About time, space, movement and relationship of a modern physical theory. Founded in 1905 by Einstein. Basic assumption is that (1) Principle of Relativity; (2) the principle of constancy of light. Its conclusions are (1) at the same time "concept is relative; (2) shorten the length of moving objects; (3), clock slow movement; (4) with the object accelerated and increased quality; (5) the speed of light is the speed limit, etc. .
Translated by Google
No. 2
Special theory of relativity (special relativity) is mainly created by the Einstein theory of space, time and space is the transformation of Newton. Galilean transformation and electromagnetic theory is not self-consistent The 19th century, to Maxwell's equations of classical electromagnetic theory as the core of the correctness of a large number of experiments have been confirmed, but Maxwell's equations in classical mechanics of Galileo is not covariant under the transformation. The classical mechanics the principle of relativity requires that all physical laws under the Galilean transformation are covariant. Michelson's experiment to find the Ethernet To solve this problem, physicists proposed the "ether hypothesis", that is to abandon the principle of relativity, Maxwell's equations that only an absolute reference frame (ether) was established. According to this hypothesis, Maxwell's equations by the vacuum speed of light is calculated relative to the absolute reference frame (Ethernet) speeds; in relation to the "ether" campaign of reference, the speed of light have different values. Experimental results - zero results However, Fizeau and Michelson experiment - Morley experiment showed that the speed of light has nothing to do with the movement of reference. Lorentz coordinate transformation Lorentz transformation is to describe the special theory of relativity space in the relationship between the reference frame transformation. It was first introduced by the Lorentz said from the ether, classical mechanics and to solve the conflict between classical electromagnetism (ie, Michelson - Morley experiment in zero results). After Einstein's special theory of relativity is used. In 1632, Galileo published his famous book "On the two Ptolemaic and Copernican world system of dialogue." Earth who sent the book, "Salvi Artie" on these issues to a thorough answer. He said: "You and some friends put on a ship off the main cabin below deck, so you take a few flies, butterflies and other small flying insects, a large water bowl to put the cabin, including a few fish. Then, hang a water bottle, so that water dripping drop by drop following a wide-mouth jar. ship the fish to swim easily in all directions, the water drops into the following Guankou anything you throw your friends, As long as the distance equal to the direction of the users do not have more power than the other you jump your feet together, regardless of which direction to skip to the distance are the same when you look closely at these things again after the boat in any pace, as long as the movement is uniform, nor Comparative Study and Integration to swing, you will find all of these phenomena has not changed and you can not from any one phenomenon to determine the boat is in motion or parked not move even Ship movement was very fast, you will not jump to the stern to the bow is more distant than the jump, although when you jump to the air, the foot of the bottom toward you jump ship the opposite direction. no matter what you throw your partner , whether he was in the bow or stern, as long as you own on the opposite, you do not need to use more force. droplet will be like before, the drop into the pot below, it will not drop to drop the stern. Although the water droplets in the air, the ship has been driving a lot of oak (for the big finger to the little finger stretched out long, usually nine inches, is an ancient unit of length). the fish swim to the water bowl in front of the water used for power and more than travel back to the water bowl large; as they leisurely swim on the water bowl to the edge of prey anywhere in the end, to butterflies and flies flying around casually, they never focus on the stern, not because they may be long time to stay in the air, separated from the ship's movement, movement for the show to catch up with the ship's tired look. " Salvi Artie's ship tells a very important truth, namely: from the boat in any kind of phenomenon occurs, you can not determine whether the ship is in motion or parked without moving. This thesis is now called the Galilean principle of relativity. In modern language, Salvi Artie's ship is a so-called inertial reference system. That is, a different uniform motion of the swing of the boat without Comparative Study and Integration are the inertial reference system. In an inertial reference frame to see phenomena, in another inertial reference system must also be able to see any difference. That is, all inertial reference frames are equal rights, equivalent. We can not determine which inertial reference system is in a state of absolute rest, which is an absolute movement. Galilean principle of relativity not only from a fundamental rejection of the party to quiet the criticism that the earth, but also rejected the idea of absolute space (at least in the inertial range). Therefore, in the theory of relativity from classical mechanics to the transition, many of the concept of classical mechanics should be changed, except the Galilean principle of relativity is not only not be any amendments, and has become one of two basic principles of special relativity . The two principles of special relativity in 1905, Einstein published the special theory of relativity the ground-breaking paper "On the electrodynamics of moving objects." The basic principles of special relativity, he wrote: "The following consideration is based on the principle of relativity and the speed of light based on the same principle, these two principles we are as follows: 1. Physical state of the system changes according to the law, describe the state changes with the reference coordinate system in each other what is uniform with two moving coordinate system in which there is no relationship. 2. Any light in the "stationary" coordinate system is to determine the speed c in motion, regardless of which channel the light is stationary or moving objects emitted. " The first one is the principle of relativity, the second is the speed of light invariance. In the special theory of relativity to building on these two basic principles. Einstein's philosophy is that nature should be harmonious and simple. Indeed, his theory is often a compelling features: For simple and attributed to profound. Special theory of relativity is a system with this feature. The two basic principles of special relativity does not seem difficult to accept the "simple fact", but their reasoning is fundamentally changing the foundation of physics since Newton. Later we will start this line of reasoning. Einstein's special theory of relativity The history of 20th century physics, relativity is the most significant achievements, which includes special relativity and general relativity in two parts, since the special theory of relativity revolution from the Newton form of space-time concept, suggesting that the unity of time and space and relativity, the establishment of a new time and space. General relativity principle extended to the relatively non-inertial reference frame, and curved space, in order to establish a new theory of gravity. In the process of establishing the theory of relativity, Einstein played a major role. German-American physicist Albert Einstein. 1914, Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1933 due to persecution by the Nazi regime moved to the United States, he served as director of the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study. 1905 askance, in his 26 years of age, French scientific journal "Physical Book," published in his paper "On the electrodynamics of moving objects", this paper is the first paper on relativity, it is a fairly comprehensive discussion of the special theory of relativity, to solve the mid-19th century, many physicists have failed to solve the electrodynamics and mechanics and electrodynamics with the problem. Bring special theory of relativity, many people immediately think of clocks and rulers to shorten walking phenomenon. Many works use it as a science fiction theme, describing a rocket ride into space came back, found himself still young, and grandchildren have become old man. In fact, the watch and a ruler to shorten walking just one of several conclusions of special relativity, it is a fast-moving objects, when the clock on the slow moving objects, the ruler becomes shorter. Watch walking and reduce the phenomenon is the ruler of time and space with the result of changes in physical movement. There is also a special theory of relativity the velocity increases with the quality of the conclusions. It was found that the quality of high-speed movement of the electronic quality than the rest of the electronics big. The most important conclusion is that special relativity conservation of mass loss of the independence. It together and the energy conservation principle, mass and energy can be transformed into each other. If the material quality is m, the speed of light is c, it contains energy is e, then e = mc 2. This formula shows only the quality of the m objects all hidden in the energy, does not mean you can release them, disappear in a nuclear reactor according to the quality of this energy is released into the formula. According to this formula, 1 gram of mass is equivalent to 9 * 103 joules of energy. The principle of conservation of mass-energy conversion and the theoretical basis is the use of atomic energy. Large special relativity, although there has been with Newton's mechanics is completely incomprehensible conclusion: space and time with the physical movement and change, quality change with the movement, mass and energy into each other, but the special theory of relativity and Newtonian mechanics is not completely separated , when the velocity is far lower than the speed of light, when the conclusions of special relativity and Newtonian mechanics there will be no different. Decades to prove the historical development of special relativity greatly promoted the scientific process, become one of the basic theory of modern physics. Einstein on 4 December 1922, at the Kyoto University in Japan for the entitled "How I created the theory of relativity? "The speech, to explain his thoughts on the emergence and development of the theory of relativity course. He said: "How do I build on the concept of this theory of relativity, not so good about my thoughts have been so many things mysterious and complex, inspired, each thinking, happiness in life, the concept of the development process on the not the same at different stages of ... ... the first time I have developed the theory of relativity is the idea 17 years ago, I'm not sure where this idea came from, but I am sure it is included in the optical nature of moving objects, the light passes through a large Marine Communication, the earth moving in the ether, in other words, the sun on the earth movement. I tried to find in the physics literature Ethernet flow clear experimental evidence, the blue sky is not successful. Then, I want to personally prove Ethernet the relative movement of the earth, or that the Earth's movement. When I first thought about this problem, I do not doubt the existence of ether, or the movement of the Earth through the ether. "Thus, he envisioned a use of two thermocouples experiments carried out: _set_ up some mirrors to make the light emitted from a single source in two different directions is reflected, a beam of light parallel to the direction of movement of the earth and in the same direction, another beam