Reptiles are the first truly get rid of dependence on the water truly conquer the land vertebrates, can adapt to a variety of terrestrial environment. Reptiles is the longest land animal rule, which dominate the entire planet Earth's biological history of the Mesozoic is the most compelling era, that era, reptiles are not only the absolute ruler of the land, sea and sky but also the rulers of Earth There is no any kind of other organisms have had such a glorious history. Although this is no longer the era of reptiles, most reptiles have become extinct taxa, only a few survived, but the species, the reptiles are still very busy group, the species of birds and ranked second only to terrestrial vertebrates in the second. Reptiles are now in the end it is not clear how many, various statistics may differ thousands, of new species are constantly being identified, generally speaking, reptiles should now have close to 8,000 species. As the dependence on the water out, the distribution of reptiles influenced by temperature and less by humidity, most existing reptiles found in tropical and subtropical regions, in temperate and boreal regions is small, only a few species can arrive near the Arctic Circle or distributed in the mountains, and in tropical regions, both humid or drier areas, species are very rich. Reptiles on the traditional skull temporal Ru on the basis of the number and location of the hole divided into four categories, this classification does not accurately reflect the genetic relationship to each other, but more convenient to use, so although the division is now the new program a lot, but this The traditional classification is still commonly used. There is no temporal Ru skull is divided into the hole without Kongya Gang, on behalf of the original type of reptile; skull on each side of the temporal Ru a lower division for the next Kong Yagang hole is toward the evolution of mammals, reptiles; skull on each side an upper The temporal Ru into the hole transfer Kong Yagang, marine reptiles; skull on each side with two holes into the temporal Ru double Kongya Gang, is the backbone of reptiles, and birds evolved. Double Kong Yagang further divided into more primitive dragon scales under the headings and initial progress under the Long Gang (or head). In addition to the existing reptiles are no Kongya Gang turtles, crocodiles are archosaurs under the Gang, the remaining members are part of the dragon scales under the Gang. Existing reptiles turtles head is divided into turtles, crocodiles, crocodile head is divided into classes, and outline the next dragon scales, there are two views on the sub-head, a view is divided into head and beak Squamata, Squamata further divided into a lizard, lizards and snakes earthworm three sub-orders, and Sauria and Serpentes then each divided into several projects under the head or superfamily, another view is lizard, lizards and snakes of the earthworm as a separate upgrade project, the three re-synthesis of a scaly head, which lizards and snakes under the head or under the super-sub-section is upgraded to a head. The division of existing reptiles have different opinions, some subjects were divided into several other experts of different subjects, some subjects classified as sub-projects which are controversial, and these orders, families and even the Latin name of each has a different wording. This introduces the classification of existing reptiles, the prehistoric reptiles, only slightly mentioned. Reptiles category list No Kongya Gang anapsida: the most primitive reptiles, appeared in the late Carboniferous, the only remaining extant turtles. Cup Lombok captorhinid: the most primitive reptiles, amphibians close, some of which had placed members of the class is now the dragon cup into amphibians. In Lombok mesosauria: primitive aquatic reptiles, mainly living in the Permian. Turtles head testudinata: ancient and specialized reptiles, reptiles and other relationship is not clear, there are two sub-orders from the Mesozoic, has survived into modern, with its ancestor type has not changed much. Side-necked turtle suborder pleurodira: turn back the neck lateral shell, is mainly for the southern hemisphere freshwater turtles, the wider prehistoric distribution, China has fossils. Side-necked turtle Branch pelomedusidae: Africa and South America are located in the side of the neck turtles, one of the distribution to the Arabian Peninsula. Snake-necked turtle Branch chelidae: Oceania and South America are located in the side of the neck turtles, some species the neck is very long, China has fossils. Song-necked turtle suborder cryptodira: Most turtles, including existing, widely distributed, terrestrial, freshwater and the ocean can be seen. Snapper Section chelydridae: distributed in North America, the two large freshwater turtles, large head and mouth into a hook, ferocious nature. Flat chest turtle Branch platysternidae: Only one, distributed in Asia, some turtles and size similar to small rodents, taxonomic status uncertain, it was also to be included in Section Nie turtle, turtle Branch, Division turtle or tortoise tide Division. Turtle Branch emydidae: mainly New World freshwater turtles. Chao turtle Branch bataguridae: mainly Old World freshwater turtles, including some of the most common turtle, turtles are often incorporated into the Division. Tortoises Section testudinidae: terrestrial turtles, found in parts of the world outside Australia, including some of the islands. Mud turtle Branch dermatemydidae: only existing one, located in Central America, China has a lot of fossils. Chest moving turtle Branch kinosternidae: distributed in the New World freshwater turtles. Hydrocharitaceae trionychidae: the appearance of the skin rather than the horny scutes, mainly in freshwater in Asian, Africa and North America are also distributed in Australia only fossils. Liang Zhao Hydrocharitaceae carettochelyidae: the appearance of the skin rather than the horny scutes of the turtle, only existing one, located in New Guinea and northern Australia, China's fossil turtle species may belong to no such shield. Turtle Branch cheloniidae: life in the ocean with horny scutes large turtles. Leatherback turtle Branch dermochelyidae: life in the ocean does not have skin to skin covering the scutellum and a large turtle, existing only one, is the largest remaining turtles. Under Kong Yagang synapsida: that like breast-feeding reptiles, the ancestors of mammals, living in the late Paleozoic and Mesozoic. Dragon head pelycosauria: early reptile-like breast-feeding is seen in the late Carboniferous one of the first reptiles, extinct in the Permian. Animal hole mesh therapsida: progress like breast-feeding reptiles, appeared and flourished in the Permian, the Triassic evolved into mammals, after only a few remnants of the Triassic. One type of advanced progress no different mammals. Tune Kong Yagang euryapsida: mainly sea reptiles, appeared in the early Triassic, the double-hole type of descent, often into double Kongya Gang, all in the late Cretaceous extinction. Fin Lombok sauropterygia: including Magic Dragon, plesiosaurs, shield dragons teeth. Fish Lombok ichthyosauria: highly adaptable marine life, reptiles, fish like body. Double dragon scales under Kongya Gang Gang diapsida lepidosauria: the backbone of the more primitive reptiles, the emergence of the first in the late Carboniferous reptiles, is one of the most prosperous of modern reptiles, including the vast majority of members of existing reptiles. Start crocodile head eosuchia: Early scales dragons, is the ancestor of the other two holes class, but also the oldest living reptiles, still continued in the early Cenozoic period of time, it was also the earliest and most complete type of place new projects. Beak leader rhynchocephalia: dragon scales the original class, the vast majority living in the Mesozoic, with only remnants of the modern wedge lizard teeth, is the most primitive extant reptiles. Sphenodon Lizard Branch sphenodontidae: the most primitive extant reptiles, only 2 species distributed in New Zealand and nearby islands. Lizard head lecertifromes (sauria): the largest modern species of reptiles, a class, as many as 4,000 species, distributed all over the world, varied shapes. Iguana suborder iguania: Typical members are back mane scales, somewhat similar to wedge lizard teeth, limbs were complete, many species can change the color of the body, and includes some of the most unique looks of lizards, mainly in tropical and subtropical regions , arboreal, terrestrial or aquatic. Americas Agamidae iguanidae: mainly distributed in the New World iguana, a wide range of recently often divided into different subjects up to 8. Agamidae agamidae: Old World of iguanas, the richest in Asia and Oceania, Africa and Europe less, but not the distribution of Madagascar. Battle to avoid Section chamaeleonidae: the chameleon, the most unique lizards, mainly in Africa, especially in Madagascar, a few distributed in Asia and southern Europe. Gecko suborder gekkota: including the able-bodied gecko feet and limbs, lizards and other degradation of the scales, usually relatively large eyes, the eyelids can not be active. Gekkonidae gekkonidae: the second largest lizard in the Department, all over the world, including some of the people most familiar with reptiles, it was to be split into several different subjects. Foot lizard scales Division pygopodidae: distribution limited to Oceania, body like a snake, no forelimbs, hind limbs degenerate into a flake. Night lizard Section xantusiidae: taxonomic status uncertain lizards, geckos like a little, but it was to put skink suborder, located in the Americas. Branch Lizard feet dibamidae: little is known about the taxonomic status uncertain lizards, skinks was to place a separate self-contained sub-sub-head or head, only males have short hind legs, eye degeneration, multiple cave, located in Southeast Asia. Skink suborder scincomorpha: the largest lizard in a class, more than a typical lizard shape, but some degradation of the limbs. African lizard Section cordylidae: distributed in the African continent and Madagascar, a small section, some species have hard scales, it was to be divided into ring-tailed lizard lizard Branch Branch and board two different subjects. Lizard Branch lacertian: Old World terrestrial lizards, the Mediterranean region distribution center, also found in Eurasia and other regions of Africa, the most northern reaches near the Arctic Circle. Americas lizard Division teiidae: New World lizards, multi-channel habitat, small aquatic, it was to be further divided into the Americas Division and the naked eye lizard lizard Section two sections. Skink Section scincidae: the largest lizard in a subject, including lizards, about 1 / 3 type, able-bodied or degradation. Distributed all over the world, but in most species in Southern Asia and Oceania, Europe, northern Asia and the Americas less kind. Snake lizard suborder anguimorpha: the existing narrow range, with some snake close to the characteristics of the ancestors of snakes may be the type, some sub-projects will be merged with the skinks, it was also to be further divided into two sub-orders . Snakes, including the only existing lizard suborder poisonous lizards, lizards and the largest remaining prehistoric life in the ocean's largest lizard - mosasaurs. Snake Lizard Branch anguidae: including the New World some old and new continent full of lizards and a total of no foot lizards, some of which no foot lizards in North America as the sheets sometimes creep lizard Division. Different lizard Section xenosauridae: including the three different North American lizard and crocodile lizard in China, often as the two different subjects. Gila Division helodermatidae: including two poisonous lizards in North America, existing only poisonous lizard. Branch Lizard Borneo lanthanotidae: also known to be poisonous lizard Division, only to be poisonous lizard of Borneo represented. Monitor lizards Section varanidae: including the existing size of the largest lizards, but some smaller species, mainly in Australasia, also found in tropical regions of Africa and Asia. Earthworm lizard head amphisbaeniformes: the mysterious cave of reptiles, lizards previously incorporated into the class, distributed in South America, Africa and neighboring areas, the majority of non-full, a small number of forelimb can be divided into 1 to 5 subjects, of which 1 / 3 species only from a single specimen known. Branch Lizard earthworm amphisbaenidae: earthworm largest lizard head 1 family, including the vast majority of members present earthworm lizard, lizards and found that complete distribution earthworm, earthworm lizard was incorporated into all undergraduate, it was also some members of one of its sub- 1 out of 2 families. Branch Lizard short head earthworm trogonophidae: distribution in Africa, North, Northeast