Chinese language, especially as the language of the Han
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No. 2
中文
Chinese typewriter
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Chinese language or Chinese Language and Literature of the province, said
Chinese language or Chinese Language and Literature of the province said. Te Zhi Chinese language or Chinese Language and Literature. Wang, "Eagle Zhai Suo-worm and Westerners in the Chinese language story": "Blue said, according to Charlie, this story is based on a Chinese manuscript, by a knowledge of Chinese friends tell him to hear." "People's Daily "1980.10.14:" Britain has seven universities to open Chinese courses. "
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No. 4
Chinese - native language as a people, Chinese is the world's most popular language system in a branch. BC was founded in the era of the Yellow Emperor lived, success in the late twentieth century AD. Is an origin and mature later than the first of a language system. Is a symbol of Eastern civilization and achievements, is the name used by humans to precisely the definition of all things with an important information carrier. System consists of thousands of tens of thousands of words commonly used words and idioms, is indispensable to civilized society, an important component. Is a Sino-Tibetan language family. The world's oldest languages, is one of the world's richest and most developed language. In China, except with the Han Chinese, some ethnic minorities also use Chinese. Use more than one billion population, is the world's most populous language. With the improvement of China's international status, international use of more and more Chinese people, Chinese have been the United Nations as an international common language. To adapt the Chinese, also known world. Modern Chinese is growing by the development of ancient Chinese enriched, but in the region is uneven, resulting in many dialects, then, the difference more. There are seven major dialects: the northern dialect, Wu dialect, Hunan dialect, Gan dialect, Hakka dialects, Min dialect, Cantonese dialect. Common language of modern Chinese dialects are based in northern dialects, voice-standard pronunciation of Beijing, to work as a model for the vernacular of the Modern Chinese syntax specification. This article describes all about using the pinyin transcription. Chinese characteristics are: Voice Features In general, a syllable can be divided into initial and final two parts. There are 21 consonants, that is, b, p, m, f, d, t, n, l, ɡ, k, h, j, q, x, zh, ch, sh, r, z, c, s; 35 个vowel, vowel sound units of which: ɑ, i, e, o, u, ū, compound vowels vowels, such as ɑi, ei, ɑo, ou and so on. There vowel plus nasal consonant vowel composition, such as ɑn, en, ɑnɡ, enɡ and so on. The finals, in principle, can also add rhyme head i, u, ū, as iɑo, iou, uɑi, uɑn, ūɑn, ūe and so on. Only a special finals er ("child" word sounds), it is never with the initials spell. Some syllables can not initials, such as ɑi "love", ou "Europe", ɑnɡ "expensive" and so on; but not without vowels. Chinese voice is very rich with systemic, not every consonant and a vowel can match any, or any one of each vowel and tone can be matched, but there are laws. To initials, the press of articulation can be divided into 6 categories: ① b, p, m, f is the lip; ② d, t, n, l is the tip of the tongue sound; ③ z, c, s is the tip of the tongue before the voice; ④ zh, ch, sh , r is the tip of the tongue after the tone; ⑤ j, q, x is the tongue sound; ⑥ g, k, h is the Factors Resulting in. The same articulation, voice, generally with the same situation, for example, ū is not lip b, p, m, f appears behind. Tip of the tongue before the voice, tongue after the tone, Factors Resulting in the back did not i and ū; In contrast, only the back of the tongue sound i and ū. Sound in the back of the tongue does not appear, nor ūn. For vowels, the voice is also a regular co-ordination. For example, ɑi, ei there is no rhyme in front of the first i; ɑo, ou do not rhyme in front of the first u; ɑi, ei, ɑo, ou do not rhyme in front of the first ū. On the tone, the voice of the match there are some rules to be found. If the consonant is b, d, ɡ, j, zh, z (such as unaspirated initials initials), but the nasal consonant radio, and all the sound does not match with Hinata. In Mandarin Chinese with a sound not a sound to match, there are two reasons: ① the constraints of their own voice, a voice with a sound together, pronunciation is not convenient, for example, zh, ch, sh, r not, and i, ū fight, j, q, x is not, and ɑ, o, u fight, is the truth. ② caused by the history, such as d, t, n, l do not, and in, ūn fight. Not with a tone of a voice in history, with the result. And Chinese characters is the righteousness of the characteristics of mono compatible. Since each sound has a meaning, so I used the Chinese character as the representative of one syllable. Grammatical features of the