• Sir Isaac Newton, the British Royal Society, (sirisaacnewtonfrs, 1643 年 1 月 4 ~ March 31, 1727 was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher and alchemist. He In the 1687 paper, "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", the three laws of motion of gravity and are described. These descriptions lay the next three centuries the scientific point of view the physical world, and became the basis for modern engineering. He Kepler's laws of planetary motion by demonstrating his theory of gravity and consistency between, showing the movement of ground and celestial objects have followed the same law of nature; thus eliminating the last vestiges of heliocentric concerns, and to promote scientific revolution. In mechanics, Newton explained and angular momentum conservation principle. in optics, he invented the reflecting telescope, and will be based on the prism divergence into the visible spectrum white light observation, developed a theory of color. He Also the system representation of the law of cooling and studied the speed of sound. In mathematics, Newton and Gottfried Leibniz • develop shared the honor of calculus. He also proved that the generalized binomial theorem, presented the "Newton" to approach the zero function, and has contributed to the research of power series. In 2005, the Royal Society had a "history of science who is the most influential people" in the opinion polls Newton is considered more influential 比阿尔伯特 • Albert Einstein.
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Early life
However, according to Newton's contemporaries and friends William • Stickley (william stukeley) book "the life of Sir Isaac Newton • Memoirs" (memoirs of sir isaac newton's life) a description of the book, Stickley died in Newton visited Vincent (vincent) his wife, which is the current Miss Newton's lover Stoller. Vincent called the name of his wife Catherine, and not Anne, her sister Anne (see arthur storer), and his wife, said Newton boarding only when she is only "cherished feelings," the extent of it. From 12-year-old to 17 years, King high school in Newton, on the windowsill in the school library then you can see his signature. He had dropped out from school, and in October 1659 returned to Els Thorpe Village, because of his widowed mother again when a farmer wanted to Newton. Newton Although the meaning of submissive mother, but later, according to Newton's description of the peer, farming work to Newton's quite happy. Fortunately, the principal of King Henry Middle School • Stokes (henry stokes) persuaded Newton's mother, Newton was again returned to school to complete his studies. He completed high school at age 18 the school, and has been a perfect graduation report. June 1661, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. At that time, the faculty based on Aristotle's doctrine, but Newton preferred to read a number of other modern philosophers, Descartes and Galileo, Copernicus and Kepler and other astronomers of more advanced thinking. In 1665, he discovered the generalized binomial theorem, and begin to develop a new mathematical theory, later known as the world calculus. In 1665, Newton received his degree, and the University of London in order to prevent plague and closed. Over the next two years, Newton continued to study at home, calculus, optics and universal gravitation.
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Middle life
Mathematics Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz independently developed the calculus, and worked to create their own unique symbol. Described according to the people around Newton, Newton few years earlier than Leibniz derived his method, but in 1693 he almost did not make any previous content, and until 1704 he was given the integrity of its narrative. Meanwhile, Leibniz published in 1684 a full description of his method. In addition, Leibniz's notation and "differential method" is a comprehensive use of the European continent, in about 1820, the British also used this method. Leibniz's notebooks recording his thoughts from the early to the mature development process, known in the records of Newton found his only final results. Newton claimed that he has been reluctant to publish his calculus because he afraid of people laughing. Newton and the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio • • Dürer (nicolas fatio de duillier) very close contact, which at the out_set_ to be attracted to Newton's law of gravitation. 1691, Durer intended to write a new version of Newton's "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy," but never completed it. Some of Newton's biographer, that their relationship may exist between the components of love. However, in 1694 the relationship between the two men cooled down. At that time, Leibniz Dürer also exchanged a few letters. Newton, a widely recognized achievement is the generalized binomial theorem, which applies to any power. He discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classification of the cubic curve (polynomial of two variables), the finite difference made a significant contribution to the theory, and the first to use fractional indices and coordinate geometry are the Diophantine equation solution. He used several approaches on the part of the harmonic series, and (this is a precursor to Euler's summation formula), and the first time, be sure to use the power series and reverse (revert) power series. He also found a new formula for π. In 1669 he was awarded the Lucas Professor of Mathematics seats. On that day ago, Cambridge or Oxford, after all the members are appointed by the Anglican priest. However, Lucas Professor conditions require the holder of the post shall not be active in the church (presumably so allows the holder to devote more time to scientific research.) Newton thought he was the clergy should be exempt from the conditions of work, which requires the permission of Charles II, who accepted the views of Newton. This avoids the Newton's religious views and Anglican faith conflict. Optical From 1670 to 1672, Newton is responsible for teaching optics. During this period, he studied the refraction of light, that white light can be divergent as the prism color spectrum, while the lens and the second prism color spectrum can be reconstituted as the white light. He also isolated monochromatic beam of light through, and its exposure to different objects on the experiment, found a shade does not change its nature. Newton also notes that both the reflection, scattering or emission, will remain the same color shade. Therefore, we observed the object with a specific color is a shade consistency of results, rather than the color of objects produced results. Newton that light is composed of particles or particles, and will accelerate the adoption of optical density due to the refraction of the media, but he also had to link them with waves to explain the phenomenon of light diffraction. And its future generations of physicists is more preferred to a pure interpretation of light diffraction. Modern quantum mechanics, photons and wave-particle duality of thinking and understanding of Newton's only a small light in the same point. 1704, Newton's book as "optics", in which he details the particle theory of light. He believes that light is composed of very small particles, while the ordinary matter is composed of coarse particles, and speculated that if by some alchemical transformation "Is another matter and light can not change it? Material can not enter the structure by the light particles are the main driving force (activity) it? Newton also created using the original form of the glass ball friction electrostatic generators. Mechanics and gravity 1679, Newton returned to the study of mechanics: gravity and the role of planetary orbits, Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and the Hooke and Flamsteed on the mechanics of the discussion. He attributed his achievements in the "motion of objects in orbit" (1684) book, the book contains the initial and later in the "principle" in the form of laws of motion. "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (now often referred to as a "principle") in Edmund Halley • encouragement and support was published in July 5, 1687. Newton described the book in the next two centuries have been regarded as the truth of the three laws of motion. Newton used the Latin word "gravitas" (heavy) to the current gravity (gravity) named and defined the law of gravity. In this book, he also proposed based on Boyle's law determination of the first analysis method of the speed of sound in air. As the "principle" of the achievements of Newton received international recognition and earned him a large group of supporters: Newton and one of the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio • Durer • established a very close relationship, until 1693 rupture of their friendship. The end of this friendship, so that Newton suffered a nervous breakdown.