and Middle East Division of the small, triangular cross-section of the body. Branch Lizard feet earthworm bipedidae: located in northwestern Mexico, the only remaining earthworm lizard head with small forelimbs members. Snake head serpentiformes: after the number of lizards reptiles second category group, the distribution of even more extensive than the lizards, in addition to a variety of terrestrial environments, but also all over India - the warm Pacific waters. Blind snakes suborder scolecophidia: small original snake cave, located in warmer regions of the world. Blind Snake Branch typhlopidae: blind snakes suborder most species, the most widely distributed of a subject, mainly in Africa, southern Asia and Oceania, a few located in Central America. Different shield blind snake Division anomalepidae: a small section located in Central and South America, including some of the smallest snake. Small blind snake Division leptotyphlopidae: distributed in the Americas, Africa, Arabia and India, larger than the slender blind snakes, including some of the smallest snake. The original snake suborder henophidia: the original and medium-sized snakes, are located in tropical regions, concentrated in southern Asia to Oceania area, a narrow range, some groups classified controversial. Python Section boidae: including the largest existing snakes, but most species are not that big, there are remnants of hind legs, pythons and boas are divided into two categories, are widely distributed. Lam Nam Branch tropidophiidae: the distribution of medium-sized snakes of tropical America, in the past included in the python section. Island boas Section bolyeridae: only distributed in the Mascarene Islands and medium-sized snakes, pythons subjects classified in the past. Tube Snake Branch aniliidae: only South American representative of a species, the original medium-sized snakes. Snake scales flash Americas Division loxocemidae: only one species in Central America on behalf of, the snake can be incorporated into the tube section. Japanese Tube Snake Branch anomochilidae: Southeast Asia on behalf of the two species, and sometimes the needle into the barrel end of a snake or serpent Branch Division. Tube Snake Branch cylindrophiidae: distributed in tropical Asia, and sometimes the needle into the barrel end of a snake or serpent Branch Division. Pintail Snake Branch uropeltidae: medium-sized burrowing snakes found in southern India and Sri Lanka. Flash Snake scales Division xenopeltidae: medium-sized terrestrial snakes found in South and Southeast Asia. Scrofula snake scales Division acrochordidae: distributed in Southeast Asia and Oceania aquatic snakes, loose skin, good at swimming. New snake suborder caenophidia: including all the snakes and most of the existing non-poisonous snakes Snake Branch colubridae: the biggest one section of reptiles, including the existing 2 / 3 of the snake, are distributed on every continent, except Australia and is the main snakes around the outside, members of the complex, mostly non-poisonous snakes, some of the sulcus tooth snake, subfamily a lot into confusion, and sometimes some of the members are listed as separate subjects. Elapidae elapidae: front tooth groove snakes, widely distributed, both on land and sea distribution, which is the main snakes in Australia, often divided into Elapidae, sea snakes snake tail section and flat section three divisions. Viper Division viperidae: tube teeth of snakes, found in parts of the world outside Australia, are often sub-Viper Branch, Division and bald viper viper Section three divisions. Under the dual Kong Yagang diapsida archosaurs Gang archosauria: the backbone of progress reptiles, the ancestors of birds, with improvement of exercise and four rooms in the heart, appeared in the Triassic, the rulers of the Mesozoic Paleontology and the most compelling However, Mesozoic crocodile head after only a few members survived. Thecodonts head thecodontia: archosaurs under the most primitive members of the Gang, just to survive in the Triassic, is very diverse, probably other types of archosaurs, as too numerous and are often broken up into different slots of the tooth type groups. Pterosaur head pterosauria: flying reptiles that lived in the Triassic to the Cretaceous, there is the original beak long and progressive pterodactyl two sub-orders, including the history of the largest flying animals. Lizard hip head saurischia: head of two dinosaurs, living in the Triassic to the Cretaceous, there are 2 or 3 sub-projects, including the largest in the history of land plants and land animals, meat eating animals. Ornithischia ornithischia: dinosaurs, one of the two projects, to survive in the Triassic to the Cretaceous, there are five sub-projects, including some of the more unique dinosaur appearance. Crocodile-shaped head crocodylia: aquatic archosaurs, living in the Triassic to the modern, including three to four sub-orders, most of the extinction at the end of the Mesozoic, the existing real crocodile suborder eusuchia only one to three branches. Crocodile Section crocodylidae: modern art, the maximum size of reptiles, mainly in the tropical waters of all continents can be divided into long alligators, crocodiles and alligators three subfamilies, or upgrade to three divisions In the network used to describe someone in the game moves very slowly, or because of various reasons the time is too slow to read
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No. 2
爬行类
Are vertebrate subphylum. Their physical structure and physiological function can adapt to the land than amphibians living environment. Body was clearly divided into head, neck, trunk, limbs and tail. Neck more developed, flexible rotation, increased predation, can play more fully the eye and other sensory organs of the head function. Bone developed to support the body, protecting internal organs and enhance athletic ability have provided the conditions. With the lungs breathing, heart separated by two atrial appendage and the two ventricles is not fully constituted, the arterial and venous blood gradually to separate the direction of evolution. Amphibian brain structure than has been the further development of sensory organs also increased the complexity of the enhancements. In reptiles the reproductive development process, the egg structure and embryonic development are also some changes in egg outsourcing a hard calcareous shell, to prevent the egg water evaporation, while in vivo fertilization, out of the reproductive development in the fertilization of the water dependence; amniotic and embryonic development in the amniotic fluid occurs, the embryo can develop in the amniotic fluid, can prevent drying, but also to avoid mechanical damage. Very busy in the Mesozoic reptiles, almost all over the world, the dinosaur that was the representative. Future changes in climate and the earth's crust, the vast majority of species extinction. About 5000 kinds of existing species, the common lizard, snakes, tortoises, turtles, alligators. Reptilia is being horny scales or hard body armor, the change in land temperature and amniotic breeding animals (amniota). Is an ancient amphibians diverged in the late Paleozoic Carboniferous taxa produce amniotic eggs, amphibians are not only inherited the characteristics of the initial landing, and in the prevention of body moisture evaporation, and adaptation to terrestrial life and reproduction, etc., to obtain further development. Reptiles is the real terrestrial vertebrates, while the ancient reptiles or birds, animals and other higher animals, such as temperature evolution of the original ancestors of amniotic membrane, therefore, the key link in the evolution of vertebrate animals have nexus and future significance. Reptilia of the Mesozoic geological history has been very popular, very diverse types and quantities, a recession in the late Mesozoic. Extant species only crocodiles, turtles, lizards and snakes and other animals. One individual is produced in the largest Southeast Asian network python (pythonreticulatus), length up to 9.9m, while the smallest round-toed lizard is spotted tiger (sphaerodactylus argus), length is only 36mm. In addition to the Antarctic regions, the distribution of almost all over the world and especially in the Southern Hemisphere species are more numerous, can inhabit the plains, mountains, forests, grasslands, deserts. Marine and inland waters, and other living conditions, a few lizards (Tibetan sand lizard phrynocephalus theobaldi, red-tailed sand lizard p. erythrurus) up to the highest point of the vertical distribution of over five thousand meters of altitude cold desert plateau zone. Reptiles out of the water environment is characterized by real Reptiles are scaly or hard body armor, changes in land temperature and amniotic breeding animals. Reptiles from the late Carboniferous ancient amphibians evolved to adapt to terrestrial life is truly the highest temperature changes such as vertebrates. Reptiles is really the land from the water of life (some modern species of the water of life, is second nature phenomena) groups. Compared with amphibians, need to address the following questions: (1) breeding on land issues (2) to prevent evaporation of body water (loss) (3) long-range land-based sports, adaptive radiation Solve these problems, in the body structure changes are (progressive features): 1.1 amniotic egg (amniotice egg) the emergence of Amniotic egg is dry and early reptiles adapt to the terrestrial environment, a necessary condition. They are no longer produced in the water, but not kill, and the use of oxygen in the air supply of embryonic development. Outsourcing to an amniotic egg layer protective egg shell, or flexible, such as leather, or hard calcareous shell, to prevent evaporation of water within the egg, to avoid mechanical injury or bacterial. Egg shell surface has many holes, ventilation, good performance, to ensure that the gas metabolism during embryonic development. Amniotic eggs with large yolk sac (yolk sac), embryo storage yolk in order to ensure the nutritional needs. In embryonic development to the gastrula, the embryo produces upward protruding ring around the folds, around embryonic growth, the embryo will eventually wrapped in a bag with 2-layer membrane, the outer layer of chorion (chorion), the inner layer of amniotic membrane (amnion). Amniotic cavity (amniotic cavity) is filled with amniotic fluid in a closed chamber, the embryo immersed in them. This embryo development needed to provide a water environment. The formation of embryonic hindgut prominent allantoic (allantois), located between the amniotic and chorionic, waste collection uric acid metabolism of the embryo, and allantoic membrane rich in blood vessels, as the embryo's "lung", oxygen and carbon dioxide through the porous egg shell in the allantoic membrane for gas exchange. Reptiles have some type of mating organs, allowing the in vivo fertilization. A clear need for a body shell eggs fertilized, sperm enter the egg must be closed before. Out from a pair of testis sperm transport through the fallopian tubes into the mating organ, mating reproductive organ is a vent wall eversion win things. Female system consists of a form of ovarian and fallopian tube. Gland secretion of a large tube wall and shell egg protein. Since the emergence of the amniotic egg, so completely out of vertebrate development in the individual's dependence on the water, thus truly adapted to terrestrial life, become fully terrestrial animals. 1.2 Reptiles have tough, dry, dry and prevent damage to the body's protective scales. Thin skin is peeling skin on a regular basis, and well-developed tight leather formed. Real leather pigment cells, cells of many colored lizards and snakes have a manifest of all colors, the book value of expensive bags and shoes is made by a crocodile leather snake skin leather, for animals they are, unfortunately, reptiles Most of the special scales derived from the skin, and fish scales are different sources, scales are bone, leather structure. Some reptiles such as crocodiles, scales retained for life, and gradually grow to replace the wear and tear. While some reptiles, such as snakes and lizards, under the old scales grow new scales, and intervals to slough off the old scales. When the snake shed the old skin (epidermis and scales) by the turn within the valgus molt, the old lizard skin by sloughing off the crack and is usually intact, cracked or small slough off the front. 