biggest features in the grammar there are two, namely: the fixed word order; function word application. Chinese word order of the fixed so being the main characteristics and applications necessary, the word itself is not necessarily because the morphological changes, by going with Biaoshi sentence elements without the sign, this is not a disadvantage of Chinese language, because the location of components of Chinese sentences fixed later, so that people can clearly identify the subject, predicate, object, attribute, adverbial and so on. ② the application of function words. Chinese grammar in occupied an important position. Modal is a major feature of Chinese and Western language of comparison, they lack the tone words, or some so-called "word pieces" in the role of the tone a bit like the Chinese words, unlike the Chinese, as clear that the modal tone, but also not so rich in content. The tone of modern Chinese words on the end of the sentence, they determined that the tone can be divided into tone, speculation mood, subjunctive, to discuss the mood, to persuade tone, tone, of course, answer tone, exaggerated tone, interrogative mood, tone, etc. to ask. Determine the tone with the tone of "La" in the word, which is "the" and "ah" chorus, like "He want to leave." Tone with the tone of speculation that the word "right" words, such as "it will not rain today." Subjunctive mood also used the word "right" words, such as "Go, do not have time, do not go, can not be solved." Discuss the tone of voice also used the word "right" words, such as "Let's go." Convince the tone with the tone of the word "ah" word (with change the sound "ah", "wow," "what", etc.), such as "I really can not help it ah!", "What he said was right!", "He sings it really Hurrah! "," where it easy to get!. " Tone with the tone of course the word "chant" and the words such as "do not know, we like the eager to learn hymns!" Tone with the tone of reply the word "Well" and the words such as "There are views to put them!" Exaggerated tone with the tone of "ne" word such as "this kind of thing are plenty!." Tone with the tone of question words "what," "you" or "ah" ("Yes", "wow", "which"), the use of these three words and different. "It" word is used alternately to ask, such as "he did not visit it?", But also have questions for the sentence the word end of a sentence such as "When will he come?" And for incomplete sentences, such as "I came, him?." "You" word for word sentence no doubt end of the sentence, such as "Do you agree?." Interrogative word "ah" word ("ah", "wow", "what") uses a wider, It can replace the "it", such as "he did not visit you?"; And in some cases, instead of " do, "such as" what you say is true ah?. " Tone is also used to ask "what", "do" such as "How could I not believe it!", "Do not you believe it!." Mood listed above can not be said to be comprehensive, but has made people see that they are very rich tone. Most of these tone with strong emotions. With a million different tone, in fact, there is the tone at work. The development of Chinese Language is a tool of communication is a social phenomenon, it developed along with the development of society. It is the result of the gradual accumulation of new quality factor, the gradual decline of the old quality factor achieved. So different from the ancient Chinese and modern Chinese. Faster development of voice and vocabulary, grammar, develop more slowly. The development of ancient and modern voice of different voice, often ignored by people. Chinese is not phonetic system, even if the shape of different ancient and modern, some people tend to only think that is the shape of the change. From the Han Dynasty to the present, has been shaped largely stabilized. People use modern pronunciation of a Chinese character reading ancient books, although they may be read, but the sound is generally not aware of the differences between ancient and modern. In fact, the difference between ancient and modern sounds is great. ① ancient Chinese have coda ɡ, d, b, This is completely different from Modern Chinese. Ancient coda ɡ, d, b, to have been lost in modern Mandarin, and ending in a vowel and the word becomes a homophone. For example: There are 3 ancient Chinese nasal consonant, which nɡ, n, m. Modern Mandarin into n m tail end, and the confluence of the original n the end, only nɡ, n two coda. For example: Changes in the finals, a lot of rhyming words of ancient and modern have different rhyme; ancient rhyme a little different, modern but with a rhyme. ② The situation initials and finals, many consonants have changed. First, become voiceless voiced. The so-called voiceless, referring to the pronunciation of the vocal cords do not vibrate; the so-called voiced, referring to the pronunciation of the vocal cords vibrate. Ancient b, d, f, h, zn, sh, z, s are divided into two categories voicing, it is now written in a class of the dullness of the stuffy, ╨, enraged, ╪, ╘ ╪, ▄ ╪, ╘, ▄. Voiced such