of light reverse the line. If you imagine the two reflected beams in the energy difference between the words, you can use two thermocouples measured the heat generated by difference. Although the idea of this experiment is very similar with the Michelson experiment, but he did not reach a conclusion. Albert Einstein said: He first considered this issue, it is the student, when he was wonderful to know the results of Michelson's experiment, he soon concluded that: If you believe the results of Michelson's zero, then relative to the Earth so the idea of movement is wrong. He said: "This is the special theory of relativity led me to the first way since then, I began to believe that, although the Earth's rotation around the sun, but Earth's motion can not detect the sun through any optical rotation experiment, but not the movement of the Earth may be detectable by any optical experiment. " Lorentz Einstein have the opportunity to read papers published in 1895, he discussed and satisfactorily resolved the u / c of the high-order term (u is the speed of moving objects, c is the speed of light). And then trying to assuming Einstein equations in vacuum electron Lorentz frame of reference effectively, it should be in the frame of reference moving objects effectively to lectures Feisuo experiment. At that time, Einstein convinced Maxwell - Lorentz equations of electrodynamics is correct. And then reference these objects in motion in the agenda of the effective speed of light led to the assumption that the same concept. However, this classic and learn the speed and the sum runs counter to the principle. Why are these two contradictory concepts. Einstein to explain it, it took almost a year trying to modify the Lorentz theory. A chance. He was at a friend's help to solve this problem. Einstein to ask him and talk to discuss all aspects of this difficult problem, Einstein found a solution to all of a sudden the difficulties. He said: "I have five weeks to complete the special relativity theory." Einstein's theory of negation of the ether concept, certainly the electromagnetic field is a separate, special form of material existence, and the space, time, the concept of in-depth analysis, in order to establish a new relationship between space and time. His 1905 paper was recognized as the world's first paper on relativity, he was the first real theory of relativity physicist. Special relativity effects According to the narrow principle of relativity, inertial frames are totally equivalent, thus, in the same inertial reference frame, there is a uniform time, as the same time, while the theory of relativity that, in different inertial reference frame, but there is no uniform simultaneous , that is, two events (time points) within the Department of relevance in a while, in another inertial system may not be within the same time, this is also relative, in the inertial reference frame, the time course of the same physical processes are identical , if measured with the same physical process time can be uniform throughout the inertial time. In general relativity can know the future, non-inertial, space-time is uneven, that is, in the same non-inertial reference frame, there is no uniform time, it can not establish a unified simultaneity. Different inertial relativity derived the relationship between the schedule and found progress slow movement of the inertial time, which is called the bell slow effect. Can be understood as popular, the clock movement clock more slowly than the rest, and that the faster motion, clock go slower, close to the speed of light, the clock almost stopped. The length of the ruler is an inertial reference frame, "while" to get the coordinates of two endpoints the difference. As the "while" the relative, measured in different inertial length are also different. Theory of relativity shows that the length of the ruler on the direction of movement of the ruler shorter than the rest of the ruler, which is called the scale contraction effect, as close to the speed of light, the ruler shrunk to a point. We can see from the above statements, minutes feet shrink slowly and progress with the principle of relativity is that time. In other words, the time schedule and the reference system. This is a fundamental denial of Newton's absolute time and space, the theory of relativity that the absolute time does not exist, but the amount of time is still an objective. For example in the next issue will discuss the twin ideals of the experiment, his brother came back by the spacecraft is 15 years old, my brother is 45 years old may have been, indicating that time is relative, but my brother did was live for 15 years, and indeed that his younger brother live 45 years, this is nothing to do with the reference system, the time is "absolute." This shows that, regardless of how the state of motion, which itself has experienced the amount of time is an objective, absolute, which is called proper time. In other words, no matter what form you exercise, you agree that the speed of normal coffee you drink, do not rule your life has been disrupted, but others may see you drink coffee with a 100-year, down from the cup to come to an end with only a second. Clock paradox or twin paradox After the birth of the theory of relativity, was extremely interesting to have a difficult problem --- twin paradox. One pair of twins a and b, a on the earth, b to do interstellar travel by rocket, after long years to return to Earth. Einstein asserted by the theory of relativity, the two experiences at different times, when b reunion than a younger. Many people doubt that a look at the movement b, b are also look at a sport, why can not it is a younger than b? Due to the Earth can be approximated as the inertial reference frame, b to go through the process of acceleration and deceleration, acceleration is a change of reference , the real discussion is very complex, Einstein had discussed this issue clear by many people mistakenly believe that the theory of relativity is self-contradictory. If space-time diagram and discuss the concept of the world line of easy to more on this issue, but to use many mathematical knowledge and formulas. This is only used in one of the most simple language to describe the situation. However, not only a more detailed description of the language details, please refer to some interested relativity books. Our conclusion is that, both in the reference frame that, b than a younger. In order to simplify the problem, only discuss this case, after a very short time to accelerate the rocket to sub-light speed, flying for some time, with a very short turn around, and flight time, with a very short deceleration and Earth meet. The purpose of this treatment is omitted the impact of acceleration and deceleration. In a good discussion of the Earth reference system, the rocket is always moving clock, when b reunion than a younger. In the rocket frame of reference, the Earth is moving in uniform during the clock, within the time course slower than the rocket, but the most critical parts of the rocket turn around process. In turn the course of the earth by the rocket back very far after a very short period of time across the half circle, in front of the rocket to reach very far. This is a "super-light" process. This ultra-light just is not in contradiction with the theory of relativity, this "ultra light" can not pass any information, not the true meaning of superluminal. If you do not turn around this process, the rocket and the earth can not be met, due to different time reference system is not uniform and therefore can not compare their age, only when they encounter can be compared. U-turn after the rocket, b can not directly receive a message, because the transmission of information takes time. b see the actual process is the process in turn, the earth suddenly accelerated schedule. Appears in b, a realistic younger than b, then aging at a rapid U-turn, returning, a slow off than their own aging. Reunion, while she herself is still better than a younger. In other words, the theory of relativity there is no logical contradiction. Requirements of the laws of physics to the relativistic coordinate transformation (Lorentz changes) to maintain the same. Classical electromagnetic theory can be included without modification and the theory of relativity framework, while Newton's mechanics only in the Galilean transformation in the same situation, under the Lorentz transformation in the form of the original compact have become extremely complex. Therefore, classical mechanics and should be modified, the modified Lorentz transformations in the mechanical system under the same situation, called relativistic mechanics. Since the establishment of special relativity, the physics has played a huge role. And depth to the range of quantum mechanics, essential for studying the theory of high-speed particles, and achieved fruitful results. However, behind the success, there are two principle issues left unresolved. The first is the difficulties caused by inertial system. Abandoned the absolute time and space, the inertial system has become unable to define the concept. We can say is the law of inertia inertial reference frame in which the establishment. Law of inertia is not a real external objects remain at rest or of uniform linear motion of the state. However, "without outside" mean? Can only say that force is not an object in inertial rest or uniform rectilinear motion. In this way, the definition of inertial system into a logical loop on such a definition is useless. We can always find the inertial system is very similar, but the universe does not exist in the real inertial system, the entire theory as the general construction on the beach. The second difficulty is caused by gravity. The law of gravity is closely linked with the absolute time and space, must be corrected, but will it change the situation to remain unchanged under the Lorentz transform any attempt to have failed, gravity can not be included in the framework of special relativity. Was found in the physical world only two forces of gravity and electromagnetic force, one of which will emerge to trouble, of course, is not satisfactory. Einstein only a few weeks to establish the special theory of relativity, to solve these two problems, however, establish a general theory of relativity, but with a full ten years. To solve the first problem, simply cancel the inertial reference frame in Einstein's theory of special status, the principle of relativity extended to non-inertial. So the first problem into a non-inertial space-time structure. Encountered in non-inertial first stumbling block is the force of inertia. In-depth study of the inertial force, put forward the famous principle of reciprocity, that the problem of reference and the gravitational problem may be solved. After several twists and turns, finally _set_ up a complete Einstein's general relativity. Surprise to all of general relativity physicists, gravity is far more complex than expected. Einstein's field equations so far been only one of the few to determine the solution. It was so elegant mathematical physicist who has amazing form. In general relativity has made great achievements, founded and developed by the Copenhagen school of quantum mechanics has made a major breakthrough. However, physicists soon discovered that the two theories are incompatible, at least there is a need to modify. Then led to that famous debate: Einstein vs Copenhagen School. Until now, controversy has not stopped, but a growing number of physicists is more inclined to quantum theory. To solve this problem Einstein spent three decades after half time but found nothing. But his work as physicists have pointed out the direction: the establishment of the force consists of four super-unified theory. Currently recognized academic most promising candidate is string theory and super-film theory.