1.3 analog reptiles amphibians circulatory system with more effective and high blood pressure All reptiles of the right atrium, are accepted by the body's oxygen from the blood; completely separated from the left atrium receiving oxygenated blood from the right ventricle. Crocodiles. There are two completely separated ventricles, ie ventricular two atria, the heart is the first animal with four rooms, and other reptiles have not completely separated from the ventricle. Even in reptiles has not completely separated from the ventricle, the heart of the pattern can also prevent the flow from the lungs (oxygen) and physical (lack of oxygen) blood mixed; Therefore, all reptiles have two separate circulatory system function. No gill circulation of reptiles, the fifth of the aortic arch on each side disappear into the carotid artery on the third, fourth aortic arch and on into the sixth of the body into the brain artery. Arterial arch pair, unlike birds and mammals of a single arch of aorta. Crocodiles (Figure 1-2) lack of arterial cone and truncus arteriosus. Blood through a large vein of the former and a single large vein returned to the heart after a venous sinus. With the renal hilum and the hepatic portal vein system. Blood contains oval, nucleated blood cells, small blood than amphibians. 1.4 mainly lung breathing Reptilian lungs are more developed than in amphibians. Almost the only reptiles rely on the lung gas exchange. Some aquatic turtles breathing places pharynx membrane added. Reptiles, amphibians lungs are larger than the respiratory area, as higher vertebrates aspirated into the lungs, rather than as amphibians rely on human lung mouth muscle swallow air. Reptiles has been completely abandoned the most important amphibian skin to breathe. Similar to other warm-blooded animals, like reptiles, the use of abdominal breathing, that is, the expansion of the chest rhythmically in and out, complete gas inhalation and exhalation. Reptiles rely on external intercostal muscle, lift the ribs, chest expansion, inhaled air into the lungs; when the intercostal muscles in contraction, the rib can reduce traction, narrow chest, lungs exhaled gas. The body cavity of most reptiles is mesenteric, peritoneal ligaments and folds into a separate capsule. Heart wrapped in pericardial sac (Figure 2-1). Turtles in the abdominal cavity outside the lungs. Liver and diaphragm after lizards will be divided into two parts the abdominal cavity, and crocodiles have a similar membrane, the muscles involved in breathing activities included. To avoid service, lung visceral rear end to highlight some of asked a long hollow balloon (temporary storage of gas), it represents a bird balloon precursor. Thorax of amniotic animals unique, first appeared in reptiles, and strengthening the role of breathing (abdominal breathing) and to protect the function of internal organs are closely related. Thoracic ribs and sternum from the chest of the composition. 1.5 to enhance renal function Reptiles Shenzang progress after the kidney is the type of communication has its own ureter to the external. Kidney to save precious water and has very effectively produce small amounts of urine, excretion of nitrogen waste is uric acid and not urea or ammonia. Uric acid has a low drug solubility, precipitation in the solution quickly, so the urine of many reptiles is semi-solid paste. Complexity of the nervous system gradually 1.6 Quanbu reptiles, besides the absence of other types of appendages, all have better than the amphibians to more effectively support the body and limbs on the ground crawling. Most dinosaurs only rely on powerful hind legs to walk. Reptiles amphibians analogy with the more developed nervous system. Although the reptilian brain is small, according to the size of other parts of the brain and that brain size is increased. Crocodiles first truly cerebral cortex (the brain new skin). Has a more developed central nervous system links the emergence of a variety of amphibians that are not complex behavior. Reptiles, in addition to nerve endings, there are 12 pairs of cranial nerves, (amphibians, 10 pairs). More developed peripheral nervous system to make more efficient movement of reptiles. Reptiles, the incomplete nature of the body structure Reptiles because the relatively short evolutionary history, structural features of the body also has some imperfections. 2.1 reptiles mostly dressed in waterproof exoskeleton and is still solid, in a large number of bones, increased body weight, is not conducive to rapid movement. But the skull appeared two new structures: (1) reptiles, the skull is the most important feature of the temporal fossa (tempotal fossa) to appear on both sides of the skull, eyes rear l-2 个 holes, from a certain piece of bone formation around the collar bow surrounded, said temporal fossa . Temporal fossa is attached to parts of the temporalis muscle, its appearance and masticatory muscle function of the effective implementation of chewing and chewing for more muscle contraction developed to provide enough space. The emergence of stars nest the following types: No temporal fossa class (anapsida): there is no temporal fossa. Ancient forest dragons (cotylosauria) fall into this category. The traditional view that modern turtles classified as non-temporal fossa skull category, but some species appear second nature holes. Double-temporal fossa class (diapsida): the skull has two temporal fossa on each side, most of the ancient reptiles, most modern reptiles, lizards, snakes, crocodiles) and birds belong to this category. Co-temporal fossa class (synapsida): the skull on each side of a temporal fossa, the ancient beast tooth class (theriodont) and thus evolved in mammals belong to this category. (2) secondary palate (secondary palate) occur secondary palate by the premaxillary, maxillary, palatine bone, joint palatal bone formation. The emergence of the secondary palate to separate the oral and nasal cavity, inside the nose after the shift, the respiratory channel flow, respiratory efficiency, and when the animal is still able to swallow large food normal breathing. Crocodiles have a complete secondary cross, nose and mouth completely separated. 2.2 Reptiles hook-like teeth changed little, not shown, as the differentiation of mammalian teeth; dental hygiene in the slot (slot teeth) or integrated in the bone surface (side teeth). Number of teeth arranged in two rows along the front upper jaw, teeth and jaw bone. Turtles lack teeth, only a horny beak. 2.3 glands are few and simple. However, considerable changes in the buccal gland. The upper lip into a venom gland of snakes. Stomach was spindle, containing gastric. Some reptiles (crocodiles) with fine gravel to grind food and gastrolith. Pancreatic duct from the liver and duodenum with short connections. Fold in the formation of the intestinal wall, but no glands. 2.4 Although the nervous system of reptiles than amphibians, a more progressive, but small - no more than 1% of body weight. 2.5 Most reptiles hearing is not perfect, sensory poor. Nasal hoe (Creutzfeldt-Jakob device) - the only sensory organ, the capsule is separated from the Ministry of the nose, and mouth connected; hoe nasal snakes and lizards in particular, developed. Hoe nasal olfactory nerve branches filled, known for mouth smell the food. In snakes, the smell stick to the outside world flashing tongue, carried to the mouth and nasal hoe. Few extant species of reptiles, there are around 6300 kinds, attached to the 4 mesh (5 projects will Squamata is divided into lizards and snakes head mesh), China has 300 kinds (Table 2-1). Most species to extinction, the Mesozoic geological history of the Cretaceous (the period from nearly 1.8-1.13 million years) are reptiles of the prosperous times, there are many groups, the most famous dinosaurs (Figure 2-1), sea, land, space are distributed, and now the air has no reptile distribution, the space is derived from reptiles, birds in the country. Then the new generation of Tertiary (during the years from nearly 7000-700) was replaced by birds and mammals. Reptile classification and identification based primarily on turtle structure (Chelonia mesh) or how many scales, arranged in characteristic (Squamata), external morphology and so on. Carboniferous in some Mesozoic way willing to transition to the reptiles amphibians. This transition is the result of the amniotic egg development, so that it can survive on land, although the recognition of early reptiles, before landing in the adventure, the amniotic egg had a very good development. Reptiles leap to adapt to a variety of habitats as they move to the results. Fossil record shows the Department by the dry fish, reptiles become dragons (ichthyosaur), plesiosaur type (plesiosaurs) and the beginning of the dragon and out of the class line. Some of these species back to the ocean. Later to become like mammal radiation reptiles, turtles, pterosaurs, birds, dinosaurs and so on. In this large cluster, has survived only four head reptiles (turtles head, crocodile head, beak and head of Squamata. Sphenodon of New Zealand lizards (sphenodon) represents Beak leader (who is not listed in this phylogenetic tree), the only students in the species. How rapid the decline! Statistics of China reptile species Groups Species Subtotal i. Missing bow subclass anapsida 1) turtles head chelonia (testudinata) 24 1. Edge turtle Branch dermochelidae 1 2. Turtle Branch cheloniidae 3 3. Turtle Branch testudinidae 17 4. Hydrocharitaceae trionychidae 3 ii. Ichthyosaur subclass ichthyopterygia (fossil) iii. Wide bow subclass euryapsida (fossil) iv. Double Bow Mariana diapsida (2) Squamata squamata Sauria lacertilia (sauria) 111 5. Gekkonidae gekkonidae 19 6. Banlinxike agamidae 38 7. Different lizard Division xenosauridae 8. Snake Lizard Branch anguidae 2 9. Section dibamidae creeping lizard 1 10. Monitor lizards Division varanidae 1 11. Lizard Branch lacertidae 20 12. Branch Lizard scincidae Shilong 29 Snake suborder ophidia 166 13. Blind Snake Branch typhlopidae 3 14. Python Division boidae 2 15. Shanlinsheke xenopeltidae 2 16. Snake Branch colubridae 122 17. Elapidae elapidae 8 8 18. Sea snake Division hydrophiidae 15 19. Viper Division viperidae 4 20. Viper Division crotalidae 10 (3) crocodile head crocodilia 21. Alligators Division alligatoridae 1 v Single Bow subclass synapsida (fossil) 1 Total 302 Turtles head (testudines) - turtles (250 species) in the body synthetic leather carapace and plastron of turtle shell bone; jaw toothless horny beak substituting, side bone inactive; vertebrae and ribs with tortoiseshell healing; anal hole slit. Song-necked turtle suborder (cryptodira): curved neck turtles, who head to bend necking shell. Section 10: Snapper Division (chelydridae) (snapper (chelydra serpentina), North America, the pond ,30-50cm ,9-18kg, evil) Flat chest turtle Branch (platysternidae) (Big Head Turtle) Turtle Branch (fmydidae) (turtle) Chest moving turtle Branch (kinosternidae) (mud turtles and turtle moving chest) Tortoises Division (testudinidae) (tortoise) Turtle Branch (cheloniidae) (green sea turtles, 360kg) Hydrocharitaceae (trionychidae) (turtle) Leatherback turtle Branch (dermochelyidae) (leatherback turtles, ocean, 2m, 725kg) Mud turtle Branch (dermatemydidae) (river turtle) Liang Zhao Hydrocharitaceae (carettochelyoidae) (Liang Zhao turtle). Side-necked turtle suborder (pleurodia): measured neck turtle. Head cross-music necking people to shell. Snake-necked turtle Branch (chelidae) (snake-necked turtle) Side-necked turtle Branch (pelomedusidae) (side-necked turtle). Squamata (squamata) - Snakes (2,700 species), lizards (30 species), and earthworm lizard (130 species): the epidermis of the skin or a skin scales will slough off; tooth fixation in the jaw bone, side bone free; back before most of the vertebrae concave; anal hole transverse cracking. Sauria (sauria) - lizards: body slender, mostly with the limbs, two eyes healed mandible; movable eyelids; mating organ pair. Is very diverse groups, including terrestrial, burrowing, aquatic, arboreal and flying types, the majority can live in dry environments (tropical and desert, behavioral regulation of body temperature (body temperature is relatively stable skills)). 20 families were divided, the main subjects are: Gekkonidae (gekkonidae) large gecko, Gekko. Iguana Branch (iguanidae) (New World lizards, colorful) Agamidae (agamidae) (Old World lizards), To avoid labor Branch (chamaeleontidae) (to avoid labor), Lizard Branch (lacertidae) (Old World lizards) Ma Lai spot lizard, northern grass lizards, snakes lizards; crocodile lizard, prairie sand lizard Skink Division (scincidae) (skinks, alert, active) Blue-tailed Skink Gila Division (helodermatidae) (Gila) short-tailed Gila Snake Lizard Branch (anguidae) (snake lizards). Snake suborder (serpentes) (pull, serpere, crawling) - Snakes: Body elongated; limbs and ears were missing; mandibular ligament connected to the front; eyes lack eyelids, inactive, deafness as weak (with the degradation of the limbs as to adapt to the environment are secondary phenomena); forked tongue can extend; teeth conical, born in the upper jaw and mouth. 