as "voiced." There is also a class called "sub-cloud", that is: m, n, l, r, as well as a part of this study Mandarin w, y at the beginning of the word. Modern Chinese, the "voiced" has disappeared, they have become voiceless, so that certain words could have been voicing opposition, have been combined in modern Mandarin. For example: Note that j, q, x the source. They have two sources: First, ɡ, k, h (including the enraged, ╪), first z, c, s (including ╘, ▄). When they are i, ū ago when no longer maintain the original ɡ, k, h or z, c, s, and all becomes j, q, x. In other words, ɡ, z and non-level tone of enraged, ╘ have become j; k, c peaceful sound of enraged, ╘ have become q; h and s are into x. Thus, many different sources are combined into one pronunciation of the word. For example: ③ tone system evolved, a little simpler than the initial and final. Ancient (Middle) Tone There are 4 species, level tone, rising tone, falling tone, entering tone. The 14th century, no longer exists in some areas north of Tone, Yang Ping voiced word change, times change the word cloud falling tone, rising tone voiceless words change, so change into the rising tone of the words Tone up, then there are some changes. The level tone is divided into two categories, namely IA and Hinata. Voiceless word change Yinping, voiced the word change Hinata. Mandarin Middle Ages and modern 4-sound correspondence as follows: Correspondence from the above view, the relationship between medieval Falling the most simple, it is to the modern Mandarin is still falling tone. Middle level tone of the relationship is relatively simple, it is just voicing the two systems according to differentiate into IA and Hinata. More complex relationship between Cuba Shangsheng, voiceless words such as "to, playing, dog, light, Lord, the Son," etc., sub-cloud words such as "mother, you, Lu, Liu, a, tail, five", etc., still is on sound, and voiced rising tone words such as "move, items, skills, pheasant, Syria, strikes, crime, kidney and anger", etc., have been transformed into falling tone. Medieval and modern Mandarin Tone Tone correspondence between the most complex: Falling into a second cloud characters, such as "Mo, female, force, socks, Yu, Yu, Yue", etc.; voiced almost all turned into Hinata words such as " Do not, alone, together, axis, pole, turbidity, cooked, mixed, vulgar, "etc.; the same time with the 14th century. Voiceless word is changed greatly, it is not just into a rising tone, but dispersed in IA, Yang Ping, rising tone, falling tone into the sound 4. Read Yinping such as "call, throwing, hair, Governor, kicking, pigeons, Guo, cry, drink, pick, seven, porridge, plug, lost, killed, cut", etc.; read Hinata, such as "Fu, fu, Germany, cell, section, but unfortunately, the staff, Sapporo, tert ", etc.; read Shangsheng such as" hundred, hair (the hair), Benedict, tower, bone, thirst, Hao, blood (oral speech), snow, blinking, bids, feet color (mouth voice) "and so on; read Falling such as" will, abdomen, the, tart, the, passenger, He, millet, concubine, Zhi, Sunburn, red, brake, thorough, style, evil, Chek, speed "and so on. All in all, entering characters turn into falling tone of most of the second turn into the second tone, at least turn into a rising tone. The development of vocabulary words, changes in ancient and modern is great. With the development of society, some old words disappear, but at the same time created a lot of new words. ② Change of meaning there are 3 ways: First, the expansion of meaning, that expanded the meaning of the word; the second is the narrow meaning, that meaning of the word narrowed; third is the transfer of meaning, that a change of meaning, but the meaning of must be nearby. For example: "eyes" of the original meaning of the eye, "Book of Jin Ruan Biography" that "membership for blue eyed." Later, the "eye" into the "eye" synonymous, is the "eye" meaning to expand. "W" is a narrow example. "W" was intended to have been fired earthenware general name ("Dictionary"). Such as the "Little Book of Karl dry": "Health is a woman, get the tile _set_." Where "W" is the earth spinning burning brick. Later, refers specifically to cover the roof of the "W" and "W" meaning narrow. "Feet" is the transfer case. "Feet" of the original meaning of tibia, Sima Qian, "A Letter to Ren," said "grandchildren Bin feet, column repair art of war." Bin feet and cut off the feet foot slave and feudal society is cruel punishment, but the patella than cut off the feet feet feet heavier penalty. Cut off the feet feet feet are cut off, while the foot is removed knee patella. Later, "feet" to and "adequate" synonymous, is the "feet" of the significance of the transfer. The development of grammatical syntax, small changes in some, but not immutable. Only two grammatical structure is the development of the column. ① judge sentence. Today refers to the use to judge the word "YES" causes the sentence, such as "China is a vast land of the country", "He is