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Timeline
January 1643 4 (lunar calendar December 25, 1642) was born in Lincolnshire ur Thorpe. 1655, 12 years old 入格兰瑟姆 secondary school. 19, 1661 June 15 entry to Trinity College, Cambridge. 1665, 24-year-old discovered the binomial theorem. 1665 ~ 1666, 24-year-old returned home because of the plague epidemic, to optics, mechanics, mathematics there are many research and breakthroughs. 1668 reflecting telescope made of 26-year-old. 1669, 27, of "equation of items made with infinite analysis", he was Professor Lucas. 1700, 57, invented the sextant. 1671, 29, a "flow number and methodology of the series." 29 years old in January 1672 was elected member of the Royal Society, read "On the theory of light and color," the papers. Halle 42, 1684 meeting show that the inverse square law of gravity. 1686 ~ 1687 44 years of "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy." 47-year-old mother died in 1689 March 20, 1727 death of 80-year-old.
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Newton's achievements
Mechanical contribution The work of Galileo, Newton and others on the basis of an in-depth research, summed up the three basic laws of movement of objects (Newton Three Laws): ① any object without force or the force is zero when the external force to maintain the original Some of the same state of motion, namely, the continuation of the original static stationary, the original motion to continue for the uniform linear motion. ② any object in the external force, the motion state change, the rate of change of momentum with time together with the force proportional to suffer. Usually expressed as: object acceleration and suffered a combined force proportional to its mass is inversely proportional to the direction of the acceleration force in the same direction and cooperation. ③ When the object A to object B of a force, the object B to object A must while a reaction force, action and reaction are equal and opposite, but along the same line. These three very simple laws of motion of objects, in order to lay a solid foundation for mechanics, and the development of other subjects had a tremendous impact. The contents of the first law have been made by Galileo, Descartes was later made a formal r. improvement, Galileo also informally referred to the contents of the second law. The third law of Newton in the summary of the content is c • Rennes, j • c • Wallis and Huygens, and others after the results obtained. Newton was the discoverer of the law of gravity. 1665 ~ 1666 he began to consider this issue. 1679, r • Hook wrote in his letter suggested that gravity should be inversely proportional to the square of the distance, high Earth orbit is elliptical projectile, assuming the Earth joints, projectile will return to the original place, rather than Newton envisioned the track tends to spiral center of the earth. Newton did not reply, but with a Hook's view. In Kepler's laws of planetary motion and research of others, he mathematically derived the law of gravity. Newton's mechanics to objects on Earth and celestial mechanics into a unified system of basic mechanics, the creation of a theoretical system of classical mechanics. Macroscopic objects correctly reflects the movement of low-speed movement of the macro, the natural sciences to achieve the first major unification. This is the understanding of human nature, a leap. Newton pointed out that the viscous resistance is proportional to the shear rate. He said: fluid lubrication between the parts caused by lack of resistance, if the other are the same, and fluid separation between the parts is proportional to the speed. To comply with this law is now called the Newtonian fluid flow, including the most common water and air, does not meet this rule is called non-Newtonian fluids. In the given plate in the air suffered in drag, Newton on the gas using the particle model, the angle of attack by the resistance and the square is proportional to the sine. Generally speaking, this conclusion is not correct, but because of the authority of Newton, and their descendants had long regarded as a creed. Of the 20th century, t • Carmen In conclusion, the development of aerodynamics had quipped a century later Newton God of the aircraft. On the speed of sound, Newton rightly pointed out that the square root of sound speed and atmospheric pressure, and density is inversely proportional to the square root. However, he isothermal sound propagation as a result does not match with the actual, and later p.-s. Laplace considered from the adiabatic process, the speed of sound Newton correction formula. The contribution of mathematics Since the 17th century, the original geometry and algebra have been difficult to resolve production and natural science was raised many new questions such as: how to calculate the instantaneous velocity and acceleration of an object? How to find the length of the curve tangent and the curve (the planet distance), sagittal diameter swept the area, minimax value (such as the perihelion, aphelion, the maximum range, etc.), volume, center of gravity, gravity, etc.; Although Newton ago There on the number, analytic geometry, infinite series and other achievements, but still can not satisfactorily resolve these problems, or generally. Descartes was the "geometry" and Wallis's "infinite arithmetic," the greatest impact on the Newton. Newton since the ancient Greek problem of solving the infinitesimal unity of the various types of special method algorithm: the number of positive flow cytometry (differential) and the number of reflux surgery (points), reflected in the 1669's, "the use of unlimited number of equations", 1671's "Stream number of patients and Infinite Series," 1676 "curve Quadrature technique" three papers and the "principle", a book, and was preserved in October 1666 he wrote in an article circulated among friends manuscript "On the flow number" in the. The so-called "flow" is the change over time as the independent variables x, y, s, u, etc., "flow number" is the change in flow rate that the rate of change and writing. He said the "slip," "change rate" is the differential. At the same time, he also announced his 1676 invention of the first binomial expansion theorem. Newton also found that the use of other infinite series, and used to calculate the area of integration, solving equations and so on. 1684 Leibniz Research from the tangent of the curve and stretched introduced as calculus symbols s, from Newton created calculus rapidly expanded in the continent. The emergence of calculus has become the development of mathematics and algebraic geometry, in addition to another important branch outside - Mathematical Analysis (Newton called the "infinite number of equations by means of the analysis"), and further enter into the development of differential geometry, differential equation, variational method, etc., which in turn promote the development of theoretical physics. For example, the Bernoulli Swiss j. has sought answers to the most rapid fall curve, which is the most original variational problem, mathematicians in Europe within six months no one can answer. In 1697, one day by chance heard of the matter of Newton, was solved in one fell swoop the night, and