Translated by Google
Historical background and important experimental basis
Thomson late 19th century physicist speaking at an international conference to "physics building has been built, after the work is only the internal decoration and painting." However, he changed the subject said: "Building two over the still floating 'clouds', Michelson - Morley experiment and the results of the UV black-body radiation disaster." Precisely to address these two problems, a physical place field led to a profound revolution in the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics was born. Early in the electrodynamics of Maxwell's equations to establish the date, people will find it does not cover frame of reference problem. People use the space-time theory of classical mechanics to discuss electrokinetic equations, found in Maxwell's equations under Galilean transformation and its derived equations (such as Helmholtz, d'Alembert equation, etc.) under different forms in different inertial frames, this phenomenon How should we explain? After decades of exploration, in 1905 finally created the special theory of relativity by Einstein. Relativity is a theory of space, time and space to understand the theory of special relativity theory should first understand the classical space-time content. Therefore, the following should seriously look at the contents, it is beneficial for understanding the theory of relativity.
Translated by Google
"Ether" concept and the absolute frame of reference
Maxwell predicted that electromagnetic waves in after the majority of scientists believe that the communications needs of medium wave (medium). This medium called "ether" (the classic Ethernet). "Ethernet" should have the following basic properties: (1) The universe is full, transparent and density of small (electromagnetic diffusion space, all-pervasive); (2) with high flexibility. In flat horizontal position for the vibration, in particular, is generally transverse electromagnetic waves, Ethernet should be a solid (G is the shear modulus, ρ is the medium density); (3) Ethernet Newton's absolute space and time only in the stationary, that is still in a special frame of reference. Stationary objects in the ether as absolute rest, the relative motion of ether as an absolute object movement. The introduction of "Ether" Maxwell equations after the people that only with "ether" absolute frame of reference with the establishment of solid, you can experiment to determine an absolute inertial relative speed Ethernet. Generally believed that the earth is not an absolute frame of reference. Ethernet can be assumed that solid connection with the sun, so that should be done on Earth, the Earth itself is relatively experiments to determine the absolute speed of Ethernet, the speed of the Earth relative to the sun. To this end, it is a lot of precise experimental design (including Albert Einstein have designed this experiment), the most famous, the most significant experiments Michelson - Morley experiment (1887).
Translated by Google
Michelson's experiment to find the Ethernet
To solve this problem, physicists proposed the "ether hypothesis", that is to abandon the principle of relativity, Maxwell's equations that only an absolute reference frame (ether) was established. According to this hypothesis, Maxwell's equations by the vacuum speed of light is calculated relative to the absolute reference frame (Ethernet) speeds; in relation to the "ether" campaign of reference, the speed of light have different values. Experimental results - zero results However, Fizeau and Michelson experiment - Morley experiment showed that the speed of light has nothing to do with the movement of reference.
Translated by Google
Michelson - Morley experiment
Experimental purposes: seek the establishment of an absolute law of electrodynamics of reference, that is still with the Ethernet frame of reference. Experimental hypothesis: (1) assumes that the electromagnetic field equations strictly in the establishment of an absolute inertial reference frame (similar to that established on the earth). (2) in the "ether" in light of the same sex, and the constant equal to C, while in the other frame of reference, the speed of light non-isotropic (known by the Galilean transformation (3) even assuming the sun with ether solid Earth relative at the speed of Ethernet should be the velocity of the Earth around the Sun. Experimental _set_up: M for the semi-inverse semi-permeable membrane, for the compensation board. M =, M =. Earth is located relative to the "ether" of the relative velocity v (on earth that the sun, the Ethernet speed relative to Earth as v). Light propagation in MM1M and MM2M different speeds, the same time, there is the optical path difference, so there are interference fringes in P there. When rotating the device 900, because of the assumed anisotropy of the speed of light on Earth, will change the optical path difference, interference fringes must also change by observing the interference pattern changes can be launched against the speed of the Earth relative to ether. Theoretical calculations: (according to classical theory) Known on earth along the x-axis polishing speed of C + v, the speed of light in lines of C, and isotropic, the speed of light along the x-axis for the reverse C-v, the light along the y-axis, the reverse phase speed are Light travel time along the MM1M: Light travel time along the MM2M: Optical path difference is: After turning the instrument 900: Because of different optical path difference, interference fringes should be rotated after the move. Mobile Number: In wheat - 1887 experiments with Mo (Na yellow) If the Ethernet speed that the earth relative speed of the Earth relative to the sun is one. Experimental accuracy of 0.01. The results: a maximum of interference fringes move 0.01, so the anti-launched the Earth about the relative speed Ethernet:. Later to do a lot of experiments, the same result. That stripes do not move, that is stationary ether relative to Earth (and later similar experiments many times, increasing accuracy, the laser experiments of 1972). This result caused a sensation, but there are still many people do not think that is the theoretical calculation, but in the framework of classical space-time interpretation of experimental results
Translated by Google
Lorentz coordinate transformation
Lorentz transformation is to describe the special theory of relativity space in the relationship between the reference frame transformation. It was first introduced by the Lorentz said from the ether, classical mechanics and to solve the conflict between classical electromagnetism (ie, Michelson - Morley experiment in zero results). After Einstein's special theory of relativity is used. Another generation saying: Mach and Hume's philosophy of Einstein's influence. Mach considered a measure of time and space and material movement. Space-time concept is formed through experience. No matter what the experience of absolute space and time can not grasp the basis. More specifically, Hume said: space and the extension is nothing but a certain order of distribution of visible objects is full of space. The time is always changed by the object can be aware of the changes found. In 1905 Einstein pointed out that the Michelson and Morley experiment actually shows on the "ether" of the whole concept is redundant, the speed of light is constant. The Newton's absolute space concept is wrong. There is no absolute rest frame of reference, time measurement is also different with a different frame of reference. Constant speed of light and he made a principle of relativity Lorentz transformation. The creation of special relativity. Special theory of relativity is based on a four-dimensional space-time theory, so to understand the content of the theory of relativity, first on the relativity of time and space have a general understanding. In mathematics there are various multi-dimensional space, but so far we know only a four-dimensional physical world, that is one-dimensional three-dimensional space plus time. Modern micro-physics of high-dimensional space that is another layer of meaning, only the mathematical sense, not discussed here. Four-dimensional space-time constitute the minimum dimensions of the real world, our world happens to be four-dimensional, as high-dimensional real space, at least now we can not perceive. I said in a post on an example of a ruler in the three-dimensional space (excluding time) rotation, its length the same, but rotate it, it's the coordinates are changed, and the coordinates are ties. Significance of four-dimensional space-time coordinates of the fourth dimension is time, it is linked with the spatial coordinate, that space is uniform and indivisible whole, they are a "shift" of the relationship. Dimensional space-time is not limited to this, known by the mass-energy relation, mass and energy are actually the same thing, mass (or energy) is not independent, but the state associated with the movement, such as greater speed, higher quality. In the four-dimensional space, the mass (or energy) is actually four-dimensional momentum component of the fourth dimension, the momentum is to describe the amount of physical movement, so the quality and state of motion is well deserved. In the four-dimensional space, the momentum and energy to achieve a uniform, known as the energy-momentum four vector. Also in the four-dimensional space-time also defines the four-dimensional speed, four-Vega speed, four-dimensional force, the electromagnetic field equations of four-dimensional forms. It is worth mentioning that the four-dimensional electromagnetic field equations form a more perfect, the complete reunification of the electric and magnetic, electric and magnetic fields with a uniform electromagnetic field tensor to describe. Four-dimensional space-time three-dimensional physical laws than the laws to be perfect, and this shows that our world is indeed a four-dimensional. At least it is more than can be said to be the perfect multi-Newtonian mechanics. At least it's perfect, we can not doubt it improper. Theory of relativity, time and space constitute an indivisible whole - four-dimensional space-time, energy and momentum also constitute an indivisible whole - four-dimensional momentum. This shows that a number of seemingly unrelated nature may exist between the amount of profound connection. General relativity discussed in the future when we will see, time and space and energy-momentum four vector also exist between the profound connection. In 1632, Galileo published his famous book "On the two Ptolemaic and Copernican world system of dialogue." Earth who sent the book, "Salvi Artie" on these issues to a thorough answer. He said: "You and some friends put on a ship off the main cabin below deck, so you take a few flies, butterflies and other small flying insects, a large water bowl to put the cabin, including a few fish. Then, hang a water bottle, so that water dripping drop by drop following a wide-mouth jar. ship the fish to swim easily in all directions, the water drops into the following Guankou anything you throw your friends, As long as the distance equal to the direction of the users do not have more power than the other you jump your feet together, regardless of which direction to skip to the distance are the same when you look closely at these things again after the boat in any pace, as long as the movement is uniform, nor Comparative Study and Integration to swing, you will find all of these phenomena has not changed and you can not from any one phenomenon to determine the boat is in motion or parked not move even Ship movement was very fast, you will not jump to the stern to the bow is more distant than the jump, although when you jump to the air, the foot of the bottom toward you jump ship the opposite direction. no matter what you throw your partner , whether he was in the bow or stern, as long as you own on the opposite, you do not need to use more force. droplet will be like before, the drop into the pot below, it will not drop to drop the stern. Although the water droplets in the air, the ship has been driving a lot of oak (for the big finger to the little finger stretched out long, usually nine inches, is an ancient unit of length). the fish swim to the water bowl in front of the water used for power and more than travel back to the water bowl large; as they leisurely swim on the water bowl to the edge of prey anywhere in the end, to butterflies and flies flying around casually, they never focus on the stern, not because they may be long time to stay in the air, separated from the ship's movement, movement for the show to catch up with the ship's tired look. " Salvi Artie's ship tells a very important truth, namely: from the boat in any kind of phenomenon occurs, you can not determine whether the ship is in motion or parked without moving. This thesis is now called the Galilean principle of relativity. In modern language, Salvi Artie's ship is a so-called inertial reference system. That is, a different uniform motion of the swing of the boat without Comparative Study and Integration are the inertial reference system. In an inertial reference frame to see phenomena, in another inertial reference system must also be able to see any difference. That is, all inertial reference frames are equal rights, equivalent. We can not determine which inertial reference system is in a state of absolute rest, which is an absolute movement. Galilean principle of relativity not only from a fundamental rejection of the party to quiet the criticism that the earth, but also rejected the idea of absolute space (at least in the inertial range). Therefore, in the theory of relativity from classical mechanics to the transition, many of the concept of classical mechanics should be changed, except the Galilean principle of relativity is not only not be any amendments, and has become one of two basic principles of special relativity . The two principles of special relativity in 1905, Einstein published the special theory of relativity the ground-breaking paper "On the electrodynamics of moving objects." The basic principles of special relativity, he wrote: "The following consideration is based on the principle of relativity and the speed of light based on the same principle, these two principles we are as follows: 1. Physical state of the system changes according to the law, describe the state changes with the reference coordinate system in each other what is uniform with two moving coordinate system in which there is no relationship. 2. Any light in the "stationary" coordinate system is to determine the speed c in motion, regardless of which channel the light is stationary or moving objects emitted. " The first one is the principle of relativity, the second is the invariance of the speed of light (artificial assumptions). In the special theory of relativity to building on these two basic principles. Einstein's philosophy is that nature should be harmonious and simple. Indeed, his theory is often a compelling features: For simple and attributed to profound. Special theory of relativity is a system with this feature. The two basic principles of special relativity does not seem difficult to accept the "simple fact", but their reasoning is fundamentally changing the foundation of physics since Newton. Later we will start this line of reasoning.
