass pattern Italy has been unable to unify the Roman Pontiff in order to maintain their independent status, the establishment of the Papal States, and forged a "gift of Constantine" document, claiming that the Roman Emperor Constantine the city that year, the Lateran Palace and other places to Pope. Church rule is very strict and controlled the Western European culture and education. Priests can not marry, advocates abstinence, everything to God asking people to heaven after death, on the other hand simony phenomenon is very serious. Preach the Trinity, original sin, etc. scholasticism, and strictly control the dissemination of scientific thought, and the establishment of the Inquisition to punish heresy, schools are also to serve theology. Pope high column in the grid I (590 - 604) dynasties, the ancient Roman libraries have been burned. After the Reformation in Germany, Italy produced the Renaissance, and extended to many European countries. This is the emergence of a number of philosophers, writers, artists and scientists, like Dante, Boccaccio, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Machiavelli, Shakespeare, plug Cervantes, Copernicus, Bruno, Galileo, Kepler, Harvey, Francis Bacon, and so on.
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Economy
When the economy is mainly medieval feudal system manor natural economy. Emergence of a number of commercial cities: Paris, Lyon, are Ernai, Marseille, Cologne, Trier, Strasbourg, Hamburg, Venice, Genoa, etc., forming a Mediterranean-centered trade zone. After the 16th century, the rise of a handicraft workshop, originally of Florence, followed by Flanders, while the British enclosure movement so rapidly. This economic model has accelerated the trade, which occurred in the geographical discovery, discovery of the New World. Handicraft workshop war also produced a leap in weapons, artillery and muskets gradually replaced the knight sword, but also the loss of the old castle defenses. The workshop handicraft industry spawned a capitalist economy. In the late Middle Ages, various manual operations by individual industries, and gradually evolved into the establishment of trade unions, "professional" concept sprouted during this period.
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Military
Medieval castle in Europe, feudal society, feudal lords, large and small kings, nobles and riding the soil like a pyramid-like hierarchy, but their powers and obligations are limited, "My vassal vassal is not my vassal "This complex hierarchical relationships makes the country a long time in the European feudal separatist state, and the East China" world, Wang soil; rate of soil Sea, WANG Chen, "the centralized feudal autocratic monarchy different. States rulers are still ongoing war, looting mutual annexation, many countries have no uniform solid regime. With the feudal landlords and the regime of land ownership for farmers exploitation. In Europe, the Christian Church has become a tool of feudal rule, they jointly maintain and secular feudal lords feudal system. Peasants and serfs to the feudal lords of labor is labor, in-kind rent, taxes and numerous church "tithing" and other forms of misappropriation. Peasant revolt continued, but generally small-scale uprising, there has not been as numerous as the Chinese peasant war to overthrow the mass of a dynasty. Medieval war by fighting organization rambling groups in need to use on the battlefield strategy and mobilize mutual confrontation, conflict, and then evolved step by step. Evolution of the one part, reflected in the development of different branches of the military and weapons, and how to use them. Early armies of the Dark Ages, a group of unorganized foot soldiers. After the rise of heavy cavalry, the best military organization is a group of no knight. Walking along the soldiers would damage farmland, in wartime siege will cause a greater blow. However, when in combat, knights and their enemies will try to make one of the belligerents, and foot soldiers turn sandwiched between two sides of a knight. Such tactics are actually very dangerous, because the early medieval foot soldiers, mostly under the feudal system was conscripted peasants, who had no combat training. Archer is applicable in the siege, but on the battlefield, too dangerous to risk being eliminated. By the late 14th century, a knight commander to strengthen discipline in the armed forces so that they can bring the team together. But in the British army, despite Longbowmen on many battlefields proved their worth, but the Knights did not give them too much attention to the shooter. Discipline but also to a growing number of knights fighting for reward, loyalty and honor rare for the combatants. Mercenaries fighting in Italy, but few long-term damage is known. During this period, all classes are army soldiers as_set_s, will not be easily abandoned. This makes the pursuit of a glorious past feudal army, becoming only interested in how much compensation they will receive professional army. Cavalry will be divided into three special teams or three parts, and then pick a team, a team Xianming combat. The first wave of attacks will break through or break up the enemy, then the second or third wave of attacks could be uniform. Once the enemy fled, it can be killing or capture. In fact, the Cavaliers take individual action if, for any commander's plan is a lot of damage. Knight is most concerned about loyalty, honor and the first ranks of the position of the rider in the class team. To fight for personal glory, obtain comprehensive victory on the battlefield but become secondary. After the beginning of combat on the battlefield, it will not be long before the Knights attack what they see as the enemy, this would have destroyed the whole battle plan. When necessary, under the command of Commander of the Knights from immediately removed, is the best means to control their. This is a small army general in a way, because few would expect the performance of these knights in combat. Knight unloading array down fighting force can strengthen timely and boost the morale of the army general on foot. These foot soldiers, knights and the rest will be used in the rear of the slowing Diji staking assault, combat or other field fortifications. 