published anonymously in the "philosophy of" on. Bernoulli's amazement, said: "From this sharp claws, I recognized the lion." Newton on the basis of the previous work, that "flow number (fluxion) law," the binomial theorem, and almost simultaneously, and gw Leibniz created calculus, obtained derivative, integral concept and algorithms, illustrates the derivation and solution of the two points are mutually inverse operations, the development of mathematics has opened a new era. Optical contribution Thermal contribution Newton's law of cooling determined that when the temperature difference between surface and around, the unit of time from the heat loss per unit area is proportional to this temperature. Contribution to astronomy Newton created a reflecting telescope in 1672. He proved that with the gravitational force between particles, the density was spherically symmetric gravitational sphere of external quality can be used with the position of the particle in the center instead. He also used the principle that gravitational tidal phenomena, pointed out that the size of the tides with the moon phase is not only relevant, but also the orientation with the sun on. Newton predicted that the Earth is not a positive sphere. Precession of the equator, the sun is the prominent part of the perturbation caused. The contribution of philosophy "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy," Newton's most important writings, published in 1687. The book summarizes many important findings in his life and research, including the above-mentioned laws on the movement of objects. He said the book "The research is mainly on the heavy and light fluid movement of resistance and other attractive force of conditions, so we are studying the mathematical principles of natural philosophy." The book was introduced to China, the Chinese mathematician Li Shan-Ian has translated part of, but not publishing, translation is also lost. Chinese version is available too Cheng Park mathematician translation, the title "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy," first published in 1931, Commercial Press, 1957,1958 reprinted two years. Newton's interest in nature As Newton was at Cambridge the influence of mathematics and natural sciences and culture, explore the natural phenomenon of great interest. In 1665 ~ 1666, within two years, he thought in the field of natural science Pentium, talent burst forth, thinking never thought about the previous question, enter the areas not covered by their predecessors, creating an unprecedented amazing performance. Early 1665 he founded the series approximation of the binomial and to any power into a series of rules. In the same year in November, the creation of positive flow counting method (differential); the following year in January, study color theory; May, began to study the number of reflux (integrated). This year, the Newton also began to think of gravity problems, and want to promote the theory of gravity up to the moon's orbit. He also deduced from Kepler's laws of planetary mission to keep the force in their tracks and they will square of the distance to the center of rotation is inversely proportional. See Newton's falling apple and realize the legend of gravity, that is also occurring at this time anecdotes. In short, the past two years living at home in Newton to be more than any time since the energy of creation in science and natural philosophy concerned with the problem. Thus, Newton's great scientific thought his life was in his youth, during the birth just two years of sharp thinking, germination and formation. Newton's return to Cambridge in 1667, was elected October 1 Trinity College Institute Zhong Lu, elected the following year on March 16 are hospital companion. Barrow on time in order to have full understanding of Newton's. October 27, 1669 would allow only 26 years old Barrow, Newton succeeded him as Lucasian professor. Newton put his optical lectures (1670 ~ 1672), arithmetic and algebra notes (1673 ~ 1683), "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (hereinafter referred to as "principle"), the first part (1684 ~ 1685), and " cosmic system "(1687) and other manuscripts to the Cambridge University Library collection. Since 1672 he was admitted to the Royal Society, in 1703 was elected President of the Royal Society until his death. Newton and communication during the most domestic and foreign scientists have r. Boyle, j. Collins, j. 夫拉姆斯蒂 Germany, d. Gregorian management, e. Halley, Hooke, c. Huygens, gwfvon Levin Buni Zi and j. Wallis and so on. Newton in writing "principles", the tired professor at the University life, he got acquainted with a student at the university, a noble descendant of c. Montague's help in finding a mint supervisory positions 1696, 1699, was promoted to director, 1701 resigned from the University of Cambridge work. British monetary system was chaotic, Newton use his knowledge of metallurgy, manufacture of new currency. Active due to currency reform, was knighted in 1705. Later years the study of religion, with a "history of the Bible two Cuoe research" text. Newton on March 31, 1727 (Julian 20) in the London suburb of Kensington Apartments in passing, to the country was buried in London, Westminster Abbey funeral. "Optical" and invented the reflecting telescope, optics and mechanics, as in ancient Greece to attention. The need for astronomical observations, the production of optical instruments have been developed long ago, the law of reflection of light has been known as early as the Euclidean time, but Newton's law of refraction until shortly before birth, as the Dutch scientists w. Snell found. The production of glass was removed long ago passed from the Arab Ruxi Ou. 16th century Dutch lens grinding Daxing handicrafts. The appropriate lens system can be combined into a microscope or telescope. The invention of the two instruments played a major role in scientific development. Before Newton, Galileo made his first telescope to be used in astronomical observations on the. Galileo-type telescope is a convergent lens for the eyepiece, a divergent lens to lens of the telescope. There was popular from the two converging lenses of the Kepler telescope. Two telescopes can not eliminate the objective of the dispersion. Newton invented the reflecting metal ground instead of converging lens as the objective lens, thus avoiding the lens of the dispersion. Newtonian telescope was made of 6 inches long, 1 inch in diameter, was 30 to 40 times magnification. Improved, in 1671 he produced a second larger aircraft reflecting telescope, and sent to the Royal Society review. The telescope is of the Royal Society as a valuable scientific heritage away. In order to create a reflecting telescope, Newton alloy smelting and grinding the mirror himself. Newton's model of his childhood love hands-on system, a test, which he succeeded in optical experiments on the great help. The color of light on the issue as early as BC was in for speculation, the rainbow of light color and the color of glass in the edge of the link. From Aristotle to Descartes thought that since the white is pure, uniform, is the nature of light, but light shade is just a variant. They have not done as carefully as Newton's experiment.