11 families, the main subjects are: Blind Snake Branch (leptotyphlopidae (blind snakes) Python Division (boidae) (python) Snake Branch (colubridae) (learning to see the snake) Elapidae (elapidae) (inactive fangs of the snake) Viper Division (viperidae) (Viper and pit vipers). Table 2-2 Comparing China snakes Division Earthworm lizard suborder (amphisbaenia) - earthworm lizard: Body elongated, almost the same diameter; tail is short: no foot (the other is a short forelimbs), with traces of a limb, eyes hidden in the skin, only one lung. Section 2: Viviparous lizard earthworm Division (trogonophidae) (earthworm viviparous lizard) Earthworm lizard Division (amphisbaenidae) (earthworm oviparous lizard). Crocodile head (crocodilia) four rooms in the heart of the vertebral body is generally concave front, usually with the former rubber toe 5, hind legs with four toes; side bone inactive; anal hole slit. Section 2: Crocodile Division (crocodylidae) (crocodile, alligator and blunt alligators in South America) Long alligator Division (garialidae (Ganges crocodile) (25 species). Beak leader (rhynchocephlia) vertebrae two concave; inactive bone side, the top eye is well developed, easy to see; anal hole transverse cracking, beak head is wedge lizard lizard teeth (sphenodon) is now the only species (living fossils). The origin of reptiles and adaptive radiation 1 the origin of reptiles According to the classical view, dating back about reptiles from the Carboniferous period 300 million years ago, the fans to the evolution of amphibian tooth class. To the late Carboniferous, the climate on Earth drastic changes have occurred in some regions, the drought and desert, so the original into a warm and humid climate, dry continental climate - warm summer and cold winter. Flora also changes with climate change, and most plants are gymnosperms Shaanxi replaced. Resulting in many ancient amphibian extinction or re-people the water. And have adapted to terrestrial structures (such as well-developed horny skin, respiratory system, lung sound, etc.) and amniotic egg of the ancient reptiles are constantly struggle to survive and develop, and amphibians pushed into the background, to Mesozoic almost all the ecological environment around the world, often known as the Mesozoic era reptiles. Biologists have generally believed that the origin of reptiles, amphibians fans in tooth class, began two hundred and eighty million years ago, the Permian reptiles of the oldest family is a cup of Lombok (cotylosauria) (Figure 25-1). Long lost tooth type and class of the transition between the cups. Is a similar type of lizard, is a semi-aquatic animals, about 0.5 meters long, is called Se Muer lizard or salamander salamander (seymouria), found in Texas (texas) $ 220 million years of formation. Lizard reptile salamander is considered to be the family, because it shows the characteristics of two groups, thus there is a transition type. Although, with reptiles, lizard newt skeletal features, but it is more like reptiles than amphibians, the salamander lizard with evidence, it has lateral line system, typical of amphibians have an aquatic larval stage. In other words, it is not reliable, lizard salamander Health amniotic egg is a real terrestrial reptiles. The lizard salamander represents a type of transition is almost complete. Cup dragon lizard salamander originated in the class, or similar type, show significant features of reptiles. 2 reptiles adaptive radiation The adaptive radiation of reptiles in the Triassic (immediately Permian) particularly significant, with the emergence of new ecological environment is the same. At that time, climate and geology on land change, such as climate change, from hot to cold, orogeny and the formation across the terrain, and various types of plant life. Mesozoic reptiles ruled the past era, and soon they suddenly near the end of the Cretaceous extinction about 6500-80000000 years ago. Demise of reason? Because there were many changes in the Carboniferous period. Modern flowering plants would also like to attack and spread rapidly as smart mammals. In general, as far as we know it today, the modern fauna and flora, being able to adapt and survive well, can not meet the dinosaurs died. Their extinction or due to climatic, ecological factors, too specialized and comprehensive factors such as low fertility results. However, paleontologists continue to speculate and debate the issue. Why can face several reptiles and mammals to survive the fierce competition? A turtle with a protected, snakes and lizards from the jungle and rocky habitats in the evolution over, and rock in the jungle where they could run into competition from a number of four-legged class; also crocodiles, because of its huge body, hidden, good attack and very few enemies in the aquatic environment. Carboniferous in some Mesozoic way willing to transition to the reptiles amphibians. This transition is the result of the amniotic egg development, so that it can survive on land, although the recognition of early reptiles, before landing in the adventure, the amniotic egg had a very good development. Reptiles leap to adapt to a variety of habitats as they move to the results. Fossil record shows the Department by the dry fish, reptiles become dragons (ichthyosaur), plesiosaur type (plesiosaurs) and the beginning of the dragon and out of the class line. Some of these species back to the ocean. Later to become like mammal radiation reptiles, turtles, pterosaurs, birds, dinosaurs and so on. In this large cluster, has survived only four head reptiles (turtles head, crocodile head, beak and head of Squamata. Sphenodon of New Zealand lizards (sphenodon) represents Beak leader (who is not listed in this phylogenetic tree), the only students in the species. How rapid the decline! The decline of reptiles Mesozoic era are reptiles, all on Earth live in a wide range of ecological environment of the ancient reptiles, especially in the body is a huge dinosaur, as was a tyrant on the planet. In 100 million years of their long years, increasing food intake, the corresponding body is getting bigger and bigger, and living habits and diet are both oriented toward the specific direction, to a good position to adapt to the dwelling specific environmental conditions. Mesozoic climate is very stable, season and latitude temperature changes are slight. To computer simulations of large-scale under these conditions the body temperature of reptiles that rely solely on its own thermal inertia (thermal inertia) will be able to maintain relatively stable body temperature. But by the late Mesozoic, the Earth's crustal movement occurred in a strong long mountain sports (our European Alps, the Himalayas and is formed during this period). Dramatic changes in the earth's crust caused by climate, environment, great changes, the plant type is also changed, and replaced the emergence of angiosperms and gymnosperms living advantage. But these have a big appetite narrow diet of the ancient reptiles have serious consequences, to be warm-blooded animals, especially mammals, the rise of the ancient reptiles living in disadvantage in the struggle to survive, resulting in relatively large quantities of sudden death and extinction , thus ending the prevailing atmosphere of the golden age of reptiles. About prevails why the sudden disappearance of dinosaurs, biology is still a great mystery. Explore the reasons for this extinction, in addition to the above interpretations (climate change), in recent years has also put forward some hypotheses: outbreak of sunspots, such as the late Cretaceous, a significant increase in cosmic rays on Earth, large reptiles, large absorbent , resulting in gene mutations lead to death; the solar system can be run a week around the galactic center is divided into four seasons, which lasted about 4 quarterly 0000000-4 500 million years, winter and summer on the Earth's biological disadvantage that it is this, when the dinosaurs extinction; Cretaceous and Tertiary boundary in the 200,000 to 300,000 years ago, the climate is dry, trace elements (such as zinc lead, copper, manganese, silver, etc.) the amount of abnormal, electron microscopy, at this time of dinosaur eggs found a pathological structure, the fragile shell, not the normal reproduction of some dinosaurs class and the gradual extinction of ancient reptiles, this process continues the 200,000 to 300,000 years; longer the larger the size of dinosaurs, their eggs are naturally towards larger of the incubation time required to heat or accumulated temperature is high, when the Earth's climate cools, so that large eggs hatch or accumulated heat required is not enough, so that a variety of dinosaur eggs hatched larvae are difficult in cold weather After a very short period of time, all the dinosaur extinction, and only small eggs or a small ovoviviparous reptiles can reproduce and survive; also suggested that the sun has a companion star, its elongated orbit once every 2 600 years close to the sun once, then tube orbits will be disrupted, which leads to child star hit the Earth, resulting in periodic mass extinction (marextinction), mass extinction of reptiles due to this reason. There are also "healing the earth plate", "sea level rise and fall", "magnetic reversal" and so the hypothesis. In many hypotheses, is widely accepted in recent years, huge planet hit the Earth hypothesis. It had been found in Cretaceous and Tertiary periods there are a lot of ground at the junction of Ir (iridium) of sediment, in recent years, some scholars here at the junction of several continental rock formations are found in the iridium-rich deposition, in other words, the Earth's continents of the Cretaceous and Tertiary strata junction commonly iridium rich sediments. Known on Earth, such as iridium platinum in the same rare, but on the content of the meteorite is very rich. Accordingly, the fact that some scholars have speculated that some of the ancient dinosaurs and reptiles in the Cretaceous extinction was due to a large meteor hit the Earth caused. Such a collision may result in vaporization of meteorites and a lot of dust clouds block the sunlight, reducing photosynthesis photosynthesis even to below the critical point, and when no or very little solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface is resulting temperature drop. All of this lack of sunlight and green plants to make the necessary energy and lead to death, thus destroying the food chain and caused all the reptiles end of the era. This "planet hit the Earth" hypothesis, there are a few biologists believe that it, like any other hypothesis, the extinction of the big questions to answer when in doubt. In short, has so far failed to make a truly convincing hypothesis or make all evidence has yet to be explored further. Reptiles and human relations 1 Benefits of reptiles 1.1 The role of ecosystems in reptiles animals for the outside temperature, mainly rely absorb the sun's radiant heat to maintain and increase body temperature. Since metabolic rate is low, the natural world as a heat source of the Ying Yang Nei material Xiaohao also small, they are able through most of the energy intake and assimilation into their own biomass, the net productivity can reach 30% to 90%, far more than warm-blooded animals. Most reptiles are carnivorous or omnivorous category, lizards and snakes eat insects and rodents through a lot of energy intake and the benefits such as agricultural production, in the ecosystem as a secondary consumer role. According to a survey of beneficial factors, is 53.69% blue-tailed skinks, skink 51.6%, 24.01% for the dragonfly, which are very widespread in grassland and dense sand lizard point lizard Ma, respectively 82.14% and 81.10%. Many reptiles and carnivorous beasts and birds of prey and food sources of energy, energy flow in the ecosystem process, but also in secondary productivity status. Therefore, the reptiles to maintain the stability of terrestrial ecosystems, as well as nature to provide energy storage, it has an essential role. 1.2 food With snake delicious, nutritious, fat 22.1%, protein 18%, and a variety of amino acids, so the body is a nourishing and healing effects of food. Guangdong and Guangxi areas to cobra, snake Bungarus and squirrels as raw material production of the three snake dishes, three snake wine, three Snake Road, is famous the famous food and wine _select_ion. The margin of the skirt turtle, Sunburn population has always been food that is the face, and nourishing food expensive. Turtle meat, turtle eggs, fins, spinal muscles, bones film sutural yellow belly fat is in many Pacific Islanders favorite food. At present, because Luanbulanlie, has led to serious resource damage, must be controlled. 1.3 Process with Snakeskin leather thin, resilient, beautiful patterns, not only can be made of leather, belts, shoes, bag, purse and other crafts, also can be used as violin, tambourine, piano three-stringed lute drum skin membrane and other ethnic instruments. 