Translated by Google
Einstein's special theory of relativity
The history of 20th century physics, relativity is the most significant achievements, which includes special relativity and general relativity in two parts, since the special theory of relativity revolution from the Newton form of space-time concept, suggesting that the unity of time and space and relativity, the establishment of a new time and space. General relativity principle extended to the relatively non-inertial reference frame, and curved space, in order to establish a new theory of gravity. In the process of establishing the theory of relativity, Einstein played a major role. German-American physicist Albert Einstein. 1914, Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1933 due to persecution by the Nazi regime moved to the United States, he served as director of the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study. In 1905, in his 26 years of age, the French scientific journal "Physical Book," published in his paper "On the electrodynamics of moving objects", this paper is the first paper on relativity, it is a fairly comprehensive discussion of the special theory of relativity, to solve the mid-19th century, many physicists have failed to solve the electrodynamics and mechanics and electrodynamics with the problem. Bring special theory of relativity, many people immediately think of clocks and rulers to shorten walking phenomenon. Many works use it as a science fiction theme, describing a rocket ride into space came back, found himself still young, and grandchildren have become old man. In fact, the watch and a ruler to shorten walking just one of several conclusions of special relativity, it is a fast-moving objects, when the clock on the slow moving objects, the ruler becomes shorter. Watch walking and reduce the phenomenon is the ruler of time and space with the result of changes in physical movement. There is also a special theory of relativity the velocity increases with the quality of the conclusions. It was found that the quality of high-speed movement of the electronic quality than the rest of the electronics big. The most important conclusion is that special relativity conservation of mass loss of the independence. It together and the energy conservation principle, mass and energy can be transformed into each other. If the material quality is M, the speed of light is C, it contains the energy is E, then E = MC ^ 2. This formula shows only the quality of the M objects all hidden in the energy, does not mean you can release them, disappear in a nuclear reactor according to the quality of this energy is released into the formula. According to this formula, 1 g of quality equivalent to 9X10 ^ 3 joules of energy. The principle of conservation of mass-energy conversion and the theoretical basis is the use of atomic energy. In special relativity, although the emergence of Newtonian mechanics point of view can not understand the conclusion: space and time with the physical movement and change, quality change with the movement, mass and energy into each other, but the special theory of relativity and Newtonian mechanics is not completely separated , when the velocity is far lower than the speed of light, when the conclusions of special relativity and Newtonian mechanics there will be no different. Decades to prove the historical development of special relativity greatly promoted the scientific process, become one of the basic theory of modern physics. Einstein on 4 December 1922, at the Kyoto University in Japan for the entitled "How I created the theory of relativity? "The speech, to explain his thoughts on the emergence and development of the theory of relativity course. He said: "How do I build on the concept of this theory of relativity, not so good about my thoughts have been so many things mysterious and complex, inspired, each thinking, happiness in life, the concept of the development process on the not the same at different stages of ... ... the first time I have developed the theory of relativity is the idea 17 years ago, I'm not sure where this idea came from, but I am sure it is included in the optical nature of moving objects, the light passes through a large Marine Communication, the earth moving in the ether, in other words, the sun on the earth movement. I tried to find in the physics literature Ethernet flow clear experimental evidence, the blue sky is not successful. Then, I want to personally prove Ethernet the relative movement of the earth, or that the Earth's movement. When I first thought about this problem, I do not doubt the existence of ether, or the movement of the Earth through the ether. "Thus, he envisioned a use of two thermocouples experiments carried out: _set_ up some mirrors to make the light emitted from a single source in two different directions is reflected, a beam of light parallel to the direction of movement of the earth and in the same direction, another beam of light reverse the line. If you imagine the two reflected beams in the energy difference between the words, you can use two thermocouples measured the heat generated by difference. Although the idea of this experiment is very similar with the Michelson experiment, but he did not reach a conclusion. Albert Einstein said: He first considered this issue, it is the student, when he was wonderful to know the results of Michelson's experiment, he soon concluded that: If you believe the results of Michelson's zero, then relative to the Earth so the idea of movement is wrong. He said: "This is the special theory of relativity led me to the first way since then, I began to believe that, although the Earth's rotation around the sun, but Earth's motion can not detect the sun through any optical rotation experiment, but not the movement of the Earth may be detectable by any optical experiment. " Lorentz Einstein have the opportunity to read papers published in 1895, he discussed and satisfactorily resolved the u / c of the high-order term (u is the speed of moving objects, c is the speed of light). And then trying to assuming Einstein equations in vacuum electron Lorentz frame of reference effectively, it should be in the frame of reference moving objects effectively to lectures Feisuo experiment. At that time, Einstein convinced Maxwell - Lorentz equations of electrodynamics is correct. And then reference these objects in motion in the agenda of the effective speed of light led to the assumption that the same concept. However, this sum with the principles of classical mechanics in speed contrary. Why are these two contradictory concepts. Einstein to explain it, it took almost a year trying to modify the Lorentz theory. A chance. He was at a friend's help to solve this problem. Einstein to ask him and talk to discuss all aspects of this difficult problem, Einstein found a solution to all of a sudden the difficulties. He said: "I have five weeks to complete the special relativity theory." Einstein's theory of negation of the ether concept, certainly the electromagnetic field is a separate, special form of material existence, and the space, time, the concept of in-depth analysis, in order to establish a new relationship between space and time. His 1905 paper was recognized as the world's first paper on relativity, he was the first real theory of relativity physicist.
Translated by Google
Special relativity effects
According to the narrow principle of relativity, inertial frames are totally equivalent, thus, in the same inertial system, there is unity of time, as the same time, while the theory of relativity that, in different inertial reference frame in uniform but not simultaneous , that is, two events (time points) within an inertial system, while in another inertial system may not be within the same time, this is also relative, in the inertial reference frame, the time course of the same physical processes are identical , if measured with the same physical process time can be unified in the inertial time. In general relativity can know the future, non-inertial, space-time is uneven, that is, in the same non-inertial reference frame, there is no uniform time, it can not establish a unified simultaneity. Different inertial relativity derived the relationship between the schedule and found progress slow movement of the inertial time, which is called the bell slow effect. Can be understood as popular, the clock movement clock more slowly than the rest, and that the faster motion, clock go slower, close to the speed of light, the clock almost stopped. The length of the ruler is an inertial reference frame, "while" to get the coordinates of two endpoints the difference. As the "while" the relative, measured in different inertial length are also different. Theory of relativity shows that the length of the ruler on the direction of movement of the ruler shorter than the rest of the ruler, which is called the scale contraction effect, as close to the speed of light, the ruler shrunk to a point. We can see from the above statements, minutes feet shrink slowly and progress with the principle of relativity is that time. In other words, the time schedule and the reference system. This is a fundamental denial of Newton's absolute time and space, the theory of relativity that the absolute time does not exist, but the amount of time is still an objective. For example in the next issue will discuss the twin ideals of the experiment, his brother came back by the spacecraft is 15 years old, my brother is 45 years old may have been, indicating that time is relative, but my brother did was live for 15 years, and indeed that his younger brother live 45 years, this is nothing to do with the reference system, the time is "absolute." This shows that, regardless of how the state of motion, which itself has experienced the amount of time is an objective, absolute, which is called proper time. In other words, no matter what form you exercise, you agree that the speed of normal coffee you drink, do not rule your life has been disrupted, but others may see you drink coffee with a 100-year, down from the cup to come to an end with only a second.