authentic Peking Man" and so on. Determine the sentence is not in the ancient Chinese, "is" word. Many people understand the ancient times "to" is the word "is" means, but do not often use ancient Sentences "to" word. The Judgement of the most common form is the subject part of the structure behind the slight pause, followed by a predicate part of the word "also", such as "Confucius, Lu people." Of modern thousand words or more article, the word often used to judge ten or more articles in ancient times more than thousand words, the general term of a judge not. Later to determine the word "is" the word is from the demonstrative pronoun "Yes" came the word development. "VII," said: "The virtue or revision, learn the do not speak, smell sense can not migration, poor can not be changed, is I should be worried." Here, "YES" when "this" word say, "Yes I be worried, "to say" This is what I worry about it. " Demonstrative pronoun "that" word in this case it is judged in future generations to judge sentences in the position of the word, so gradually into the nature of the word with the judge, its use has gradually expanded to determine the sentence to the other So, "Confucius, Lu people" also become "Confucius is the State of Lu," the. In short, the study of Chinese historical evolution of various grammatical structures, we should observe the principle is: in the study grammar, you can not think that there is something ancient to the modern must have, or that something is not modern to ancient times can not have. Chinese dialects of Chinese dialects are formed by history. Dialects around the complex in any case, be traced back to the end, the same source. This explains why some of the corresponding parts of the phonetic laws, there are many things in common vocabulary, the syntax is basically the same. Chinese dialects can be divided into 7 kinds: ① the Northern dialect, which is a regional maximum. Although known as the Northern dialect, in fact, starting from the northeast to the southwest of only including the area north of the Yangtze River, the Yangtze River over the south of Zhenjiang and Jiujiang the following areas in Hubei (except the southeast corner) and Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, four provinces, Hunan Province, northwest corner and northern Guangxi. ② Wu dialects, including Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, east of the Yangtze River most of the south and almost the whole province of Zhejiang. ③ Xiang dialects, including 30 counties in central Hunan province and cities. ④ Gan dialects, including most of Jiangxi Province and Hubei Province, southeast corner. ⑤ Hakka dialects, spread in Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, and Taiwan Province. Guangxi, Hunan and Sichuan provinces, districts also said that Hakka. ⑥ Min dialects, including most of Fujian Province, Taiwan Province and Guangdong Province, Chaozhou, Shantou and Hainan Island area. Within the dialect, Fujian Province can be divided into words and northern Fujian Minnan dialect words. If represented in Fuzhou Fujian, Taiwanese representatives to Xiamen, then to northern Fujian Jianou words represented. ⑦ Cantonese, including Canton's central, western, southern and eastern part of Guangxi, south. The 7 major dialects, quite different, but each have a common or similar place. Voiced consonants preserved in the Wu dialect, the most complete. Gordon also holds the majority of all dialects voiced initials. Cantonese is adjusted to reflect the ancient with the whispered voiced initials. Vocabulary differences between the parties made the difference is not as big as the audio. Overall, the written language is the basically the same. You will get some local color with the phrase, such as "neck", Cantonese was the "neck", Suzhou dialect is the "neck", the Beijing dialect is the "neck"; such as "arm", Cantonese is the "arm" Suzhou dialect is "Bibo" Beijing dialect is the "arm." Wu dialect, the word order of the performance of the most prominent voice in doubt the word "ah" word position. "Ah" denotes a tone equal to the Mandarin "you" word, but its location on the contrary, "ma" for the end of the sentence, "ah" in front of the word used in the predicate. For example, "you eat it?" In Shanghai dialect, is "Lennon ah eat?" In addition, there are a verb or adjective adverbial on the back, for example, "Shanghai is coming" in the Shanghai dialect, is the "Shanghai to Yoshiya ";" Nanjing quite hot ", Shanghai dialect is" not too hot in summer in Nanjing, "and so on. Promotion of Putonghua in modern Chinese dialects, dialect complex, many Han people in different parts of each other to communicate. In order to strengthen the unity of the people and promote economic and cultural development, the implementation of the Han people to feel more and more common language of Mandarin ─ ─ needs. Promotion of Putonghua in the country on China's political, economic, cultural, defense and other aspects of