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Thought
Aristotle's philosophy emphasizes the harmony of things, find Harmony is correct, but Aristotle believed that the sky, moon, stars orbit is circular, because only circular motion is perfect, harmonious , and ground movement, such as the whereabouts of heavy line is profane. Ancient Greek philosophers Harmony between Heaven and Earth can not be coherent. To the 17th century, Newton theory of gravity and motion by the Three Laws of planets and their satellites sky law of motion, with the fall of the phenomenon of gravity on earth unite to achieve the unity of heaven and earth, which is Newton's great contributions to natural philosophy. Is well known, Newton in understanding the nature of light particles on the support say. But at the same Hu, Huygens and other discussion the nature of light, he said this or that instinct light excitation with the vibration of ether. This means that Ethernet is the medium of light vibration (see ether theory). This, it seems that Newton an understanding of the dual nature of light; is not the case, he existence of the Ethernet media mimicking air is everywhere, but much more thin and delicate and has a powerful bomb. He Shen Yue, is due to temperament before the animals Ethernet muscle contraction and elongation, animals to exercise. He further explained to Ethernet reflection and refraction of light, transparent and opaque, and the color produced, and he even conceived the Earth's gravity is due to temperament like to keep a large pool dictates. "Principle" of interpretation at the end of Part II of Chapter VI, said he had done from memory experiments tend to ether filled the gap among all the objects in view, although the ether for no discernible effect on gravity. 14,15 century Europe was fascinated scholars Ethernet, Ethernet theory of rage. Science giant Descartes was convinced there ether. He considered running for the planetary vortex ether to explain. Ethernet theory of a temporary Philosophy. Newton can not help but respect the experiments involved in this unit to the stream of philosophical thought, tend to it exists. When people are divided on the action at a distance. Newton pointed out that his law of gravitational interaction is not considered to be the ultimate explanation, but only summarized from the experiment out of a rule. Therefore, Newton did not draw conclusions on the nature of gravity. Newton's achievement in science by his philosophy and the scientific method to find the source roots. Newton students r. Coates in "principle" 2 points to the preamble of the secret. Ancient Greek, Roman philosopher, relying on natural phenomena observation and reflection (Pre time there are similarities) summarized conclusions, such as the doctrine of Thales: source of all things is water. Even as Democritus, Lucretius's atomism, and now to evaluate the still high. But the genius of their approach by speculation, thought and debate, called speculative philosophy. To the world, dominated by Scholasticism in Europe. Science, philosophy become the handmaiden of theology. To the 15,16 century, Copernicus, g. Bruno, Galileo and others afraid of jail, burned at the stake, etc. adhere to the unyielding fight to the church, broke free of the shackles of the service of God. The observation of natural phenomena, measurement, and gradually formed the atmosphere experiments. In the physical sciences in Galileo's experimental work is the beginning of experimental physics, Newton by the impact. Then Newton's experimental science of physics so as to form a brilliant system, but also to make scientific experiments into the halls of philosophy. Newton that the phenomenon can be drawn from the scientific principles, or basic principles of scientific phenomena can be guided or launch. Newton in the "principle" and "optical" two books to understand the method to express his scholarship, that is, to unmistakably distinguish speculation, assumptions and experimental results (and the resulting induction conclusion), and in some obtained under the assumption of mathematical deduction. "Principle" in the fourth chapter of Part I deal with the movement of fine particles and gases envisaged in Part II, Proposition 23, there are mutually exclusive model of particle physics with Newton's use of substantive examples of the mathematical model, but these problems the lack of substantial experimental evidence, failed to write irrefutable discussed. On might think that Newton only focus on the use of induction obtained from the experimental laws, while ignoring the importance of deduction. This is contrary to the facts. Newton in 1713 published "Principles" when 2 students in his letter to Coates that the laws of motion is called the primacy of law or justice, and that they are known from the inference or interpretation of the phenomenon in which come, and the use of induction so pervasive. Newton said: "This is a proposition in philosophy can achieve the highest realm of examples." Yes, that induction and deduction can not be artificially against each other. Engels pointed out that "induction and deduction as the analysis and synthesis, is necessarily linked to each other. No one should be sacrificed and put another Pengdao heaven." Newton's early start in the whip. Assumptions about the relationship between experimental and Newton are discussed on various occasions. In his letter to Oldenburg, said: "The philosophy of the best and most reliable method, it seems the first thing is to diligently explore the properties and use experiments to prove these properties. And then establish some hypotheses to explain the nature of things. "letter to Coates, said:" Anyone not be inferred from the phenomenon should be called the hypothesis statement, and such a hypothesis, whether metaphysical or physical, whether it is or hidden nature of the mechanical properties, both in experimental philosophy is not their position. "Newtonian natural philosophy these discussions laid the foundation, open the door to experimental science, natural science 300 years of prosperity for the immortal feats. Newton's law of things is different from those just starting from simple physical assumptions of people, but by logical deduction, the phenomenon of things get explained. Einstein said: "Newton was the first successful use of the formula to find a clear statement of the basis for his departure from the basis of mathematical thinking, logic, the quantitative interpretation of a wide range of phenomena, and in line with experience. "" What in Newton before the actual results do not support the idea that a complete chain of physical causation beliefs. "Newton is a causal relationship between the physical integrity of the founder; the causal relationship is the cornerstone of classical physics. Newton came from devout Christian family. School age in Cambridge, where he lives with a mixture of religion, like science experiments same applies to the work of fantasy and freedom. "Principle" is completed, he _set_ about the Christian "Bible" study, and began to write this book, many manuscripts of 150 million words, most were not published. Can be seen in the religious writings of Newton wasted a lot of time on energy. About Newton between 1692 ~ 1693 4 