Translated by Google
Clock paradox or twin paradox
After the birth of the theory of relativity, was extremely interesting to have a difficult problem --- twin paradox. One pair of twins A and B, A on the Earth, B do interstellar travel by rocket, after long years to return to Earth. Einstein asserted by the theory of relativity, the two experiences at different times, when the B than A reunion of the young. Many people doubt that the A to see B in the campaign, B see A movements are, why can not young and it is A than B? Due to the Earth can be approximated as the inertial reference frame, B to go through the process of acceleration and deceleration, acceleration is a change of reference , the real discussion is very complex, Einstein had discussed this issue clear by many people mistakenly believe that the theory of relativity is self-contradictory. If space-time diagram and discuss the concept of the world line of easy to more on this issue, but to use many mathematical knowledge and formulas. This is only used in one of the most simple language to describe the situation. However, not only a more detailed description of the language details, please refer to some interested relativity books. Our conclusion is that, regardless of the reference frame in which, B than A young. In order to simplify the problem, only discuss this case, after a very short time to accelerate the rocket to sub-light speed, flying for some time, with a very short turn around, and flight time, with a very short deceleration and Earth meet. The purpose of this treatment is omitted the impact of acceleration and deceleration. In a good discussion of the Earth reference system, the rocket clock is always moving, younger than A when the B reunion. In the rocket frame of reference, the Earth is moving in uniform during the clock, within the time course slower than the rocket, but the most critical parts of the rocket turn around process. In turn the course of the earth by the rocket back very far after a very short period of time across the half circle, in front of the rocket to reach very far. This is a "super-light" process. This ultra-light just is not in contradiction with the theory of relativity, this "ultra light" can not pass any information, not the true meaning of superluminal. If you do not turn around this process, the rocket and the earth can not be met, due to different time reference system is not uniform and therefore can not compare their age, only when they encounter can be compared. After the rocket turn, B can not directly accept the A's information, because information transmission takes time. B to see the actual process is the process in turn, the earth suddenly accelerated schedule. Appears in the B, A real younger than B, then a rapid aging in the U-turn, returning, A slow off than their own aging. Reunion time, he is still younger than A. In other words, the theory of relativity there is no logical contradiction. Requirements of the laws of physics to the relativistic coordinate transformation (Lorentz changes) to maintain the same. Classical electromagnetic theory can be included without modification and the theory of relativity framework, while Newton's mechanics only in the Galilean transformation in the same situation, under the Lorentz transformation in the form of the original compact have become extremely complex. Therefore, classical mechanics and should be modified, the modified Lorentz transformations in the mechanical system under the same situation, called relativistic mechanics. Since the establishment of special relativity, the physics has played a huge role. And depth to the range of quantum mechanics, essential for studying the theory of high-speed particles, and achieved fruitful results. However, behind the success, there are two principle issues left unresolved. The first is the difficulties caused by inertial system. Abandoned the absolute time and space, the inertial system has become unable to define the concept. We can say is the law of inertia inertial reference frame in which the establishment. Law of inertia is a real object without outside remain at rest or of uniform linear motion of the state. However, "without outside" mean? Can only say that force is not an object in inertial rest or uniform rectilinear motion. In this way, the definition of inertial system into a logical loop on such a definition is useless. We can always find the inertial system is very similar, but the universe does not exist in the real inertial system, the entire theory as the general construction on the beach. The second difficulty is caused by gravity. The law of gravity is closely linked with the absolute time and space, must be corrected, but will it change the situation to remain unchanged under the Lorentz transform any attempt to have failed, gravity can not be included in the framework of special relativity. Was found in the physical world only two forces of gravity and electromagnetic force, one of which will emerge to trouble, of course, is not satisfactory. Einstein only a few weeks to establish the special theory of relativity, to solve these two problems, however, establish a general theory of relativity, but with a full ten years. To solve the first problem, simply cancel the inertial reference frame in Einstein's theory of special status, the principle of relativity extended to non-inertial. So the first problem into a non-inertial space-time structure. Encountered in non-inertial first stumbling block is the force of inertia. In-depth study of the inertial force, put forward the famous principle of reciprocity, that the problem of reference and the gravitational problem may be solved. After several twists and turns, finally _set_ up a complete Einstein's general relativity. Surprise to all of general relativity physicists, gravity is far more complex than expected. Einstein's field equations so far been only one of the few to determine the solution. It was so elegant mathematical physicist who has amazing form. In general relativity has made great achievements, founded and developed by the Copenhagen school of quantum mechanics has made a major breakthrough. However, physicists soon discovered that the two theories are incompatible, at least there is a need to modify. Then led to that famous debate: Einstein VS Copenhagen School. Until now, controversy has not stopped, but a growing number of physicists is more inclined to quantum theory. To solve this problem Einstein spent three decades after half time but found nothing. But his work as physicists have pointed out the direction: the establishment of the force consists of four super-unified theory. Currently recognized academic most promising candidate is string theory and super-film theory. Note: this paragraph referred to "B to see the actual process is the process in turn, the earth suddenly accelerated schedule in B appears, A real younger than B, followed by aging at a rapid U-turn," this argument can not be established, if B is a 360-degree turn out what would happen? According to the text of the statement, the first 180-degree earth suddenly accelerated schedule, after 180 degrees what? B back to the original because of the way forward, which requires the B of A have to see younger than their own, which means that the earth's return to a time sucker? So do not think different of.
Translated by Google
Lorentz coordinate transformation
X = γ (x-ut) Y = y Z = z T = γ (t-ux / c ^ 2) (Note: γ = 1/sqr (1-u ^ 2 / c ^ 2), β = u / c, u for the inertial speed.) Relativistic mechanics (A) the speed of transformation: V (x) = (v (x)-u) / (1-v (x) u / c ^ 2) V (y) = v (y) / (γ (1-v (x) u / c ^ 2)) V (z) = v (z) / (γ (1-v (x) u / c ^ 2)) (B) the size reduction effect: △ L = △ l / γ or dL = dl / γ (C) the clock slow effect: △ t = γ △ τ or dt = dτ / γ (D) optical Doppler effect: ν (a) = sqr ((1-β) / (1 + β)) ν (b) (Light source and detector in a straight line motion.) (E) momentum expression: P = Mv = γmv, that is, M = γm. (F) the basic equation of relativistic mechanics: F = dP / dt (G) mass-energy equation: E = Mc ^ 2 (H) energy-momentum relation: E ^ 2 = (E0) ^ 2 + P ^ 2c ^ 2 Special theory of relativity formulas and prove Unit Symbol Unit Symbol Coordinates m (x, y, z) force NF (f) Time st (T) mass kg m (M) Displacement mr momentum kg * m / sp (P) Speed m / sv (u) energy JE Acceleration m / s ^ 2 a impulse N * s I Length of ml (L) kinetic energy J Ek Walk ms (S) potential energy J Ep Angular velocity rad / s ω torque N * m M Angular acceleration rad / s ^ 2 α power WP First, Newton's mechanics (prior knowledge) 1. Particle kinematics basic formula: (1) v = dr / dt, r = r0 + ∫ rdt (2) a = dv / dt, v = v0 + ∫ adt (Note: The two left-style formula in differential form, the right style for the integral form) When v is constant, (1) that the uniform linear motion. When a constant, (2) that the uniform speed linear motion. Know the particle equations of motion as long as r = r (t), it can all movement of the cicada. 