1.4 Medicinal Medicine in China for medicinal use at least 10 kinds of lizards, one of the most famous produced in Guangxi is a large gecko, medicine called Gecko, according to "Compendium of Materia Medica" records have lungs gas, essence and blood, Dingchuan only cough, lung pain, diabetes treatment, yang channel function. Gecko lizard as a substitute in Tibet and Xinjiang in the iguana, lizard Ma desert in Inner Mongolia there, Gansu Province Western sand tigers. Turtle and the turtle, snake, snake, snake slough, venom can be used as medicine. Snake Snake Chuanbei can be processed into liquid, dried tangerine peel the Snake, Snake and other proprietary liquid Pinellia, rheumatism, joint pain, cough and other diseases. Chinese medicine called dragon snake slough, clothing, medicine has insecticidal function of expelling wind, treat Houbi. Treatment swelling, scabies and obstructed labor. Snake venom research is the development of biological sciences in the very future of a branch, our research has been transported to the snake venom of the trial, gradually going deeper into the biochemistry of snake venom and its comprehensive utilization. Has been made of injection with cobra venom more effectively than morphine and more long-lasting analgesic effect, for the relief of metastatic cancer pain, trigeminal nerve, and sciatica, rheumatic joint pain, spinal cord, like dying, ribbon and other HSV patients pain, have significant results. Treatment of cancer with snake venom enzyme also received a certain effect. Bee snake venom has a strong coagulation, clotting for hemophiliacs lack the body, can be used venom to treat their bleeding disorders localized bleeding. China scholars call the snake venom extract from the anti-seizure enzyme has been used in clinical thrombosis, thromboangiitis obliterans, coronary heart disease treatment. 1.5 Other Other snakes of the crust within the severe vibration, temperature rise and the ground happens to the vagaries of tilt movement, etc., has a strong sensitivity, which may be before the earthquake showed abnormal behavior. With the development of bionics, scientists constructed according to the snake pit and its unique role of heat-measuring device, the application of research results to the IR-measuring instrument, and made with high accuracy and can track aircraft, submarines, Sidewinder missile and rocket vehicle self-guided devices. Turtle Run travel route from the navigation system can be inspired to improve the navigational instruments of research. Also suggested that the optimal structure of turtle carapace, the shell structure in line with the theory, there is a large architectural design learn from. China's resource-rich reptiles, there are many world-famous alligator and crocodile Yang mites and other specialty types, for scientific research and international cultural exchanges are important. 2 snakes and snakebite prevention of harm 2.1 snakes snakes with no difference between In the existing snakes, about 600 species of snakes, I made about 50 kinds of snakes. Venom is a complex protein, into the people and animals, it can spread with lymphatic and blood, causing symptoms of poisoning. Snake venom before the ditch teeth great harm on people, respectively, containing neurotoxic cobra, a part of sea snake venom neurotoxicity and neurotoxicity and other neurotoxic (neurotoxin), can cause loss of function of acetylcholine, resulting in the first section of the body's neuromuscular blocked impulse conduction between, the central nervous system leading to paralysis and died within a short time. Tube containing teeth like venom bulky drugs (hemotbxin), the wound can cause severe pain. Edema, purpura appeared gradually to the skin, leading to heart failure. Usually with a variety of snake venom toxic strength of nature, and when the snake bite on the amount of detoxification. For example, the king cobra detoxification quantity, potency; Trimeresurus less detoxification, toxicity is also strong; bungarotoxin detoxification less, but the potency and understand these to be effective in the prevention and treatment of snakebite Snakebite, has a positive significance. 2.2 snakes snakes with no major difference Snakes snakes with no major difference is that snakes have venom and fangs, no snake does not have this feature. China's poisonous snakes, 10 species belonging to snake teeth ditch class after branch, does not cause harm to people. Division snake sea snake about 16 species of sea life living in, only occasionally bitten fishermen along the coast of the cases, the other 20 kinds of snakes in there at least 13 kinds of rare or extremely narrow distribution. So toxic, widely distributed in larger quantities and often causes the snake snakebites, snake species are usually only about 1 / 5. Within the vast area north of Yangtze River is the main snake viper. Including Sichuan, Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau and the mountain range southwest, mainly snakes have viper, Agkistrodon acutus and several tip. From the Yangtze River, the lower riparian, reach Nanling Mountains south central China, hilly with a viper, cobra and the coral snake, and the mountains there acutus and Trimeresurus and so on. Nanling Mountains and south of the South, many snake species in China area, mainly a cobra snake, coral snake, Bungarus, king cobra, acutus, Trimeresurus iron head and so on. Qinghai-Tibet Plateau mainly snakes are king cobra, viper plateau, Medog Trimeresurus, Tibet Trimeresurus and cauliflower iron top. 2.3 snakebite and its prevention The most serious areas of snake bites in South America, South Asia and Southeast Asia. According to reports, hundreds of thousands around the world each year are bitten by venomous snakes. Snakebite in India in 1968 the total number of up to 30 million to 40 million people, 30,000 people died there. Similarly, in the South Asian subcontinent and China also have a considerable number of patients with snakebites, snake bites can be seen in these areas is very serious harm. In addition, grassland pasture (especially early spring) and snakes often cause harm to the herd, such as Yili, Xinjiang in China's viper, viper and the Altay region of grasslands north pole snakes viper, etc., are endangering human and animal safety. Death by snakes past the horses, about 20% of the total number of deaths, the number is considerable. In recent years, China's workers and local people Zoology combination of ecology and drug use prevention methods smoked snakes, with remarkable success. In general, the action is mostly slow snakes, very few take the initiative to attack bite, and only when people in the firewood, mowing, Night, the intention to step on or touch a snake bite occurs when the body of an accident. Therefore, the site of snakebite is usually in the lower extremities the following ankle, followed by upper limbs or head, chest. The optimum temperature of snake activity is 18 ℃ ~ 30 ℃, so the south of the Yangtze River in China, from July to September is the highest incidence of snakebite season, especially in hot summer rain or rain To weather eye at first glance, because low air pressure inside the snake and humidity, venomous snakes are often out of its hole activity, bite injuries. If bitten, when conditions permit, the snake should be killed immediately, while the snake taken for medical treatment, which according to the type of snake to take symptomatic treatment is extremely necessary. If indeed the snake bites, the wound will be left in the 2 large and deep teeth marks, burning pain, redness of the wound, in a few minutes significantly swollen, and swelling of the rapid expansion of the range, while the first will happen dizzy, vertigo, convulsions, lethargy and other symptoms. Snakebite emergency local treatment principle is to exclude the venom, anti-snake venom spread, to ease symptoms. Usually should immediately above 2cm ~ 10cm at the wound with a cloth belt fastened, blocking the lymphatic and venous return, and every 15 to 20 minutes to put Songbu with 1 to 2 minutes, to avoid obstruction of blood circulation, causing local tissue necrosis, such as injection of anti-venom serum, can be lifted ligation. After ligation, the application of water, saline or 0.5% concentration of potassium permanganate solution, rinse the wound again. You can also use debridement detoxification (by acutus or Viper bites should not use this method), cupping, or smoked law excluded venom. Emergency treatment, to the nearest medical attention promptly. Our analysis of the venom and snakebite prevention research have made significant achievements. Currently, in addition to the use of price and polyvalent anti-venom serum and a-chymotrypsin treatment of snakebites and other effects of drugs, but also using a variety of herbs and developed into a variety of snake medicine, which greatly improved the cure rate of snakebite. Reptiles from the late Carboniferous ancient amphibians evolved to adapt to terrestrial life is truly the highest vertebrates, such as variable temperature, constant temperature and thus evolved into two major categories of animals, birds and mammals. Reptilia, not only in adult animals, the structure further to adapt to terrestrial life, its reproduction but also from the shackles of water, and birds, mammals, animals were known as the amniotic membrane. Reptiles are divided into four categories, namely, beak head, turtles head, Squamata (lizards and snakes), crocodile head. Reptile skin surface is to scale, lack of skin and skin glands. A typical five fingers (toes)-type limbs, fingers and toes with a claw end. Temporal fossa skull formation, appear complete or incomplete secondary palate. Increase in the number of sacral and cervical, thoracic appear. Entirely to lung respiration, blood circulation is still not fully double, but the ventricle is that there is no completely separated. Start a new brain cerebral cortex, the brain is 12 pairs. Subsidence of the formation of the external auditory canal tympanic membrane. Uric acid excretion in the main. Vivo fertilization, producing a calcium or leathery shell wrapped in the amniotic egg (embryo developing in three films, that amniotic membrane, chorion, allantois membrane). Still cold-blooded animal. Dinosaurs were cold-blooded animal or a warm-blooded animals? The traditional view is that, according to the physiological characteristics of dinosaurs should be cold-blooded animal. In recent years, some studies suggest that dinosaurs have a high metabolic rate; with similar high activity of mammalian bone tissue; greater demand for food, it may be warm-blooded animals. 1994 reported that U.S. scientists Tyrannosaurus rex (tyronnosauna) skeleton structure analysis, we found a relatively stable body temperature. Of Stegosaurus (stegofaurus) back bone plate studies also show that board is rich in blood vessels, may have a regulating function of temperature. Volume 288 in 2000, "science" magazine reported that 66 million years ago, a dinosaur fossil in the heart, its anatomy and crocodiles and other reptiles, birds and mammals than closer. Experts believe that the dinosaur metabolism closer to the warm-blooded animals, this "dinosaurs were warm-blooded animals' point of view provides a new evidence Why did dinosaurs extinct? Rule the Earth 150 million years of dinosaurs and finally disappeared in the late Cretaceous period, failed to enter the new generation. There are many theories for the extinction of dinosaurs and perspectives. Common explanation is that strong on the earth end of the Cretaceous orogeny dramatic changes in the climate, leading to difficult to adapt to the situation in dinosaurs and extinction. In the 1980s, physicists in the Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks found in super-normal levels of iridium, it comes from outer space, probably an asteroid that time, resulting in a lot of dust and fire caused the dinosaurs must off. This asteroid crashed in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula near the place, a huge meteorite collision west to throw 5400 miles, falls the central Pacific ocean floor. November 18, 1998 there have been reports that an American geologist from 60 million years ago an asteroid hit the Earth's sinking debris, more sure of this inference. But another view is due to increase in iridium levels caused by prolonged volcanic eruption. 1992 reported a view that because of pollution and accumulation of trace elements in the body affect the dinosaur dinosaur's reproductive system, the output of eggs with thin shells of the eggs off, reducing the hatching rate, the final extinction of the dinosaurs. Dinosaur extinction process lasted 20 to 30 years. Whatever the reason, dinosaurs are now extinct, but they are still there in some way. Many biologists believe that birds originated in the Jurassic of bipedal walking in small theropod dinosaurs. From this sense, the descendants of dinosaurs still exist on Earth. .