significance. The gradual promotion of Mandarin, but also for Chinese characters and create favorable conditions for further reform. Chinese Communist Party and Chinese people's government attached great importance to the development and standardization. Held in Beijing in 1955, the National Conference and the modern Chinese language reform regulatory issues conferences, determine the standardization of modern Chinese Mandarin. In 1956, the State Council issued "instructions on the promotion of Putonghua", _set_ up by Chen Yi as director of the Central Committee of the promotion of Putonghua. Ministry of Education requires all primary and secondary classes in Mandarin language teaching. Mandarin Pronunciation Committee of Different Words of more than 1,800 articles and pronunciation of more than 190 names were considered; published "Three Different Words Mandarin Pronunciation draft summary table." Radio, television, drama, film and so often plays a role model. In the "strong advocate, focusing on implementation, and gradually universal" guiding principle, after years of hard work has begun to gradually become the country Mandarin universal language of communication, Southern dialect gradually adopt Putonghua teaching in many schools, many young people can basically Mandarin communication. Study of the history of Chinese history is the study of Chinese law of development of Chinese science. It is with linguistics, general linguistics, history of first Han Chinese history are closely linked. It is to study how the modern Chinese development comes from the ancient Chinese, the modern Chinese phonetic system, grammar, vocabulary and text how formed. This is the modern language education, a better grasp of modern Chinese, and promote the work of great significance in Chinese standardization. Has documented more than three thousand years of Chinese history as long. In order to more clearly leads the development of Chinese language, so that each of the key changes more prominent in Chinese history, the need to make the necessary stages. Because of language development is gradual, it can not say for sure that a year is the beginning of a period, only the approximate time limit. Stages of Chinese history is based, because of the language is different from other social phenomena, it is not simply to stages in accordance with the development of society, and to follow the development of language itself to staging. In the language of the three elements, namely voice, vocabulary, grammar, syntax is the key to language development. Changes in the structure because the syntax is the slowest, the grammatical structure has undergone significant changes, can prove language has changed, the vocabulary is almost always in flux. The initial stages of Chinese history designated as 4 times. Ancient 3rd century AD, formerly of the ancient period, 3 to 4 centuries for the transition phase. The main features of this period: ① generally do not determine the sentence copula; ② pronouns as object in front of the verb; ③ Tone there are two types (a class turned out to be falling tone), and so on. Middle of 4 to 12 century AD Medieval period (12 to 13 century, the transition phase). Main features are: ① copula sentence in spoken language as a necessary component to determine; ② Disposal produce; ③ "被" general application; ④-shaped tail, "the", "the" generation; ⑤ part of entering characters into a falling tone word, and so on. 13 ~ 19 century modern modern period (from the Opium War in 1840 to the May Fourth Movement in 1919 for the transition phase). The main characteristics of modern Chinese: ① voiced consonants in the north, then disappeared; ②-m rhyme, then disappeared in the north; ③ Tone disappeared in the northern dialect, and so on. Modern 20th century, the modern period. Modern Chinese characteristics: ① proper absorption of Western grammar; ② a significant increase in polysyllabic words, and so on. Ancient Chinese scholars in Chinese studies has an excellent tradition in different times have made important contributions. Previous studies we can be roughly summarized as four stages. ② The second stage, from the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420 ~ 589) to the Ming Dynasty (1368 ~ 1644) the end is the voice of the stage. At this stage, Chinese scholars under the influence of phonetics in India, began to analyze the structure of Chinese speech, resulting in a series organized by the Ministry of tone and rhyme and rhyme Figure phonology. Phonology is the earliest existing land law made by the Sui Dynasty "Qieyun" Fragments and Tang Ren-Xu's "absurd filled Qieyun Journal" This book saved several ancient and modern sounds of country side, we pushed the ancient sound, the second line modern pronunciation of a Chinese character bridge. Subsequent "Rhyme", "Ji Yun" is also kind of phonology. Yuan Zhou Deqing's "Chung Yuan Yin" According to the 14th century, written in the North Sound, is the study of important historical