reply to this letter, the Archbishop of Terai Creator (God) the existence of the most criticized by future generations. The so-called God is the first drive arm for the fourth letter. From modern cosmology, the first drive in the physical frame entirely possible to resolve without the need for "fabulous." Newton against the Church of England at the time. He opposed the Trinity doctrine, but it will not clear how you feel, but do not want to act as cover to show that the priesthood. In short, the issue of religion than of Newton as a pioneer in his Copernicus, Bruno, Galileo and other fire and water and the spirit of hesitation, then the much more limited. Einstein in 1942 to commemorate the 300th anniversary of Newton's writings on Newton's life, make the following assessment "only to see his life as an eternal truth scene on the stage of the struggle to understand him." The Compliments most appropriate as this. Newton's philosophical thought and scientific method: Newton's great achievements in science with materialist philosophy of his simple ideas and beginning to take shape a _set_ of methodology system of physics, to physics and the development of natural science, to the 18th century industrial revolution, social and economic changes and mechanical the development of materialist thought with great impact. Here only briefly sketch some of contours. Newton's philosophical views and his mechanics on the ground-breaking achievements are inseparable, and all the natural phenomena he tried to explain the mechanical point of view, this form of Newton's materialist philosophy of self, but also led to a mechanistic prevalent. In fact, Newton to all chemical, heat, electricity and other phenomena are seen as "attractive or repulsive force with the relevant things." For example, he described the first chemical affinity, the chemical substitution reaction is described as the role of the two competing to attract; that "through sports or fermentation heat"; gunpowder explosion is sulfur, carbon and other particles crashing each other, decomposition, heat, swelling process, and so on. This mechanical view, that is the property of all forms of physical movement and mechanical movement of the point of view, the problem of mechanical motion required to explain the absolute time and space, atomic theory, the decision by the initial conditions can be any time after the decision of the mechanical state of motion , the development of causality of things and so on, as the physics of the general thinking. That, Newton was started to build a relatively complete system of physical cause and effect of the first people, and cause and effect relationship is the cornerstone of classical physics. Newton's contribution to the scientific methodology of physics, especially as his contribution to mechanics, like, not just the creation of a one or two new methods, but the formation of a research methodology system of things, made several methodological principle. In Newton's "principle", a book focused on the scientific method embodies the following: ① experiment - theory - application of the method. Newton in the "principle" the preamble said: "The philosophy is that all the task seems to study the phenomenon from a variety of movements of various natural forces, then use the other side to demonstrate the phenomenon." Historians of science ibcohen rightly pointed out, Newton "The main is to simplify the mathematical representation of the real world with its repeated to compare." N is engaged in the actual experiments and summarized the material master, but also to apply the theory of celestial bodies, fluids, gravity and other practical issues expert. ③ inductive - deductive method. The analysis of an integrated inductive-deductive method and the method is combined with each other. Newton starting from observation and experiment. "Made by induction from the ordinary to the conclusion" that received concepts and laws, and then deduce all the conclusions of deductive method, and then be tested by experiment, explain and predict most of these predictions have been confirmed later. He was known as Newton's law expressed axiom that obtained by induction that the general conclusions, but also deductive method can be used to deduce the other conclusions. ④ Physics - Mathematics. Newton will be in the range of physics concepts and laws are "the best use of mathematical performance." Albert Einstein said: "Newton was the first successful use of the formula to find a clear statement of the basis for his departure from this basis of mathematical thinking, logic, the quantitative interpretation of a wide range of phenomena, and in line with experience" , "only in the form of differential law of modern physicists to fully meet the requirements of causality, the concept of differential law is the clear sense of Newton's greatest achievements." Newton called his book "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", illustrates this point. Newton's methodology focused on the principle expressed in the "principle" third "philosophy of the reasoning rule" in the rule of four, not quoted here. To sum up, you can call it a simple principle (rule 1), the causality principle (rule 2), the universal principle (rule 3), no proof principle (Principle 4, no proof of who the founding of the counter example). Newton was also in favor of the idea in the next paragraph called structural principle: the "natural philosophy aims to discover the role of the structure of the natural world, and as some of them attributed to the general regulations and laws in general - with observations and Experiments to establish these rules, which lead to the causes and consequences of things. "
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Religious views
Newtonian force law is the most famous discovery. Newton warned not to use this finding to the universe as only a machine, like a big clock. He said: "Gravity explains the operation of the planet, but can not explain who the planets. God control all things, know that all do or can do." Although the name of Newton in science to enjoy, but the "Bible" is his greatest passion. He is committed to science than the more time in the "Bible" study, and said: "I fundamentally believe that" the Bible "as the Word of God, inspired by the people who have been written. I learn every day," the Bible " . " God is a Newtonian flow theory and the theory of sub-believer, do not agree that God is the Trinity Church dogma. If this secret was revealed in his lifetime, according to the law at that time he will remove a professor at Cambridge University. The subject of his words in this writing, only to posthumous publication. He tried to find hidden in the "Bible" of the information, but has not been able to succeed.
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Newton and China
Newton's life is equivalent to one year before the Ming Dynasty to the Qing Emperor Yongzheng 5 years, "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy," a book published in time for the equivalent of Kangxi 25 years. From Newton's "principle" was issued in 1687 to 150 years in 1840, the Newton's physics and astronomy almost no introduction to China. "Principle" the basic content of the book until after the Opium War in China spread.