2. Particle dynamics: (1) Newton's First Law: Objects do not force uniform linear motion. (2) Newton's second law: an object is proportional to acceleration and quality with the combined force is inversely proportional. F = ma = mdv / dt = dp / dt (3) Newton's Third Law: Action and anti-reverse for the role and power of other large along the same line. (4) the law of gravity: the force between two particles proportional to the product and quality, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance. F = GMm / r ^ 2, G = 6.67259 * 10 ^ (-11) m ^ 3 / (kg * s ^ 2) Momentum theorem: I = ∫ Fdt = p2-p1 (combined force of the impulse is equal to momentum change) Conservation of momentum: co-force is zero, the system momentum remains unchanged. Kinetic energy theorem: W = ∫ Fds = Ek2-Ek1 (combined force of power equal to the kinetic energy changes) Conservation of mechanical energy: gravitational or elastic acting only when, Ek1 + Ep1 = Ek2 + Ep2 (Note: the core of Newtonian mechanics is Newton's second law: F = ma, it is the kinematics and dynamics of the bridge, our aim is to understand the movement of an object, that is, solving the equations of motion r = r (t), if known force, according to Newton's second law gives a, then demand the basic formula according to kinematics Similarly, if the known equation of motion r = r (t), the basic formula according to kinematics seek a, then by Newton's second law we can see the force of objects.) Second, the special theory of relativity mechanics (Note: γ = 1/sqr (1-u ^ 2 / c ^ 2), β = u / c, u for the inertial speed.) 1. Basic principles: (1) relativity principle: All inertial frames are equivalent. (2) the speed of light the same principle: the speed of light in vacuum has nothing to do with the inertial constant. (Shown here first and then prove the formula given) 2. Lorentz coordinate transformation: X = γ (x-ut) Y = y Z = z T = γ (t-ux / c ^ 2) 3. Speed change: V (x) = (v (x)-u) / (1-v (x) u / c ^ 2) V (y) = v (y) / (γ (1-v (x) u / c ^ 2)) V (z) = v (z) / (γ (1-v (x) u / c ^ 2)) 4. Foot contraction effect: △ L = △ l / γ or dL = dl / γ 5. Clock slow effect: △ t = γ △ τ or dt = dτ / γ 6. Light Doppler effect: ν (a) = sqr ((1-β) / (1 + β)) ν (b) (Light source and detector in a straight line motion.) 7. Momentum expression: P = Mv = γmv, namely M = γm 8. Relativistic mechanics, the basic equation: F = dP / dt 9. Mass-energy equation: E = Mc ^ 2 10. Energy-momentum relation: E ^ 2 = (E0) ^ 2 + P ^ 2c ^ 2 (Note: In two ways to prove this, one carried out in three-dimensional space, a four-dimensional space-time that in fact they are equivalent.) Third, the three-dimensional proof 1. Experiments summarized by the axiom, not proof. 2. Lorentz transformation: Let (x, y, z, t) where the coordinate system (A series) stationary, (X, Y, Z, T) where the coordinate system (B system) speed u, and along the x-axis. A system in the origin, x = 0, B of A Department of the origin of the coordinates X =- uT, that is, X + uT = 0. Can make x = k (X + uT) (1). Owing to various points in the inertial position is equivalent, so k is a constant and u the (general relativity, due to space-time curvature, the point is no longer equal, so k is no longer a constant.) Similarly, B lines of the origin are X = K (x-ut), known by the principle of relativity, two inertial equivalence, in addition to speed reverse, the two equations should take the same form, namely k = K. Therefore, X = k (x-ut) (2). For y, z, Y, Z are independent and speed, available Y = y (3). Z = z (4). Will (2) into (1) can be obtained: x = k ^ 2 (x-ut) + kuT, that is T = kt + ((1-k ^ 2) / (ku)) x (5). (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) satisfy the principle of relativity, the speed of light required to determine the k invariance principle. When the two coincide when the system's origin, issued by the coincidence point a light signal, respectively, two-line x = ct, X = cT. Into (1) (2), we have: ct = kT (c + u), cT = kt (cu). Multiply the two equations have to eliminate t and T: k = 1/sqr (1-u ^ 2 / c ^ 2) = γ. the anti-γ into (2) (5), we have the coordinate transformation: X = γ (x-ut) Y = y Z = z T = γ (t-ux / c ^ 2) 3. Speed change: V (x) = dX / dT = γ (dx-ut) / (γ (dt-udx / c ^ 2)) = (Dx / dt-u) / (1 - (dx / dt) u / c ^ 2) = (V (x)-u) / (1-v (x) u / c ^ 2) Similarly, the availability of V (y), V (z) of the expression. 4. Foot contraction effect: B lineage, there is a parallel with the x-axis of the rod length l, from X = γ (x-ut) was: △ X = γ (△ xu △ t), and △ t = 0 (the coordinates to be measured simultaneously at both ends) , then △ X = γ △ x, that is: △ l = γ △ L, △ L = △ l / γ 5. Clock slow effect: By the coordinate transformation of the inverse transform we can see, t = γ (T + Xu / c ^ 2), it is △ t = γ (△ T + △ Xu / c ^ 2), and △ X = 0, (in the same measure) Therefore, △ t = γ △ T. (Note: the coordinates of objects at rest relative to the length of the inherent quality and length of time interval, said, rest mass and proper time, with the coordinate transformation does not change the amount of the objective.) 6. Doppler effect of light: (Note: the sound of the Doppler effect is: ν (a) = ((u + v1) / (u-v2)) ν (b).) B-lineage origin at a light source emits light signal, A the origin with a probe, two lines were two minutes, when the origin of two-line overlap, the calibrated clock starts. B lineage in the light frequency ν (b), wave number is N, B system clock measured time △ t (b), we can see by the clock slow effect, A △ system clock measured in time △ t (a) = γ △ t (b) (1). Detector begins to receive the time for t1 + x / c, the final time for t2 + (x + v △ t (a)) / c, then △ t (N) = (1 + β) △ t (a) (2). Relative motion does not affect the optical signal of wave number, so the number of light waves emitted wave with the same number of detectors that ν (b) △ t (b) = ν (a) △ t (N) (3). We can obtain from the above three: ν (a) = sqr ((1-β) / (1 + β)) ν (b). 7. Momentum expression: (Note: dt = γdτ, this time, γ = 1/sqr (1-v ^ 2 / c ^ 2) because the particle dynamics for optional self-reference system, β = v / c) Newton's second law in the Galilean transformation, to maintain the situation is unchanged, that is, both in the inertial system, the Newton's second law is established, but in the Lorentz transformation, the original simple form to become a mess, it is necessary correction of Newton's law, is required under the coordinate transformation remains the original simple form. Newtonian mechanics, v = dr / dt, r in the same coordinate transformation of the form, (the old coordinate system for (x, y, z) coordinate system for the new (X, Y, Z)) as long as the denominator replaced by an invariant (of course none other than the non-proper time dτ) can fix the speed concept. And even if V = dr / dτ = γdr / dt = γv to relativistic speed. Newton's momentum is p = mv, v replaced by the V, may amend the momentum, that is, p = mV = γmv. Define M = γm (relativistic mass) is p = Mv. This is the basic amount of relativistic mechanics: Relativistic momentum. (Note: We generally do not have the speed but with relativistic speed in Newtonian terms) 8. Relativistic mechanics, the basic equation: By the relativistic momentum expression we can see: F = dp / dt, which is the definition of force-type, although the form of Newton's second law with exactly the same, but the content is not the same. (Relativity quality is variable) 9. Mass-energy equation: Ek = ∫ Fdr = ∫ (dp / dt) * dr = ∫ dp * dr / dt = ∫ vdp = pv-∫ pdv = Mv ^ 2 - ∫ mv / sqr (1-v ^ 2 / c ^ 2) dv = Mv ^ 2 + mc ^ 2 * sqr (1-v ^ 2 / c ^ 2)-mc ^ 2 = Mv ^ 2 + Mc ^ 2 (1-v ^ 2 / c ^ 2)-mc ^ 2 = Mc ^ 2-mc ^ 2 That E = Mc ^ 2 = Ek + mc ^ 2 10. Energy-momentum relation: E = Mc ^ 2, p = Mv, γ = 1/sqr (1-v ^ 2 / c ^ 2), E0 = mc ^ 2, available: E ^ 2 = (E0) ^ 2 + p ^ 2c ^ 2 Fourth, the four-dimensional proof: 1. Axioms, can not prove. 2. Coordinate transformation: the speed of light the same principle: dl = cdt, that is, dx ^ 2 + dy ^ 2 + dz ^ 2 + (icdt) ^ 2 = 0 in an arbitrary inertial are established. DS defined as four-dimensional interval, dS ^ 2 = dx ^ 2 + dy ^ 2 + dz ^ 2 + (icdt) ^ 2 (1). Constant light signal dS is equal to 0, and for any two points of dS space-time is generally not zero. dS ^ 2> 0 known class space separated, dS ^ 2 <0, said every class time, dS ^ 2 = 0, said class light interval. Relativity principle requires (1) Under the coordinate transformation invariant form, so (1) there is nothing to do with the coordinate transformation invariant, dS ^ 2dS ^ 2 speed of light requires the same principles of optical signal in the coordinate transformation is invariant under dS . Therefore, under the constraints of two principles together, an important conclusion can be drawn: dS is invariant under coordinate transformations. Mathematical rotation transformation by the formula: (keeping y, z axis does not move, rotate and ict x-axis) X = xcosφ + (ict) sinφ icT =- xsinφ + (ict) cosφ Y = y Z = z When X = 0 时, x = ut, then 0 = utcosφ + ictsinφ Was: tanφ = iu / c, then cosφ = γ, sinφ = iuγ / c anti into the above equation was: X = γ (x-ut) Y = y Z = z T = γ (t-ux / c ^ 2) 3.4.5.6. Slightly. 