1346 Chris Battle, is an example of the knight without discipline behavior. At that time the French army outnumbered the British Army (forty thousand to ten thousand), and has a lot of knights. Britons put Longbowmen divided into three teams to the battlefield under protection standard pile. In between these three teams, two teams remove the horse knight, while the third team were removing the horse knight reserved for wannabees. Knights under the command of the King of France will _set_ compiled into three parts, and the heat that is assigned Northrop employment archers to shoot British knight, but the crossbow was not wet sky effect. In addition, the French knight and ignore His Holiness the organization's efforts in the war shortly after, saw the enemy immediately furious, shouting mouth over and over again: "Kill kill ah ah!!" As the king of France that can not stand the heat North Arrow misalignment on people again, he commands the Knights ahead and knock it in front of them hot North crossbow. The battle lasted all day, and finally by the British knights and Longbowmen (they keep their bowstring dry) defeated those riding horses but undisciplined combat, chaotic French knight. To the late medieval era, the value of heavy cavalry on the battlefield than in the past, several hiking and projection forces and the army is no different. During this period, people have to understand how to deploy attack prudential reasons for failure are still important and infantry training. Rules of warfare has changed, staking, horses traps and trenches are often used as a protective tool army to resist cavalry attacks. If the cavalry for a large number of various levels of pikemen and archers (or guns hand) make an attack, it will only produce a lot of traumatized horses and cavalry. Knight will be forced to fight on foot, or waiting for the right time to attack. Only the enemy on the move, confusion, or out from the temporary field fortifications in the past cases, devastating attack to work.
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Religion
Medieval "Bible" Pope position in order to maintain their independence, the establishment of the Papal States, and forged a "gift of Constantine" document, claiming that the Roman Emperor Constantine the city that year, the Lateran Palace and other places to Pope. Church rule is very strict and controlled the Western European culture and education. Priests can not marry, advocates abstinence, everything to God asking people to heaven after death, on the other hand simony phenomenon is very serious. Preach the Trinity, original sin, etc. scholasticism, and strictly control the dissemination of scientific thought, and the establishment of the Inquisition to punish heresy, schools are also to serve theology. Pope high column in the grid I (590 - 604) dynasties, the ancient Roman libraries have been burned. Launched eight Crusades. Religious persecution of science Since AD 312 Constantine announced the legalization of Christianity, Christians were persecuted changed from persecutor. They are not hostile to all things biblical, including new ideas and science. There are many great thinkers and scientists being persecuted Christians in history. To the Middle Ages, it appeared the Holy See, "the Inquisition" and Calvin's "Inquisition" and other legitimate institutions persecution so-called "heresy." 1 Copernicus: the famous Italian astronomer, author of "celestial bodies", was brutally persecuted church. May 20, 1543, died. 2 adhere to Copernicus' heliocentric "Bruno, the first to be put in prison, when he heard the verdict, without blinking an eye to this gang brutal executioner contemptuously said:" When you read the fear of judgment, than I am to much larger fire. "after February 17, 1600 was burned Fiori in Rome. 3 Xibotiya (375-415) is the history of the first known female mathematician. When Gibbon described in the "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," said: "She pulled the car down, stripping the clothes to the naked, to be towed to the church, a group of brutal and inhuman fanatics, with her sharp oyster exploited by the meat on the bone down, hands and feet cut off, thrown into the flames. 4 Galileo: Italian scientist. Due to defend the scientific truth, in 1633 the Inquisition persecuted, 1642 died of disease, for the time being blind. 5 Greek female mathematician Haipaxiya, insisted the dissemination of scientific knowledge, be subjected to corporal punishment mob put fire. 6 Scientists say fossil 帕利西 because the remains of animals instead of "Creator of the game", is death. "Inquisition" and sentenced. 7 Servette in the "revival of the Christian faith," a book made of blood circulation insights are roasted over two hours after death; 8 Belgian physiologist Vesalius, as published in the anatomy book, "body structure", in 1564 was forced to go to the Holy Land - Jerusalem repentance, way back in the victims; 9 Amory: Professor of the University of Paris, in 1210, due to be aired pantheism chase after the death of the trial, the grave was dug, all ten disciples were executed. 10 Sickl: Professor of the University of Paris, due to the physics of speech so-called heresy, was killed church alive.