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Anecdote
The apple An accidental event can often lead to a scientist who thought the flash. This is a warm late summer 1666 evening, the state Urs Thorpe Lincoln in England, a young man in a book under his arm and into his mother's home garden, sitting under a tree and began buried read his book. When he changes the page, his head shaking the branches up in things. One of the most famous apple fell down, hit the 23-year-old Newton's head happens to be in the day, Newton was agonizing over the question: What is the strength to keep the moon's orbit around the Earth, as well as the to keep the planet in its orbit around the sun? Why he hit his head will fall to the ground apples? It is thought the problem from the start, he found the answer - theory of gravitation. Since Newton's "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy," a book with the presentation of Euclidean geometry, it is a tight, perfect system, the book does not describe the apple story, resulting in many people falling apple one said reservations. In fact, Newton's relatives and friends repeatedly confirmed the apple story. French writer, Voltaire, scientists have had recall, the year before he died in Newton, which went to England in 1726, listening to Newton's step-sister said, one day, lying in Newton under the apple tree, I suddenly saw a falling apple , caught his thinking. Newton had an idea, the brain suddenly form an opinion: the apple and the planets around the sun will not be dominated by the same law of the universe from? Realize the law of gravity. Newton in his later years a close friend Siduokelei also clearly mentioned in the April day in 172 years, and after lunch Newton, Newton came home together after the park, and tea under the apple tree. In the conversation, "He (Newton) told me exactly the same circumstances in the past, pay attention to the ideological attraction in his mind, it is incidental in the apple tree, when he was in meditation meditation. " (Photo: http://hi.baidu.com/wmr2007/blog/item/67f4422da63f5437349bf7a2l) There are also a close friend of Newton in his later years in the recall Pemberton Newton's work, also talked about the apple caused by gravitational inverse-square relationship verified the story. Newton in his later years when Apple tells the story again, it is from the apple, it was already 60 years have passed, why an old man remember so deep on this issue, I think there are two reasons: first, because the law of gravity is a remarkable the brilliant results, the parties to the triggering event is of course deeply inspired by the excitement and miss; followed a dispute with Hooke also left a deep memory of Newton to clarify the truth from one side, should be considered as the apple one that fact is established. Newton and coins As British officials in charge of the Royal Mint, Newton estimated that about 20% of the coins is counterfeit. Counterfeiting of currency is the big Nizui in the UK, will be sentenced to tying a person to death. Despite this, the notorious criminals who are convicted are extremely difficult; however, Newton proved equal to the task. He hide his identity through the collection of a lot of evidence and the public is to the bar and inn. British law retains the old habits and trouble to _set_ up the necessary barriers to the prosecution, and government departments decouple from the judicial. Newton became a Justice of the Peace for this, and in June 1698 to 1699 between Christmas and led the 200 witnesses, informers and suspects the cross-examination. Newton finally able to win, and in February 1699 the implementation of the 10 offenders to death. Later, he ordered the examination of all records destroyed. Scientific infatuation Unmarried life mystery Newton's boyhood in a poem declare her lofty ambitions: Secular crown ah, I despise it as the foot of the dust, It is heavy, and the best is only a void; But now my pleasure to welcome the top of the crown of thorns Although the thorn people hurt, but the main taste is sweet; I saw the highest honor presented in front of me, It is full of happiness, eternal boundless. Can be said that every great scientist, is the passion of the rich, full of ideals of the poet, but Newton is a pursuit of the light spectrum with the science to explain his special type of ideal poet. He let his thoughts fly to the universe as a hedge. The entire field in his heart, filled with nature, the universe. Maybe this is his life's most fundamental reason is not married. However, Newton did not fully and love insulation. Even his life in love twice. Newton, 23, is studying at Cambridge University, because of plague occurred in Cambridge, the school holidays. Newton returned to the countryside, living in my uncle home. There, he once fell in love with a beautiful, smart, studious, thoughtful cousin. Cousin also liked the knowledgeable students extraordinary insight. They often walk together. Newton published a long speech like improvisation, the addition of the content of his speech that he is learning and research. Although my cousin did not understand, but she listened patiently, it seems that very interesting. Newton thought: "Such a lovely woman, for I have spoken think that flavored, I must be very good. Of course, her brains must have very good, is an extraordinary woman. If you can get her help, many difficulties to solve my problem, and I work together, and that nice ah! " But Newton shy, did not declare a timely manner to the hearts of love cousin. When he returned to Cambridge after he gathered will be immersed into the science of God, go. He had forgotten that there is a remote village beautiful girl waiting for him. His personal life has been downplayed, and her cousin was her mistake Newton cold, then choose another husband obsessed with a love of scientific research held up a golden opportunity. Newton too busy, he did not even dream of the universe, the world. He often does not tie knots, shoelaces are not fastened, not buttoned breeches, went into the university restaurant. However, Newton was a young man, after all, there are a romantic at heart. On one occasion, "the passion of youth can not wait," urging him to marry a young girl. He gently held her hand, lovingly looked at the beauty. Is the critical moment, his thoughts strayed to another world suddenly gone. Only in the minds of his infinite amount of binomial theorem. He was like a dream-like, consciously grasp a finger lover, to it as the pass through pipe section, hard to plug the pipes. The girl cried out in pain cry, and he was sober. Surprised girl face, he quickly apologized softly as sheep-like: "ah, my dear, forgive me! I know, I was not. It seems that a confirmed I was!" Newton girl forgive, but can not understand him, and love became impossible. Science of many new problems keep on toward Newton's mind, he has focused on the passion to science careers. After that kind of "youthful enthusiasm" no emerging "of colors."
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Saying
"I do not know how the world will see me, but for myself I'm just a naughty boy playing at the beach, as from time to time found a smooth stone or a piece of lovely shells and joy can be in front of me at the same time the great ocean of truth turn a blind eye. "I do not know how people look at me, but I thought I was playing at the beach, but like a child, from time to time to find a more beautiful than the ordinary pebble or a shell complacent, as revealed to me the truth before Haohan ocean, is totally not found. " "Nature and the laws of nature, hidden in the dark; God said, Let Newton go! Things gradually into the light." "No knowledge Zeal expedition in the dark." "You will honor as a sign of your highest character."