7. Expression and four-dimensional momentum vector: (Note: γ = 1/sqr (1-v ^ 2 / c ^ 2), the following formula in dt = γdτ) So r = (x, y, z, ict) will be v = dr / dt in dt replaced dτ, V = dr / dτ, said four-dimensional speed. Then V = (γv, icγ) γv three-dimensional component, v is the three-dimensional velocity, icγ component for the fourth dimension. (The same reason) Four-dimensional momentum: P = mV = (γmv, icγm) = (Mv, icM) Four-dimensional force: f = dP / dτ = γdP / dt = (γF, γicdM / dt) (F for the three-dimensional force) Four Vega speed: ω = / dτ = (γ ^ 4a, γ ^ 4iva / c) Then f = mdV / dτ = mω 8. Slightly. 9. Mass-energy equation: fV = mωV = m (γ ^ 5va + i ^ 2γ ^ 5va) = 0 Therefore, four-dimensional four-dimensional force and speed is always "vertical" (similar to the Lorentz magnetic force) Obtained by the fV = 0: γ ^ 2mFv + γic (dM / dt) (icγm) = 0 (F, v for the three-dimensional vector, and Fv = dEk / dt (power of expression)) Therefore dEk / dt = c ^ 2dM/dt that ∫ dEk = c ^ 2 ∫ dM, ie: Ek = Mc ^ 2-mc ^ 2 Therefore, E = Mc ^ 2 = Ek + mc ^ 2 10. Slightly. The basic principles of special relativity Material in the interaction for perpetual motion, which did not campaign material, there is no free movement of material, because the material is in contact with each other, the interaction between exercise and, therefore, must be described in the relationship between the material movement, rather than description of movement may be isolated. In other words, movement must have a reference material, this reference material is the reference system. Galileo pointed out that the movement of ships and the rest of the ship's movement can not be distinguished, that is, when you are in a closed cabin, and completely isolated from the outside world, even if you have the most developed minds, the most advanced equipment, but also no perception of your boat is uniform motion, or stationary. Impossible to perceive the size of more speed, because there is no reference. For example, we do not know the overall state of motion of the universe because the universe is closed. Einstein be cited as the first basic principle of special relativity: the narrow principle of relativity. Its content is: full equivalence between inertial, indistinguishable. The famous Michelson - Morley experiment to completely negate the ether theory of light, come to light with the reference system-independent conclusions. In other words, whether you're standing on the ground, or standing on the flying train, the measured speed of light is the same. This is the second basic principle of special relativity, the speed of light the same principle. By these two basic principles can be derived directly transform the coordinates of the theory of relativity, the speed and all of the special theory of relativity transform content. Such as speed changes, in contradiction with the traditional rules, but in practice proved to be correct, such as a train speed is 10m / s, a relative speed of vehicles in the car is 10m / s, who saw the car on the ground the rate of people not 20m / s, but (20-10 ^ (-15)) m / s or so. Under normal circumstances, this relativistic effect can be ignored, but close to the speed of light, this effect is significantly increased, for example, the train speed is 0.99 times the speed of light, at the rate is 0.99 times the speed of light, then the ground-based observations who's conclusion is not 1.98 times the speed of light, but 0.999949 times the speed of light. People in the car to see the light behind the shot did not slow down for him is the speed of light. Therefore, in this sense, the speed of light is not exceeded, because in terms of that reference system, the speed of light is constant. Speed of change has been the numerous particle physics experiment that is impeccable. Because of the unique nature of this light, it was _select_ed as the only four-dimensional space-time scale. Available by the Galileo principle, the movement of light in the cabin the cabin is always relative to the speed of light, the cabin is stationary or whether high-speed movement, not a superposition of C and V relationship, the relative outside the cabin, is the superposition of C and V relationship. Discusses the theory of relativity and many people did not get to know the relative relationship. Train speed is 0.99 times the speed of sound, the train's speed is 0.99 times the relative speed of sound, the sound of people on the ground, the person on the train, nor is it to 1.98 times the speed of sound in motion. Theory of relativity, you basically do not start, many physical phenomena, no explanation point on. Other people's point of view, all the wrong ideas into their own understanding, their understanding of the struggle with his own mistakes. Plus two A super-ionizing the aircraft, in theory, the air resistance is negligible, then faster, the lower the temperature inside the vehicle. Similarly, in space high-speed - ultra-light flying manned aircraft internal temperature decreases with increasing speed - being unknown coefficients Energy flow faster, the shorter the life the life of the body. Relative to sea turtles and the like, the faster the human brain activity, aging sooner.
Translated by Google
Opposition
Many people have heard "from the date of the birth of relativity theory, opposition did not stop" words, and history is littered with famous people against the theory of relativity, then there is what opponents of view? We also need to know to avoid this problem, it seems very ignorant, because of space limitations, see the entry Baidu down theory of relativity. Here is the "clock paradox or twin paradox" of the opposition, Here the view is "a pair of twins A and B, A on the Earth, B do interstellar travel by rocket, after long years to return to Earth. A and B age is still the same!" Based on this, they began on Earth, they the same age, this point no one should have any objection, before departure of the moment in the B, A and B age is still the same, starting from the beginning B for B for, A time to gradually slow down, but in fact only B gets A's intelligence increased the time required for it, because A is, B is also at the same time reduce the rate of full, exactly the same!! if B is still A facing the opposite direction towards the production of non-stop acceleration, then B gets A's information need even longer, but if B does uniform linear motion, then B gets A's information needs time to change, followed by By analogy, if B A in the opposite direction toward the front of the production of non-stop deceleration, then , That is, toward the direction of A have non-stop acceleration, then B gets A's information will reduce the time required, and after a simple calculation can know, when B back to A side, because of the acceleration has been caused by information as the time required for growth and deceleration caused by the received information to reduce the time needed just to off_set_ the end, B is still to be A, the initial time required to obtain intelligence information, so the A and B, age is still the same! About U-turn problem, if you turned around and used the time ignored (here make a point, I think that time can not be ignored, must be strong in order to produce acceleration, and force must persist for some time, there is the so-called "moment" of the Li there must be a force duration), then fully in line with my above theorem, but there is no acceleration to get rid of that part of it, if you used the calculation of time turn into still consistent with my proposed theorem, due to the U-turn must have acceleration, the acceleration must have a strong, but strength must persist for some time, (the so-called "moment" of the force does not exist, even if there can not produce acceleration) acceleration caused by the received information as the time required for growth and because of reduced speed caused by the received information is still needed just to off_set_ the time, there is no older than B, A large ... A and B may be independent of how to do more --- even the most idealistic Buddhist ideas such as "I see you, so you only exist "is the same reason, it can not be thrown aside the reference. Newtonian mechanics that the time constant, which is the foundation of Newtonian mechanics The theory of relativity that space-time is changing, not constant. (So called theory of relativity) such as speed approaching the speed of light, time slows down (the detailed reasons if you want to know ask me to explain it more words) Newtonian mechanics and relativity and the biggest paradox - space-time variability, has withstood the test of proof Opposition comes from the lack of understanding of special relativity. According to special relativity, the same time in different inertial reference frame is absolutely meaningless, that is different in different inertial reference frame there is no absolute position, while only in the same location have absolutely the same time. Explained above, the twin paradox is very good, the latter objection is obviously totally do not recognize the relativistic effects, and the propagation of light because it takes time as an illusion caused by the relativistic effects observed. About twins paradox, different inertial twin time to observe each other, Sohu community towards high "twin paradox - to help you understand the theory of relativity (c)" (Address: http://club. it.sohu.com/r-kpyd-86081-0-15-0.html) you can see detailed changes.