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Reptiles out of the water environment is characterized by real
Reptiles are scaly or hard body armor, changes in land temperature and amniotic breeding animals. Reptiles from the late Carboniferous ancient amphibians evolved to adapt to terrestrial life is truly the highest temperature changes such as vertebrates. Reptiles is really the land from the water of life (some modern species of the water of life, is second nature phenomena) groups. Compared with amphibians, need to address the following questions: (1) breeding on land issues (2) to prevent evaporation of body water (loss) (3) long-range land-based sports, adaptive radiation Solve these problems, in the body structure changes are (progressive features): 1.1 amniotic egg (amniotice egg) the emergence of Amniotic egg is dry and early reptiles adapt to the terrestrial environment, a necessary condition. They are no longer produced in the water, but not kill, and the use of oxygen in the air supply of embryonic development. Outsourcing to an amniotic egg layer protective egg shell, or flexible, such as leather, or hard calcareous shell, to prevent evaporation of water within the egg, to avoid mechanical injury or bacterial. Egg shell surface has many holes, ventilation, good performance, to ensure that the gas metabolism during embryonic development. Amniotic eggs with large yolk sac (yolk sac), embryo storage yolk in order to ensure the nutritional needs. In embryonic development to the gastrula, the embryo produces upward protruding ring around the folds, around embryonic growth, the embryo will eventually wrapped in a bag with 2-layer membrane, the outer layer of chorion (chorion), the inner layer of amniotic membrane (amnion). Amniotic cavity (amniotic cavity) is filled with amniotic fluid in a closed chamber, the embryo immersed in them. This embryo development needed to provide a water environment. The formation of embryonic hindgut prominent allantoic (allantois), located between the amniotic and chorionic, waste collection uric acid metabolism of the embryo, and allantoic membrane rich in blood vessels, as the embryo's "lung", oxygen and carbon dioxide through the porous egg shell in the allantoic membrane for gas exchange. Reptiles have some type of mating organs, allowing the in vivo fertilization. A clear need for a body shell eggs fertilized, sperm enter the egg must be closed before. Out from a pair of testis sperm transport through the fallopian tubes into the mating organ, mating reproductive organ is a vent wall eversion win things. Female system consists of a form of ovarian and fallopian tube. Gland secretion of a large tube wall and shell egg protein. Since the emergence of the amniotic egg, so completely out of vertebrate development in the individual's dependence on the water, thus truly adapted to terrestrial life, become fully terrestrial animals. 1.2 Reptiles have tough, dry, dry and prevent damage to the body's protective scales. Thin skin is peeling skin on a regular basis, and well-developed tight leather formed. Real leather pigment cells, cells of many colored lizards and snakes have a manifest of all colors, the book value of expensive bags and shoes is made by a crocodile leather snake skin leather, for animals they are, unfortunately, reptiles Most of the special scales derived from the skin, and fish scales are different sources, scales are bone, leather structure. Some reptiles such as crocodiles, scales retained for life, and gradually grow to replace the wear and tear. While some reptiles, such as snakes and lizards, under the old scales grow new scales, and intervals to slough off the old scales. When the snake shed the old skin (epidermis and scales) by the turn within the valgus molt, the old lizard skin by sloughing off the crack and is usually intact, cracked or small slough off the front. 1.3 analog reptiles amphibians circulatory system with more effective and high blood pressure All reptiles of the right atrium, are accepted by the body's oxygen from the blood; completely separated from the left atrium receiving oxygenated blood from the right ventricle. Crocodiles. There are two completely separated ventricles, ie ventricular two atria, the heart is the first animal with four rooms, and other reptiles have not completely separated from the ventricle. Even in reptiles has not completely separated from the ventricle, the heart of the pattern can also prevent the flow from the lungs (oxygen) and physical (lack of oxygen) blood mixed; Therefore, all reptiles have two separate circulatory system function. No gill circulation of reptiles, the fifth of the aortic arch on each side disappear into the carotid artery on the third, fourth aortic arch and on into the sixth of the body into the brain artery. Arterial arch pair, unlike birds and mammals of a single arch of aorta. Crocodiles (Figure 1-2) lack of arterial cone and truncus arteriosus. Blood through a large vein of the former and a single large vein returned to the heart after a venous sinus. With the renal hilum and the hepatic portal vein system. Blood contains oval, nucleated blood cells, small blood than amphibians. 1.4 mainly lung breathing Reptilian lungs are more developed than in amphibians. Almost the only reptiles rely on the lung gas exchange. Some aquatic turtles breathing places pharynx membrane added. The lungs of reptiles, amphibians are larger than the respiratory area, as higher vertebrates aspirated into the lungs, rather than as amphibians rely on human lung mouth muscle swallow air. Reptiles has been completely abandoned the most important amphibian skin to breathe. Similar to other warm-blooded animals, like reptiles, the use of abdominal breathing, that is, the expansion of the chest rhythmically in and out, complete gas inhalation and exhalation. Reptiles rely on external intercostal muscle, lift the ribs, chest expansion, inhaled air into the lungs; when the intercostal muscles in contraction, the rib can reduce traction, narrow chest, lungs exhaled gas. The body cavity of most reptiles is mesenteric, peritoneal ligaments and folds into a separate capsule. Heart wrapped in pericardial sac (Figure 2-1). Turtles in the abdominal cavity outside the lungs. Liver and diaphragm after lizards will be divided into two parts the abdominal cavity, and crocodiles have a similar membrane, the muscles involved in breathing activities included. To avoid service, lung visceral rear end to highlight some of asked a long hollow balloon (temporary storage of gas), it represents a bird balloon precursor. Thorax of amniotic animals unique, first appeared in reptiles, and strengthening the role of breathing (abdominal breathing) and to protect the function of internal organs are closely related. Thoracic ribs and sternum from the chest of the composition. 1.5 to enhance renal function Reptile kidney after the kidney is the type of progress, with its own ureter through to the outside. Kidney to save precious water and has very effectively produce small amounts of urine, excretion of nitrogen waste is uric acid and not urea or ammonia. Uric acid has a low drug solubility, precipitation in the solution quickly, so the urine of many reptiles is semi-solid paste. Complexity of the nervous system gradually 1.6 Quanbu reptiles, besides the absence of other types of appendages, all have better than the amphibians to more effectively support the body and limbs on the ground crawling. Most dinosaurs only rely on powerful hind legs to walk. Reptiles amphibians analogy with the more developed nervous system. Although the reptilian brain is small, according to the size of other parts of the brain and that brain size is increased. Crocodiles first truly cerebral cortex (the brain new skin). Has a more developed central nervous system links the emergence of a variety of amphibians that are not complex behavior. Reptiles, in addition to nerve endings, there are 12 pairs of cranial nerves, (amphibians, 10 pairs). More developed nervous system so that crawling around the class more effective campaigns.
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Reptiles, the incomplete nature of the body structure
Reptiles because the relatively short evolutionary history, structural features of the body also has some imperfections. 2.1 reptiles mostly dressed in waterproof exoskeleton and is still solid, in a large number of bones, increased body weight, is not conducive to rapid movement. But the skull appeared two new structures: (1) reptiles, the skull is the most important feature of the temporal fossa (tempotal fossa) to appear on both sides of the skull, eyes rear l-2 个 holes, from a certain piece of bone formation around the collar bow surrounded, said temporal fossa . Temporal fossa is attached to parts of the temporalis muscle, its appearance and masticatory muscle function of the effective implementation of chewing and chewing for more muscle contraction developed to provide enough space. The emergence of stars nest the following types: No temporal fossa class (Anapsida): there is no temporal fossa. Ancient forest dragons (Cotylosauria) fall into this category. The traditional view that modern turtles classified as non-temporal fossa skull category, but some species appear second nature holes. Double-temporal fossa class (Diapsida): the skull has two temporal fossa on each side, most of the ancient reptiles, most modern reptiles, lizards, snakes, crocodiles) and birds belong to this category. Co-temporal fossa class (Synapsida): the skull on each side of a temporal fossa, the ancient beast tooth class (Theriodont) and thus evolved in mammals belong to this category. (2) secondary palate (secondary palate) occur secondary palate by the premaxillary, maxillary, palatine bone, joint palatal bone formation. The emergence of the secondary palate to separate the oral and nasal cavity, inside the nose after the shift, the respiratory channel flow, respiratory efficiency, and when the animal is still able to swallow large food normal breathing. Crocodiles have a complete secondary cross, nose and mouth completely separated. 2.2 Reptiles hook-like teeth changed little, not shown, as the differentiation of mammalian teeth; dental hygiene in the slot (slot teeth) or integrated in the bone surface (side teeth). Number of teeth arranged in two rows along the front upper jaw, teeth and jaw bone. Turtles lack teeth, only a horny beak. 2.3 glands are few and simple. However, considerable changes in the buccal gland. The upper lip into a venom gland of snakes. Stomach was spindle, containing gastric. Some reptiles (crocodiles) with fine gravel to grind food and gastrolith. Pancreatic duct from the liver and duodenum with short connections. Fold in the formation of the intestinal wall, but no glands. 2.4 Although the nervous system of reptiles than amphibians, a more progressive, but small - no more than 1% of body weight. 2.5 Most reptiles hearing is not perfect, sensory poor. Nasal hoe (Creutzfeldt-Jakob device) - the only sensory organ, the capsule is separated from the Ministry of the nose, and mouth connected; hoe nasal snakes and lizards in particular, developed. Hoe nasal olfactory nerve branches filled, known for mouth smell the food. In snakes, the smell stick to the outside world flashing tongue, carried to the mouth and nasal hoe. Few extant species of reptiles, there are around 6300 kinds, attached to the 4 mesh (5 projects will Squamata is divided into lizards and snakes head mesh), China has 300 kinds (Table 2-1). Most species to extinction, the Mesozoic geological history of the Cretaceous (the period from nearly 1.8-1.13 million years) are reptiles of the prosperous times, there are many groups, the most famous dinosaurs (Figure 2-1), sea, land, space are distributed, and now the air has no reptile distribution, the space is derived from reptiles, birds in the country. Then the new generation of Tertiary (during the years from nearly 7000-700) was replaced by birds and mammals. Reptile classification and identification based primarily on turtle structure (Chelonia mesh) or how many scales, arranged in characteristic (Squamata), external morphology and so on. Carboniferous in some Mesozoic way willing to transition to the reptiles amphibians. This transition is the result of the amniotic egg development, so that it can survive on land, although the recognition of early reptiles, before landing in the adventure, the amniotic egg had a very good development. Reptiles leap to adapt to a variety of habitats as they move to the results. Fossil record shows the Department by the dry fish, reptiles become dragons (ichthyosaur), plesiosaur type (plesiosaurs) and the beginning of the dragon and out of the class line. Some of these species back to the ocean. Later to become like mammal radiation reptiles, turtles, pterosaurs, birds, dinosaurs and so on. In this large cluster, has survived only four head reptiles (turtles head, crocodile head, beak and head of Squamata. Sphenodon of New Zealand lizard (Sphenodon) represents Beak leader (who is not listed in this phylogenetic tree), the only students in the species. How rapid the decline!
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Statistics of China reptile species
Groups Species Subtotal I. Missing bow subclass Anapsida 1) The head turtles Chelonia (Testudinata) 24 1. Edge turtle Branch Dermochelidae 1 2. Turtle Branch Cheloniidae 3 3. Turtle Branch Testudinidae 17 4. Hydrocharitaceae Trionychidae 3 II. Ichthyosaur subclass Ichthyopterygia (fossil) III. Wide bow subclass Euryapsida (fossil) IV. Double Bow Mariana Diapsida (2) Squamata Squamata Sauria Lacertilia (Sauria) 111 5. Gekkonidae Gekkonidae 19 6. Banlinxike Agamidae 38 7. Different lizard Division Xenosauridae 8. Snake Lizard Branch Anguidae 2 9. Section Dibamidae creeping lizard 1 10. Monitor lizards Division Varanidae 1 11. Branch Lizard Lacertidae 20 12. Shilong lizard Division Scincidae 29 Snake suborder Ophidia 166 13. Blind Snake Branch Typhlopidae 3 14. Python Division Boidae 2 15. Shanlinsheke Xenopeltidae 2 16. Snake Branch Colubridae 122 17. Elapidae Elapidae 8 8 18. Sea snake Division Hydrophiidae 15 19. Viper Division Viperidae 4 20. Viper Division Crotalidae 10 (3) crocodile head Crocodilia 21. Alligators Division Alligatoridae 1 V single bow subclass Synapsida (fossil) 1 Total 302 Head turtles (Testudines) - turtles (250 species) the body in the carapace and plastron of synthetic leather shell turtle bone; jaw toothless horny beak substituting, side bone inactive; vertebrae and ribs with tortoiseshell healing; anal hole slit. Song-necked turtle suborder (Cryptodira): curved neck turtles, who head to bend necking shell. Section 10: Snapper Division (Chelydridae) (snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina), North America, the pond ,30-50cm ,9-18kg, evil) Flat chest turtle Branch (Platysternidae) (Big Head Turtle) Turtle Branch (Fmydidae) (turtle) Chest moving turtle Branch (Kinosternidae) (mud turtles and turtle moving chest) Tortoises Division (Testudinidae) (tortoise) Turtle Branch (Cheloniidae) (green sea turtles, 360kg) Hydrocharitaceae (Trionychidae) (turtle) Leatherback turtle Branch (Dermochelyidae) (leatherback turtles, ocean, 2m, 725kg) Mud turtle Branch (Dermatemydidae) (river turtle) Liang Zhao Hydrocharitaceae (Carettochelyoidae) (Liang Zhao turtle). Side-necked turtle suborder (Pleurodia): measured neck turtle. Head cross-music necking people to shell. Snake-necked turtle Branch (Chelidae) (snake-necked turtle) Side-necked turtle Branch (Pelomedusidae) (side-necked turtle). Squamata (Squamata) - Snakes (2,700 species), lizards (30 species), and earthworm lizard (130 species): the epidermis of the skin or a skin scales will slough off; tooth fixation in the jaw bone, side bone free; back before most of the vertebrae concave; anal hole transverse cracking. Sauria (Sauria) - Lizards: body slender, mostly with the limbs, two eyes healed mandible; movable eyelids; mating organ pair. Is very diverse groups, including terrestrial, burrowing, aquatic, arboreal and flying types, the majority can live in dry environments (tropical and desert, behavioral regulation of body temperature (body temperature is relatively stable skills)). 20 families were divided, the main subjects are: Gekkonidae (Gekkonidae) large gecko, Gekko. Iguana Branch (Iguanidae) (New World lizards, colorful) Agamidae (Agamidae) (Old World lizards), To avoid labor Branch (Chamaeleontidae) (to avoid labor), Lizard Branch (Lacertidae) (Old World lizards) Ma Lai spot lizard, northern grass lizards, snakes lizards; crocodile lizard, prairie sand lizard Skink Division (Scincidae) (skinks, alert, active) Blue-tailed Skink Gila Division (Helodermatidae) (Gila) short-tailed Gila Snake Lizard Branch (Anguidae) (snake lizards). Snake suborder (serpentes) (pull, serpere, crawling) - Snakes: Body elongated; limbs and ears were missing; mandibular ligament connected to the front; eyes lack eyelids, inactive, deafness as weak (with the degradation of the limbs as to adapt to the environment are secondary phenomena); forked tongue can extend; teeth conical, born in the upper jaw and mouth. 11 families, the main subjects are: Blind Snake Branch (Leptotyphlopidae (blind snakes) Python Division (Boidae) (python) Snake Branch (Colubridae) (learning to see the snake) Elapidae (Elapidae) (inactive fangs of the snake) Viper Division (Viperidae) (Viper and pit vipers). Table 2-2 Comparing China snakes Division Earthworm lizard suborder (Amphisbaenia) - earthworm lizard: Body elongated, almost the same diameter; tail is short: no foot (the other is a short forelimbs), with traces of a limb, eyes hidden in the skin, only one lung. Section 2: Viviparous lizard earthworm Division (Trogonophidae) (earthworm viviparous lizard) Earthworm lizard Division (Amphisbaenidae) (earthworm oviparous lizard). Crocodile head (Crocodilia) four rooms in the heart of the vertebral body is generally concave front, usually with the former rubber toe 5, hind legs with four toes; side bone inactive; anal hole slit. Section 2: Crocodile Division (Crocodylidae) (crocodile, alligator and blunt alligators in South America) Long alligator Division (Garialidae (Ganges crocodile) (25 species). Beak leader (Rhynchocephlia) vertebrae two concave; inactive bone side, the top eye is well developed, easy to see; anal hole transverse cracking, beak first lizard lizard that Sphenodon (Sphenodon) are the only species present (living fossils).