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The other side of the giant science
In primary and secondary textbooks, students must come into contact with more than one occasion this extraordinary name of Newton. As well known, as he is the great British physicist, mathematician and astronomer, proposed the law of gravity, the three laws of mechanics, the theory of white light formed by the shade, and created a calculus, and so on. • Michael White in the book "100 outstanding figures," a book, Isaac Newton • (1642 ~ 1727) was listed as the second most influential figure, behind, after Muhammad, Jesus Christ before. He was able to get this honor, of course, because of his outstanding contribution to the development of science. People tend to put a landmark in scientific history as the great scientist's genius and saint of high moral character, numerous honors and aura around them, making it difficult to understand the truth of their situation as a man. Recently published "Biography of Newton: The Last Alchemist", by a large number of detailed data and the original file, restore a true Newton. The end of magic and science stand in the history of the rise of the genius of turning point, through the never-ending exploration of the unknown world, making him one of the greatest scientists ever, but also that he will be more energy in his life spent on alchemy, Newton left a total of more than 50 million English words alchemy manuscripts and more than 100 million words of theological manuscripts, which his scientific work and found it difficult to say there is no association. In addition, he also specializes in treatment of imagined he had suffered diseases. Occurrence book of science-based perspective, Newton's obsession with alchemy and the proposed lay the foundation of modern science a significant association between. He left with Newton's important from the unpublished letters and notes, interpretation of Newton in alchemy and theological studies he found that for the gravity, and later for a unified field theory of the role. It is worth mentioning that, until 1936, Newton real gradually revealed another side, and thanks to the master of 20th century economics, John Maynard Keynes, Newton researchers. Newton was a group of files left over from the auction at Sotheby's auction, these files are about 50 years ago, accepted the donation from the University of Cambridge, was that "have no scientific value" part of the collection. Result, Keynes bought at auction these files. Keynes published in the study of these had never been to the world the secret documents, in 1942 the Royal Society in a speech to the history of the most famous and most noble scientists portrayed as a paranoid personality who was controversial. Keynes worth re-evaluation of Newton's face and thinking: "From the 18th century, Newton has always been considered to be the first and greatest of modern scientists, is a rationalist, and he taught us a calm and unbiased thinking reasoning. But now I have to say, I do not think so, I do not think anyone, after reading the boxes of documents which, also like him as a great man of high moral character. " Newton and Leibniz independently created calculus, although Newton discovered calculus years earlier than Leibniz, he published his book late. So, who is the creator of calculus first, it became a major event in the scientific community argue. Oxford University Kiel in the "Philosophical Transactions> published an article discussing the centrifugal force, the text to the main credit for the invention of calculus in Newton's name in mind, but also referred to Leibniz." Philosophical Bulletin> to Dar Bone hereby hand, immediately angered him. Leibniz send a letter to the Royal Society, to recover the kind of argument. When Leibniz in the "Teacher of> wrote a commentary on, severely criticized the work of Newton, stand firm in the controversy began. Leibniz to use diplomacy, is to edit their own hidden under the name of the omniscient, anonymous wrote this comment, and <teacher of> is Leibniz himself founded in 1682 and himself as editor of the magazine. It was not an open war. Leibniz praised the one hand, the public face of Newton, on the one hand abetting others, especially John. Bernoulli wrote to defend him against Newton, Bernoulli, as he meant to do, not signed the letter. Leibniz be determined request of the Royal Society, and as president of the Royal Society's Newton appointed a committee to review the fairness of the Royal Society published conclusions, the official Leibniz condemns plagiarism. If we examine the alchemy of today's perspective, we should recognize at least it brings some useful techniques and tools. And alchemy may be more or less inspired Newton's inspiration helped him in the scientific field of exploration and discovery. The same may go astray scientific giants, their personality or personality there may be defects in one way or another, but their contribution to world civilization is the first, which is conducive to social progress of exploration will never be forgotten, or demeaning .
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No. 12
• Isaac Newton (January 4, 1643 ~ March 31, 1727), Sir, the British Royal Society, (sirisaacnewtonfrs) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher and alchemist . His 1687 paper, "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", the of universal gravitation and three laws of motion are described. These descriptions lay the next three centuries the scientific point of view the physical world, and became the basis for modern engineering. He Kepler's laws of planetary motion by demonstrating his theory of gravity and consistency between, showing the movement of ground and celestial objects have followed the same law of nature; thus eliminating the last vestiges of heliocentric concerns, and to promote Scientific Revolution. In mechanics, Newton explained and angular momentum conservation principle. In optics, he invented the reflecting telescope, and will be based on the prism divergence into the visible spectrum white light observation, developed a color theory. He also systematically expressed the law of cooling, and studied the speed of sound. In mathematics, Newton and Gottfried Leibniz • develop a shared honors calculus. He also proved that the generalized binomial theorem, put forward the "Newton" to approach the zero function, and made a contribution to the study of power series. In 2005, the Royal Society had a "history of science who is the most influential people" in the opinion polls, Newton is considered more influential 比阿尔伯特 • Albert Einstein.