Translated by Google
Note
Science is wisdom changes of biological summary of the material, there is no evidence that the law exists, it is not science. I found that supporters of special relativity here, and thoroughly revise and improve the critics are saying that others do not understand the special theory of relativity, then the judge understood and do not understand the criteria? Background to discussion of the theory of relativity, the theory of relativity and the assumed prerequisite Why must these assumptions there is only so far, why not assume that justice can be discussed in the process of building the theory of relativity, to achieve the above three conditions, it can be considered to understand Einstein's special theory of relativity. This standard can be achieved recognized, right? Even these do not know, to criticize others do not understand the theory of relativity, are not eligible. Sohu community to move up to answer: Determine whether the standards can get to understand special relativity simply, is to see mass-energy equation can not explain how come. The reason is simple, in fact, Einstein's mass-energy equation to solve the constant speed of light caused by the contradiction between classical mechanics in the process inadvertently get out of the by-product, that is, this is not Einstein to find new energy and get out , is inadvertently in the special theory of relativity get windfall. If you can not tell how to mass-energy equation, and you certainly do not understand the special theory of relativity, if you can make it clear that you are basically considered to understand. I will talk about Einstein, the standard measure of quality to increase it: the quality of energy increases lead to increased, not results, but the results, Einstein believed that when a mass m of the speed of an object reaches a certain value of the object where the frame of reference, F can produce a force of acceleration, but according to calculations, in the original inertial reference frame that can produce the acceleration is less than a, the original m = F / a, with the speed of an object (ie, with kinetic energy) after Since F has not changed, a decrease, that is, m increases. [Help] Have a discussion on a logical error, assuming that 1 +1 = 3, because 3 +3 = 6, so 3 +3 +3 = 9. Now who is going to prove that 3 +3 +3 = 9 error, it shows 1 +1 = 3 is wrong, if that 3 +3 +3 = 9, is a recognition that 1 +1 = 3. This is a discussion of the logic above. We discussed the principle of special relativity there is a problem and did not say that all the conclusions of the theory of relativity wrong, if mass-energy equation is correct, there must be other ways to derive the conclusion that, while a discussion on, and there is no necessary connection between the two shows, so can not arguments as its conclusions. Not discussed the principle of special relativity, we can not understand that it is the theory of relativity. Sohu community response towards this high note: I made the above equation that can be confronted only a brief description, both to really understand the theory of relativity know that I indeed have some correct understanding of special relativity, but also left a lot of room for anyone to show what he has to explain how the quality energy equation, energy equation if the confrontation who make more versed in classical physics at least to make (not necessarily understand the theory of relativity) is convincing (at least that point than I explain more convincing) explanation, I had to. The historical background of special relativity arise: the development of electromagnetic theory, need to find a light frame of reference, and Michelson - Morley experiment is to measure the frame of reference of the original experiment, where they discover the same speed of light in any inertial reference frame, which led to observed in different inertial motion of the object appears the same can not resolve the contradiction, until Einstein made two assumptions seem absurd to be observed in different inertial motion of the object is no longer the same contradiction, this is the special theory of relativity. In fact, the special theory of relativity has been confirmed, that is, the physical world has been recognized as Einstein's original assumption is correct, but some people still do not understand special relativity question it. Look at the top of opposition, described the phenomenon of knowledge is entirely classical mechanics can give a reasonable explanation of the phenomenon, that is above the opposition simply does not recognize any contradiction between classical mechanics, but just another way to interpretation by the spread of light caused by the illusion takes time, which was originally to understand classical mechanics any person can understand something, he thought that this is the principle of special relativity, that all do not support his point of view of people do not understand the special theory of relativity. This is the theory of relativity's supporters and opponents know each other do not think the other reason of special relativity. Replies to move up: I have a comprehensive exposition of the principles of special relativity, special relativity can prove that I understand the basis to move up on the "understanding" a higher standard of special relativity, but have neither been discussed in the high principle of special relativity, has not been discussed mass-energy equation derivation. To which standards can not understand that move up the special theory of relativity. People are not be persuaded, because they can ignore people's vulnerability, as people who bridge the new school, so after a game, bad grades, and then said did not make any mistakes today! In the bridge master view, error is very large, this is the level of the gap. Michelson - Morley experiment can only prove that the Earth motion relative to the optical media does not exist, you say, "observed the same objects in different inertial motion can not resolve the conflict there" should refer to the satellite from Jupiter observations of Jupiter after the turn, issued light was observed on Earth by the time measured in the Earth toward the satellite movement, and back on the satellite movement, two time equivalent, rather than some people think that the speed of superposition, and this misunderstanding, I have been described : car sound from the air were measured at rest, equal to the speed of sound, without being concerned about the car is measured by movement toward or back-measurement Movement, which I also think that the original reasoning is wrong, this shows in the high I never understood the meaning of the expression, but with their own ideas to combat error. Shouting "special theory of relativity has been confirmed", the move up a lot of evidence has been claimed, but has not come up with one, and my theory, and some qualitative results, and the theory of relativity is the same, on the principle discussed, and the theory of relativity is consistent, so I have to grasp that the Einstein synchronization method is used up, the establishment of the theory of relativity, and we use the method of sound synchronization, you can _set_ up the speed of sound theory of relativity. Thus Einstein's special theory of relativity, but a universal theory of relativity in the light of sync. Classical mechanics do not take into account the phenomenon of near-light will see what the problem, but the theory of classical mechanics can explain the problem. Do not think that abandoned the classical theory of relativity, who abandoned the classical theory on the brilliant, all the theories are built on the basis of previous theory, and will not use the basic theory, blind to abandon the classical theory, it will fall of. I told you about things, of course, that everyone can understand, read before it starts to study the theory of relativity, you will find the theory of relativity in the discussion, there is a problem. Instead, move up, the results can not be relativistic point of view, designated as do not understand the theory of relativity, with this I do not understand the results obtained to the theory of relativity, but the results have a problem. Special relativity in Note 4: Absolute (completely static) frame of reference does not exist. Laws of physics are the same for any frame of reference. In any frame of reference, the speed of light constant. In a different frame of reference, the event is not simultaneous. Easily lead to errors in special relativity thesis: Speed increases, time slows down. (Only when _set_ up in another frame of reference in view) Speed increases, objects become shorter. (Only when _set_ up in another frame of reference in view) Special theory of relativity can not handle accelerated motion. (For the special theory of relativity the biggest misconceptions) Quality with speed increase. (Energy increases, rather than the static quality) No faster than the speed of light faster. From either side of the speed of light through the barriers are not allowed.
Translated by Google
Encyclopedia
xiayi xiangduilun Special relativity special theory of relativity Roughly speaking is different from Newton's time and space, a new space-time theory, is the establishment of A. Einstein in 1905, the "narrow" (or "special") that it only applies to inertial frames of reference. Observed only in high speed phenomena can discern this same theory with classical physics, the physical difference between the phenomenon of prophecy. Now, the special theory of relativity in many disciplines have a wide range of applications, which, together with quantum mechanics, the two have become the basic theory of modern physics. The generation of special relativity special theory of relativity and electrodynamics in optical experiments contradict the theory of classical physics with the incentive generated. 19th century to early 20th century, it was discovered that a lot of conflict with classical physics facts. ① moving object electromagnetic induction. For example, a magnet and a conductor of electric power between the interaction phenomenon, showing the relative movement of the magnet movement ─ ─ whether it is fixed conductor, or conductor motion magnet does not move, the effect of the same, only with relative motion between the two related. However, the classical Maxwell electromagnetic theory does not explain the relative nature of electromagnetic induction. ② vacuum at the Maxwell's equations are not covariant under the Galilean transformation, and thus in violation of the requirements of classical physics theory invariant under Galilean transformation. ③ determination of the Earth relative to the "light medium" campaign has been negative test results, with classical physics, the theory of "absolute space" concept and the "light medium," the concept of serious conflict. Einstein in his youth to think deeply of these experiments the issues raised by the phenomenon, the formation of a number of important new physical ideas. He believes that "light medium" or "optical ether," the introduction is superfluous, the electromagnetic field is a separate entity; guess the laws of electrodynamics and optics, as with the laws of mechanics should apply to all inertial coordinate system. He also believes that, while there is no absolute concept of meaning. Two events from one coordinate system appears to be simultaneous, but from another relative to this coordinate system, a moving coordinate system appears, they can no longer be considered simultaneous. In these physical ideas, driven by two Einstein postulate: ① equation applies to all of the mechanics of all coordinates, for the laws of electrodynamics and optics same applies; ② the speed of light in a vacuum with the emitter of state of motion has nothing to do. Einstein's postulate of the two based on the special theory of relativity. Inertial frame of reference to describe the movement of an object, you have to _select_ a frame of reference or coordinate system. For example, you can use three infinite ideal rigid rod (not weight, not because of external effects of deformation, etc.) made perpendicular to each other frame, called the Cartesian coordinate frame to describe the location of any point in space, any distance to the origin point by the standard metric ruler. At the same time, each point in space came alive again in an identical structure and performance of the standard clock, used to measure the local time. However, this is not enough to describe an object to another object of the exercise, especially to compare different locations in order of physical events, it must be located in different locations each calibration or synchronization of the clock. There are two general ways to synchronize. ① to a standard clock at the origin aligned with the origin of the clock, and then it moved to the space each successive point to align all the clocks. However, in using this approach, people do not know in advance the process of moving the standard clock speed will have any effect. ② From a space point (for example, from the origin) at a given moment will be launched into space optical signal points to calibrate all of the clock. However, in using this approach, optical signals need to know in advance all directions in space velocity, and in order to measure the speed of light and the clock must first be calibrated in different locations. Thus, by means of a certain scientific hypothesis must be possible at various locations each calibration or synchronization of the clock, to establish simultaneity. According to the evidence provided by a large number of experiments, Einstein assumed that the optical signal can be transmitted to the same speed in all directions, that the speed of light is isotropic. Accordingly, people can run out of space the signal points to calibrate the clock, and thus get the exact same time of the definition, that has a complete frame of reference or coordinate system: location of a standard ruler to measure the space, with at space points record the local time clock, used up all of the clock signal calibration. However, the spatial coordinate frame choice is not unique. For example, a coordinate frame relative to another coordinate
Translated by Google
English Expression
: special relativity, special theory of relativity