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The origin of reptiles and adaptive radiation
1 the origin of reptiles According to the classical view, dating back about reptiles from the Carboniferous period 300 million years ago, the fans to the evolution of amphibian tooth class. To the late Carboniferous, the climate on Earth drastic changes have occurred in some regions, the drought and desert, so the original into a warm and humid climate, dry continental climate - warm summer and cold winter. Flora also changes with climate change, and most plants are gymnosperms Shaanxi replaced. Resulting in many ancient amphibian extinction or re-people the water. And have adapted to terrestrial structures (such as well-developed horny skin, respiratory system, lung sound, etc.) and amniotic egg of the ancient reptiles are constantly struggle to survive and develop, and amphibians pushed into the background, to Mesozoic almost all the ecological environment around the world, often known as the Mesozoic era reptiles. Biologists have generally believed that the origin of reptiles, amphibians fans in tooth class, began two hundred and eighty million years ago, the Permian reptiles of the oldest family is a cup of Lombok (Cotylosauria) (Figure 25-1). Long lost tooth type and class of the transition between the cups. Type is a lizard like, is a semi-aquatic animals, about 0.5 meters long, is called Se Muer lizard or salamander salamander (Seymouria), found in Texas (Texas) $ 220 million years of formation. Lizard reptile salamander is considered to be the family, because it shows the characteristics of two groups, thus there is a transition type. Although, with reptiles, lizard newt skeletal features, but it is more like reptiles than amphibians, the salamander lizard with evidence, it has lateral line system, typical of amphibians have an aquatic larval stage. In other words, it is not reliable, lizard salamander Health amniotic egg is a real terrestrial reptiles. The lizard salamander represents a type of transition is almost complete. Cup dragon lizard salamander originated in the class, or similar type, show significant features of reptiles. 2 reptiles adaptive radiation The adaptive radiation of reptiles in the Triassic (immediately Permian) particularly significant, with the emergence of new ecological environment is the same. At that time, climate and geology on land change, such as climate change, from hot to cold, orogeny and the formation across the terrain, and various types of plant life. Mesozoic reptiles ruled the past era, and soon they suddenly near the end of the Cretaceous extinction about 6500-80000000 years ago. Demise of reason? Because there were many changes in the Carboniferous period. Modern flowering plants would also like to attack and spread rapidly as smart mammals. In general, as far as we know it today, the modern fauna and flora, being able to adapt and survive well, can not meet the dinosaurs died. Their extinction or due to climatic, ecological factors, too specialized and comprehensive factors such as low fertility results. However, paleontologists continue to speculate and debate the issue. Why can face several reptiles and mammals to survive the fierce competition? A turtle with a protected, snakes and lizards from the jungle and rocky habitats in the evolution over, and rock in the jungle where they could run into competition from a number of four-legged class; also crocodiles, because of its huge body, hidden, good attack and very few enemies in the aquatic environment. Carboniferous in some Mesozoic way willing to transition to the reptiles amphibians. This transition is the result of the amniotic egg development, so that it can survive on land, although the recognition of early reptiles, before landing in the adventure, the amniotic egg had a very good development. Reptiles leap to adapt to a variety of habitats as they move to the results. Fossil record shows the Department by the dry fish, reptiles become dragons (ichthyosaur), plesiosaur type (plesiosaurs) and the beginning of the dragon and out of the class line. Some of these species back to the ocean. Later to become like mammal radiation reptiles, turtles, pterosaurs, birds, dinosaurs and so on. In this large cluster, has survived only four head reptiles (turtles head, crocodile head, beak and head of Squamata. Sphenodon of New Zealand lizard (Sphenodon) represents Beak leader (who is not listed in this phylogenetic tree), the only students in the species. How rapid the decline!
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The decline of reptiles
Mesozoic era are reptiles, all on Earth live in a wide range of ecological environment of the ancient reptiles, especially in the body is a huge dinosaur, as was a tyrant on the planet. In 100 million years of their long years, increasing food intake, the corresponding body is getting bigger and bigger, and living habits and diet are both oriented toward the specific direction, to a good position to adapt to the dwelling specific environmental conditions. Mesozoic climate is very stable, season and latitude temperature changes are slight. To computer simulations of large-scale under these conditions the body temperature of reptiles that rely solely on its own thermal inertia (thermal inertia) will be able to maintain relatively stable body temperature. But by the late Mesozoic, the Earth's crustal movement occurred in a strong long mountain sports (our European Alps, the Himalayas and is formed during this period). Dramatic changes in the earth's crust caused by climate, environment, great changes, the plant type is also changed, and replaced the emergence of angiosperms and gymnosperms living advantage. But these have a big appetite narrow diet of the ancient reptiles have serious consequences, to be warm-blooded animals, especially mammals, the rise of the ancient reptiles living in disadvantage in the struggle to survive, resulting in relatively large quantities of sudden death and extinction , thus ending the prevailing atmosphere of the golden age of reptiles. About prevails why the sudden disappearance of dinosaurs, biology is still a great mystery. Explore the reasons for this extinction, in addition to the above interpretations (climate change), in recent years has also put forward some hypotheses: outbreak of sunspots, such as the late Cretaceous, a significant increase in cosmic rays on Earth, large reptiles, large absorbent , resulting in gene mutations lead to death; the solar system can be run a week around the galactic center is divided into four seasons, which lasted about 4 quarterly 0000000-4 500 million years, winter and summer on the Earth's biological disadvantage that it is this, when the dinosaurs extinction; Cretaceous and Tertiary boundary in the 200,000 to 300,000 years ago, the climate is dry, trace elements (such as zinc lead, copper, manganese, silver, etc.) the amount of abnormal, electron microscopy, at this time of dinosaur eggs found a pathological structure, the fragile shell, not the normal reproduction of some dinosaurs class and the gradual extinction of ancient reptiles, this process continues the 200,000 to 300,000 years; longer the larger the size of dinosaurs, their eggs are naturally towards larger of the incubation time required to heat or accumulated temperature is high, when the Earth's climate cools, so that large eggs hatch or accumulated heat required is not enough, so that a variety of dinosaur eggs hatched larvae are difficult in cold weather After a very short period of time, all the dinosaur extinction, and only small eggs or a small ovoviviparous reptiles can reproduce and survive; also suggested that the sun has a companion star, its elongated orbit once every 2 600 years close to the sun once, then tube orbits will be disrupted, which leads to child star hit the Earth, resulting in periodic mass extinction (marextinction), mass extinction of reptiles due to this reason. There are also "healing the earth plate", "sea level rise and fall", "magnetic reversal" and so the hypothesis. In many hypotheses, is widely accepted in recent years, huge planet hit the Earth hypothesis. It had been found in Cretaceous and Tertiary periods there are a lot of ground at the junction of Ir (iridium) of sediment, in recent years, some scholars here at the junction of several continental rock formations are found in the iridium-rich deposition, in other words, the Earth's continents of the Cretaceous and Tertiary strata junction commonly iridium rich sediments. Known on Earth, such as iridium platinum in the same rare, but on the content of the meteorite is very rich. Accordingly, the fact that some scholars have speculated that some of the ancient dinosaurs and reptiles in the Cretaceous extinction was due to a large meteor hit the Earth caused. Such a collision may result in vaporization of meteorites and a lot of dust clouds block the sunlight, reducing photosynthesis photosynthesis even to below the critical point, and when no or very little solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface is resulting temperature drop. All of this lack of sunlight and green plants to make the necessary energy and lead to death, thus destroying the food chain and caused all the reptiles end of the era. This "planet hit the Earth" hypothesis, there are a few biologists believe that it, like any other hypothesis, the extinction of the big questions to answer when in doubt. In short, has so far failed to make a truly convincing hypothesis or make all evidence has yet to be explored further.