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Disease
The first pandemic The first is called the Justinian plague pandemic, there were two, occurred in 540 years to 590 years. No definite statistics how many people have died, but most believe that this disease leads to about 2,500 deaths in the Eastern Mediterranean. The plague weakened the Byzantine Empire, Justinian attempted to restore the glory of the Roman Empire and therefore failed dreams. The second pandemic Black Death in 1346 to 1350 a large-scale attack in Europe, led to a sharp decline in the European population, the mortality rate as high as 30%. Black Death is believed to be caused by the Mongols. About 1347, between Crimea and trade vessels Genoa Messina (Sicily) brings between infected black rats or fleas, and soon spread to Genoa and Venice, 1348 epidemic and biography France, Spain and the United Kingdom, 1348 - 1350 and then spread to East Germany and Scandinavia, and finally reached the northwestern Russia in 1351. Estimated that approximately 25 million deaths in Europe, and Europe, Asia, Africa, then a total of about 55 million to 75 million deaths in this epidemic in. Was unable to find treatments, use only way to stop the epidemic spread of isolation. After the fifteenth, sixteenth century Black Death repeatedly re-invasion of Europe; but mortality and solemn Emotion is gradually declining. Some people think that this a serious blow to the Black Death of the traditional social structure in Europe, weakening the feudal forces and the church, indirectly contributed to the later Renaissance and Reformation.
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Favorite Investment
A basic feature of Christian art. Romanesque art features almost all Roman art, especially the plastic arts, reflects the idea of a grand and powerful skills. Romanesque architecture with spatial processing features carved by the body's overall impact. On the commemorative sculpture to vigorous, vigorous style as the main feature, highlighting a sense of solemn and sacred feeling, which is the back wall of the small window Romanesque architecture, forceful style is consistent solid. In the mural, there is a tendency to anti-arrogance sculpture style. In the manuscript illustration, you can see there is a tendency to follow the line style sculpture, abstract composition lines, resulting in deformation of the image and style of the. Two. Features Gothic art Gothic art in Europe in the 12th century by the early 16th century. He new construction as the main form of art, including sculptures, paintings and arts and crafts. In architecture, building an anti-Gothic Romanesque style thick dark semicircular arches, domes are thick lines brisk pointed arch, interior styling as an important means to create a biochemical upward, heaven illusion of infinite mystery . Three. Byzantine art features from the 4th century AD to 15th century AD, to Constantinople (ie the ancient Greek city of Byzantium) as the center of the Byzantine Empire (ie Eastern Roman Empire) and the Christian art of combining official to worship the emperor promote Christian theology as the core content. In the shape of artistic expression is characterized by the art form of the late Roman and oriental art forms in Asia Minor, Egypt, Syria, centered combine with a strong oriental flavor. Decoration in architecture, such as the Hagia Sophia and the central dome inside the magnificent structure, reflecting the spirit of the ruling authority of the theocracy. In medieval European art had a great impact. And the intersection of bondage, the late Byzantine art tend formulaic in style, conceptualization. 4th century AD to 15th century AD, Byzantine art combines 古西雅 artistic style, the building will be classical Greek column, the grand style of Roman architecture and art of Asia Minor interior features re-integration, and clearly reflects the monarchy any super power Christian theocracy and mysticism aesthetics. In the reliefs, frescoes and decorative mosaic also shows these characteristics. Islamic art of brewing and the birth of Islam appeared in the world's three major religions later, but once appeared on the show cohesion. In architecture, painting and arts and crafts, the Islamic Art created a unique system. In a glorious history of world art and brilliant page. Islamic art and design of the nation, a lot of countries and regions, South Asia, West Asia and here only the achievements in this regard. Islamists claiming to be Muslim means: Allah, obey the prophet who convert. Muslims believe: Where in the city is good faith in Allah who afterlife heaven. Where in the city do not believe in Allah those evil afterlife hell. Is on this basis, the birth of Islamic art and create their own characteristics. Formally, fine neat, gorgeous delicate art of Islam manifested in the specific characteristics of the object; in the content, inclusiveness and continuity are the salient features of Islamic art. He was in the process of development, such as Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Persian Empire, the rest of the Kingdom, the Kingdom of Sasanian, Central Asia and India in particular, the impact of art, formed its own style. • basic characteristics of Islamic art Islamic decoration process in the United States and Islam in the process, unique decorative patterns, known for its decorative craft in the core manifestations. Whether it is to avoid the decoration, or plant dyeing; either glass ceramics, jade or ivory, are regarded as thrush, Wealthy, with Islam is fantasy patterns. Islamic decorative patterns seem to be limited continuation of infinite space and facilities to make the changes in line with the wonders of nature, constitutes the famous "Arabesque" in decorative patterns. Islamic decorative patterns can be broadly divided into three categories, namely, geometric patterns, decorative patterns plant patterns and text. The patterns of organization, take covered the entire dance technique, with "slow", "flat", "uniform" of the decorative features, delicate without harassment, without substantial congestion, without correction for gorgeous, neat without Carpenter gas. Islamic decorative, especially in the construction of the mosque wall painted ornaments and floor mosaics, geometric patterns using a very wide range. Islamic geometric patterns characteristic is circular, triangular, square or prismatic as the foundation, said the 90-degree or 60-degree cross each other, and thus form a variety of volatile and complex geometric patterns. Plant patterns are representative of the Islamic Interlocking pattern.