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Isaac Newton's famous quote
⑴ I don't know what I may seem to the world, but, as to myself, I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me. -------- Newton Translated into Chinese: I do not know other people opinion, what kind of person I am; but in my own opinion, but I like a boy playing on the beach, and then finding a smoother than usual pebbles or more more beautiful than the usual complacent piece of shell, and demonstrated in front of me for the vast ocean of truth, but completely not found. -------- Newton ⑵ If I can see a bit farther than some others, it is because I am standing on the shoulders of giants. -------- Newton -------- Newton
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Old age
Due to time constraints, Newton is basically a mechanical materialist metaphysics. He believes that sports is mechanics of movement, changes in spatial location; the universe and the sun is not like the development and change; by the role of gravity, the star is always in a fixed position ... ... With the improvement of scientific reputation, Newton's political status has improved. In 1689, he was elected to Congress, the university representatives. As members of Congress, Newton brought him gradually began to alienate the great achievements of science. He expressed from time to time as the representative of the field in his disgust. At the same time, he spent a lot of time and in a well-known contemporary scientists such as Hooke, Leibniz and other scientific argument on the priority. Newton in his later years living in London grand life, in 1705 he was crowned Queen Anne Noble. Newton is very rich at this time, is generally considered the greatest living scientist. He served as president of the Royal Society, in his twenty-four years served, he iron fist rule of the Society. Without his consent, no one can be elected. Newton in his later years began working on theological studies, he rejected the guidance of philosophy, who truly believe in God, and immersed in writing to the theme of theological writings. When he encountered unexplained celestial movement, actually proposed the "God of the first driving force," the fallacy. He said, "dominion of God, we are his servants and fear him, worship him." March 20, 1727, the great Isaac Newton died. The same as many other prominent British, he was buried in Westminster Abbey. His tombstone is inscribed: What people such a great joy The glory of human existence in the world once.
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Timeline
January 4, 1643 (lunar calendar December 25, 1642) was born in Lincolnshire ur Thorpe. 1655, 12 years old 入格兰瑟姆 secondary school. 19, 1661 June 15 entry to Trinity College, Cambridge. 1665, 24-year-old discovered the binomial theorem. 1665 ~ 1666, 24-year-old returned home because of the plague epidemic, to optics, mechanics, mathematics there are many research and breakthroughs. 1668 reflecting telescope made of 26-year-old. 1669, 27, of "equation of items made with infinite analysis", he was Professor Lucas. 1671, 29, a "flow number and methodology of the series." 29 years old in January 1672 was elected member of the Royal Society, read "On the theory of light and color," the papers. Halle 42, 1684 meeting show that the inverse square law of gravity. 1686 ~ 1687 44 years of "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy." 47-year-old mother died in 1689 1700, 57, invented the sextant. March 20, 1727 died at 84.
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History, 100 people affected
AD 1642 ~ AD 1727 the vast Aomi night, things hiding his actions. God down Newton, everywhere are bright. Alexander Pope Baiyisake ─ ─ Newton was there had been the greatest, most influential scientists. He was born on Christmas Day in 1642 in England Wool Vincenzo Po Village, a time when the year Galileo died. And Mohammed, as Newton is also a posthumous child. Newton childhood showed great mechanical talent. He has a very neat little hand. He was smart, but the homework was always careless, in the school did not attract special attention. A teenager, his mother let him drop out of school, hoping he can become a decent farmers. Fortunately his mother was persuaded that she believed her son's talent is not the main farm, but otherwise should do. Eighteen-year-old Newton entered Cambridge University, quickly grasped the scientific and mathematical knowledge at the time, and soon began to conduct independent research. His period of 21 to 27 years laid the foundation for the scientific theory that has revolutionized the subsequent changes in the world. Mid-seventeenth century is a scientific peak period, the invention of the telescope beginning of the century, so that research in astronomy has completely revolution. English philosopher Francis Bacon and the French philosopher Rene Descartes is strongly recommended for all European scientists, and then do not rely on the authority of Aristotle, and to personally make observations and experiments. Bacon and Descartes was a great advocate of the practice of Galileo. He invented the telescope with new astronomical observations made by the revolution brought to astronomy, he established the mechanical tests of Newton is now known as the first law of motion. Other great scientists, such as William Harvey discovered blood circulation to detect planets around the sun and the Johannes Kepler's laws of motion are all fields of science provides a new basic knowledge, and pure science has become a pastime of intellectuals, but can not prove that Francis Bacon predicted: when science is applied to technology, it will make all human life revolution. While Copernicus and Galileo, ancient science to clarify some misconceptions, a better understanding of the universe for mankind to make a contribution, but does not have a system of laws to put these findings seem to become irrelevant to make a unified theory of scientific prediction. Isaac Newton is such a unified theory is proposed, so that modern science has followed it into the voyage. Newton generally reluctant to publish his research results. Back in 1669 most of his works in his basic concepts in a systematic exposition, but many of his theory was published in long after it. He published the first to discover the nature of light is about the contribution of a breakthrough. After a series of careful tests of Newton, found that ordinary light rainbow mix of all different shade of light. He also laws of reflection and refraction of light do the results of careful analysis, based on these two laws, in 1668 he designed and produced the first truly reflecting telescope, and now most of the Observatory are the use of such telescopes. Newton 29 years old and his findings in many other optical test results presented to the Royal Society. Far as optical achievements may be able to make him a place in the book, but his achievements in this respect than his achievements in mathematics or mechanics to, it pales. His main contribution to mathematics is the invention of calculus, this achievement may be his in the twenty-three-year-old made the time, this invention is a contemporary of the greatest achievements in mathematics, it is not only produced many of today's mathematical theory seeds, but also an indispensable tool, not the tools of modern science does not progress in the following. If only the invention of Newton, and no points gained, you can also book in his routed in the very high ranking. But the most important discoveries of Newton in mechanics, the mechanics is the study of the motion of objects. Galileo invented the first law of motion, in the absence of this law describes the movement of objects under the influence of external circumstances. Of course, all the objects in the real world are subject to external force, mechanics of the most important question is how this case the object movement. Newton's famous second law of motion, solved this problem, this law may be rightly regarded as the most basic laws of classical physics. His second law (the mathematical expression is F = ma) can be expressed as: acceleration of the movement of objects (ie, rate of speed change), and role in the