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Reptiles and human relations
1 Benefits of reptiles 1.1 The role of ecosystems in reptiles animals for the outside temperature, mainly rely absorb the sun's radiant heat to maintain and increase body temperature. As the metabolic rate, within the natural world as a heat source of nutrients consumed less, they can pass most of the energy intake and assimilation into their own biomass, the net productivity can reach 30% to 90% far more than warm-blooded animals. Most reptiles are carnivorous or omnivorous category, lizards and snakes eat insects and rodents through a lot of energy intake and the benefits such as agricultural production, in the ecosystem as a secondary consumer role. According to a survey of beneficial factors, is 53.69% blue-tailed skinks, skink 51.6%, 24.01% for the dragonfly, which are very widespread in grassland and dense sand lizard point lizard Ma, respectively 82.14% and 81.10%. Many reptiles and carnivorous beasts and birds of prey and food sources of energy, energy flow in the ecosystem process, but also in secondary productivity status. Therefore, the reptiles to maintain the stability of terrestrial ecosystems, as well as nature to provide energy storage, it has an essential role. 1.2 food With snake delicious, nutritious, fat 22.1%, protein 18%, and a variety of amino acids, so the body is a nourishing and healing effects of food. Guangdong and Guangxi areas to cobra, snake Bungarus and squirrels as raw material production of the three snake dishes, three snake wine, three Snake Road, is famous the famous food and wine _select_ion. The margin of the skirt turtle, Sunburn population has always been food that is the face, and nourishing food expensive. Turtle meat, turtle eggs, fins, spinal muscles, bones film sutural yellow belly fat is in many Pacific Islanders favorite food. At present, because Luanbulanlie, has led to serious resource damage, must be controlled. 1.3 Process with Snakeskin leather thin, resilient, beautiful patterns, not only can be made of leather, belts, shoes, bag, purse and other crafts, also can be used as violin, tambourine, piano three-stringed lute drum skin membrane and other ethnic instruments. 1.4 Medicinal Medicine in China for medicinal use at least 10 kinds of lizards, one of the most famous produced in Guangxi is a large gecko, medicine called Gecko, according to "Compendium of Materia Medica" records have lungs gas, essence and blood, Dingchuan only cough, lung pain, diabetes treatment, yang channel function. Gecko lizard as a substitute in Tibet and Xinjiang in the iguana, lizard Ma desert in Inner Mongolia there, Gansu Province Western sand tigers. Turtle and the turtle, snake, snake, snake slough, venom can be used as medicine. Snake Snake Chuanbei can be processed into liquid, dried tangerine peel the Snake, Snake and other proprietary liquid Pinellia, rheumatism, joint pain, cough and other diseases. Chinese medicine called dragon snake slough, clothing, medicine has insecticidal function of expelling wind, treat Houbi. Treatment swelling, scabies and obstructed labor. Snake venom research is the development of biological sciences in the very future of a branch, our research has been transported to the snake venom of the trial, gradually going deeper into the biochemistry of snake venom and its comprehensive utilization. Has been made of injection with cobra venom more effectively than morphine and more long-lasting analgesic effect, for the relief of metastatic cancer pain, trigeminal nerve, and sciatica, rheumatic joint pain, spinal cord, like dying, ribbon and other HSV patients pain, have significant results. Treatment of cancer with snake venom enzyme also received a certain effect. Bee snake venom has a strong coagulation, clotting for hemophiliacs lack the body, can be used venom to treat their bleeding disorders localized bleeding. China scholars call the snake venom extract from the anti-seizure enzyme has been used in clinical thrombosis, thromboangiitis obliterans, coronary heart disease treatment. 1.5 Other Other snakes of the crust within the severe vibration, temperature rise and the ground happens to the vagaries of tilt movement, etc., has a strong sensitivity, which may be before the earthquake showed abnormal behavior. With the development of bionics, scientists constructed according to the snake pit and its unique role of heat-measuring device, the application of research results to the IR-measuring instrument, and made with high accuracy and can track aircraft, submarines, Sidewinder missile and rocket vehicle self-guided devices. Turtle Run travel route from the navigation system can be inspired to improve the navigational instruments of research. Also suggested that the optimal structure of turtle carapace, the shell structure in line with the theory, there is a large building designed to learn from. China's resource-rich reptiles, there are many world-famous alligator and crocodile Yang mites and other specialty types, for scientific research and international cultural exchanges are important. 2 snakes and snakebite prevention of harm 2.1 snakes snakes with no difference between In the existing snakes, about 600 species of snakes, I made about 50 kinds of snakes. Venom is a complex protein, into the people and animals, it can spread with lymphatic and blood, causing symptoms of poisoning. Snake venom before the ditch teeth great harm on people, respectively, containing neurotoxic cobra, a part of sea snake venom neurotoxicity and neurotoxicity and other neurotoxic (neurotoxin), can cause loss of function of acetylcholine, resulting in the first section of the body's neuromuscular blocked impulse conduction between, the central nervous system leading to paralysis and died within a short time. Tube containing teeth like venom bulky drugs (hemotbxin), the wound can cause severe pain. Edema, purpura appeared gradually to the skin, leading to heart failure. Usually with a variety of snake venom toxic strength of nature, and when the snake bite on the amount of detoxification. For example, the king cobra detoxification quantity, potency; Trimeresurus less detoxification, toxicity is also strong; bungarotoxin detoxification small, but high toxicity, understand these are for the effective prevention and treatment of snakebite Snakebite, has a positive significance. 2.2 snakes snakes with no major difference Snakes snakes with no major difference is that snakes have venom and fangs, no snake does not have this feature. China's poisonous snakes, 10 species belonging to snake teeth ditch class after branch, does not cause harm to people. Division snake sea snake about 16 species of sea life living in, only occasionally bitten fishermen along the coast of the cases, the other 20 kinds of snakes in there at least 13 kinds of rare or extremely narrow distribution. So toxic, widely distributed in larger quantities and often causes the snake snakebites, snake species are usually only about 1 / 5. Within the vast area north of Yangtze River is the main snake viper. Including Sichuan, Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau and the mountain range southwest, mainly snakes have viper, Agkistrodon acutus and several tip. By the Yangtze River, the lower coast of south central China Daoda Nanling Mountains, hilly with a viper, the cobra and the coral snake, and the mountains there acutus and Trimeresurus and so on. Nanling Mountains and south of the South, many snake species in China area, mainly a cobra snake, coral snake, Bungarus, king cobra, acutus, Trimeresurus iron head and so on. Qinghai-Tibet Plateau mainly snakes are king cobra, viper plateau, Medog Trimeresurus, Tibet Trimeresurus and cauliflower iron top. 2.3 snakebite and its prevention The most serious areas of snake bites in South America, South Asia and Southeast Asia. According to reports, hundreds of thousands around the world each year are bitten by venomous snakes. Snakebite in India in 1968 the total number of up to 30 million to 40 million people, 30,000 people died there. Similarly, in the South Asian subcontinent and China also have a considerable number of patients with snakebites, snake bites can be seen in these areas is very serious harm. In addition, grassland pasture (especially early spring) and snakes often cause harm to the herd, such as Yili, Xinjiang in China's viper, viper and the Altay region of grasslands north pole snakes viper, etc., are endangering human and animal safety. Death by snakes past the horses, about 20% of the total number of deaths, the number is considerable. In recent years, China's workers and local people Zoology combination of ecology and drug use prevention methods smoked snakes, with remarkable success. In general, the action is mostly slow snakes, very few take the initiative to attack bite, and only when people in the firewood, mowing, Night, the intention to step on or touch a snake bite occurs when the body of an accident. Therefore, the site of snakebite is usually in the lower extremities the following ankle, followed by upper limbs or head, chest. The optimum temperature of snake activity is 18 ℃ ~ 30 ℃, so the south of the Yangtze River in China, from July to September is the highest incidence of snakebite season, especially in hot summer rain or rain To weather eye at first glance, because low air pressure inside the snake and humidity, venomous snakes are often out of its hole activity, bite injuries. If bitten, when conditions permit, the snake should be killed immediately, while the snake taken for medical treatment, which according to the type of snake to take symptomatic treatment is extremely necessary. If indeed the snake bites, the wound will be left in the 2 large and deep teeth marks, burning pain, redness of the wound, in a few minutes significantly swollen, and swelling of the rapid expansion of the range, while the first will happen dizzy, vertigo, convulsions, lethargy and other symptoms. Snakebite emergency local treatment principle is to exclude the venom, anti-snake venom spread, to ease symptoms. Usually should immediately above 2cm ~ 10cm at the wound with a cloth belt fastened, blocking the lymphatic and venous return, and every 15 to 20 minutes to put Songbu with 1 to 2 minutes, to avoid obstruction of blood circulation, causing local tissue necrosis, such as injection of anti-venom serum, can be lifted ligation. After ligation, the application of water, saline or 0.5% concentration of potassium permanganate solution, rinse the wound again. You can also use debridement detoxification (by acutus or Viper bites should not use this method), cupping, or smoked law excluded venom. Emergency treatment, to the nearest medical attention promptly. Our analysis of the venom and snakebite prevention research have made significant achievements. Currently, in addition to the use of price and polyvalent anti-venom serum and a-chymotrypsin treatment of snakebites and other effects of drugs, but also using a variety of herbs and developed into a variety of snake medicine, which greatly improved the cure rate of snakebite. Reptiles from the late Carboniferous ancient amphibians evolved to adapt to terrestrial life is truly the highest vertebrates, such as variable temperature, constant temperature and thus evolved into two major categories of animals, birds and mammals. Reptilia, not only in adult animals, the structure further to adapt to terrestrial life, its reproduction but also from the shackles of water, and birds, mammals, animals were known as the amniotic membrane. Reptiles are divided into four categories, namely, beak head, turtles head, Squamata (lizards and snakes), crocodile head. Reptile skin surface is to scale, lack of skin and skin glands. A typical five fingers (toes)-type limbs, fingers and toes with a claw end. Temporal fossa skull formation, appear complete or incomplete secondary palate. Increase in the number of sacral and cervical, thoracic appear. Entirely to lung respiration, blood circulation is still not fully double, but the ventricle is that there is no completely separated. Start a new brain cerebral cortex, the brain is 12 pairs. Subsidence of the formation of the external auditory canal tympanic membrane. Uric acid excretion in the main. Vivo fertilization, producing a calcium or leathery shell wrapped in the amniotic egg (embryo developing in three films, that amniotic membrane, chorion, allantois membrane). Still cold-blooded animal.
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Dinosaur-related issues
Dinosaurs were cold-blooded animal or a warm-blooded animals? The traditional view is that, according to the physiological characteristics of dinosaurs should be cold-blooded animal. In recent years, some studies suggest that dinosaurs have a high metabolic rate; with similar high activity of mammalian bone tissue; greater demand for food, it may be warm-blooded animals. 1994 reported that U.S. scientists Tyrannosaurus rex (Tyronnosauna) skeleton structure analysis, we found a relatively stable body temperature. Of Stegosaurus (Stegofaurus) back bone plate studies also show that board is rich in blood vessels, may have a regulating function of temperature. Volume 288 in 2000, "SCience" magazine reported that 66 million years ago, a dinosaur fossil in the heart, its anatomy and crocodiles and other reptiles, birds and mammals than closer. Experts believe that the dinosaur metabolism closer to the warm-blooded animals, which is "dinosaurs are warm-blooded animals' point of view provides a new evidence Why did dinosaurs extinct? Rule the Earth 150 million years of dinosaurs and finally disappeared in the late Cretaceous period, failed to enter the new generation. There are many theories for the extinction of dinosaurs and perspectives. Common explanation is that strong on the earth end of the Cretaceous orogeny dramatic changes in the climate, leading to difficult to adapt to the situation in dinosaurs and extinction. In the 1980s, physicists in the Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks found in super-normal levels of iridium, it comes from outer space, probably an asteroid that time, resulting in a lot of dust and fire caused the dinosaurs must off. This asteroid crashed in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula near the place, a huge meteorite collision west to throw 5400 miles, falls the central Pacific ocean floor. November 18, 1998 there have been reports that an American geologist from 60 million years ago an asteroid hit the Earth's sinking debris, more sure of this inference. But another view is due to increase in iridium levels caused by prolonged volcanic eruption. 1992 reported a view that because of pollution and accumulation of trace elements in the body affect the dinosaur dinosaur's reproductive system, the output of eggs with thin shells of the eggs off, reducing the hatching rate, the final extinction of the dinosaurs. Dinosaur extinction process lasted 20 to 30 years. Whatever the reason, dinosaurs are now extinct, but they are still there in some way. Many biologists believe that birds originated in the Jurassic of bipedal walking in small theropod dinosaurs. From this sense, the descendants of dinosaurs still exist on Earth. .
Crocodylia