documents of modern Mandarin. See the first modern map is anonymous rhyme "rhyme mirror," Zheng Qiao's "Qiyin strategy", which is transferred through the rhyme with the form, reflecting the "Qieyun" voice system. Were subsequently asked Sima Guang's "Qieyun his hand map," Song of the "four tones and other child" and Yuan Liu Kam's "classics, history, pronunciation Qieyun Guide", etc. These are essentially based on the Song, Yuan's voice system made, and the rhyme and early maps, "Yun Mirror", "Qi Yin a little" significant difference. ③ The third stage, from the early Qing Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty (1644 ~ 1911), is a comprehensive development phase. Chinese language study at this stage is the most successful era. First in the "Dictionary" study, produced what is known as "the text said," Four of Duan, Gui Fu, Yun Wang, Jun Zhu sound. Duan's "Annotation" is an influential books, notes accurately, not superstition, Xu Shen, will be able critically to accept the "Dictionary", it has a historical perspective, and often can point out the semantic development process. Jun Zhu sound, "said Wen Tong training _set_ sound" as he _set_ rhyme 18 and shaped sound of symbol arrangement, as can the sound, exegetical similarities Management Exposition, "said the text", often break the shape of the barrier and see the semantic contact. Secondly, the study of the ancient sound, has made remarkable achievements. Gu as "Phonetics in five books," Ancient Melodies for the 10 points, followed by Jiang Yong, Dai Zhen Duan, Kong Guangsen, Wang Nian Sun, and so gradually by Jiang Patent amendment to the Ancient Rhymes basically become conclusive. Qian Daxin research presented at the initials "Ancient no light lip", "no tongue of ancient sound" through the ages and indisputable statement. Since ancient phonology development, Wang Nian Sun, Wang cited the father and son in their "Guang Ya," "reading magazines", "Jing Yi Shu Wen", the clearly stated that "the ancient tones seeking ancient meaning, informal body," the scientific view, breaking the shackles of shape, to the semantic of a new path opened up. ④ The fourth stage, from the Qing Dynasty to the present, is a western learning, the establishment stage of modern Chinese linguistics. Chinese scholars note that this stage is learning from the West, the establishment of modern Chinese linguistics period. In grammar, the study of Western Latin Ge Ma Jianzhong Ma Lang, wrote China's first grammar book "Ma." Chen Chengze then "National Grammar grassroots," Li Jinxi's "new book Mandarin grammar," Wang's "Chinese Grammar", Shuxiang's "Outline of Chinese Grammar", Zhu Dexi's "Modern Chinese Grammar" and be developed step by step to gradually establish a Chinese grammar system. Western scholar of China's ancient sound played a larger role in promoting. Swedish scholar Karlgren (kbj Carlgren) principles of modern linguistics, the study of Chinese phonology, written as "Chinese Phonology" (four volumes, 1915 ~ 1926), a book value of the structure to be sound medieval, reconstruction of the Middle Ages voice system. Under the influence of the Western scholar, dialect study also booming, Zhao's "modern Wu's research," "Zhongxiang dialect in mind," Luo Changpei the "Department of Xiamen tone", "Linchuan phonology" and laid the theoretical study of dialects and methods. "Hubei dialect survey report," and after the establishment of People's Republic of large-scale dialect survey, for the dialect study provides a wealth of information. "Modern Chinese Dictionary" in 1973 after the advent of praise by the majority Han people. Of Chinese Language and Chinese History, the New China, has achieved some important results. Wang Li of "History of Chinese Linguistics" and "Chinese History of" and some of the other experts, are subject to people's attention. The vast majority of Chinese grammar monosyllabic morpheme (hand / wash / glass / dill). Morphemes and morphemes can be combined into words (horse + road → Road / On + Off → switch). Some of the word itself is a morpheme (hand washing), some morpheme itself is not a word, can only be formed with other morphemes in compound words together (Glass → Glass / dill → radish). Comparison of Chinese and Indo-European language, you can see some of the important Chinese grammatical features. Chinese and Indo-European is the difference between a clear no form change. First, during the first Indo-European verbs and adjectives can be changed only with some of the grammatical root word meaning without changing its suffix. The Chinese had no such suffix. Second, the Indo-European verbs are limited and non-limited type of difference. Chinese no such distinction. This difference makes the Chinese grammar and Indo-European grammar huge difference. First, in the Indo-European, the relatively simple function of parts of speech. For example, can only act as subject and object nouns, attributive and predicative adjectives can only act. In Chinese, verbs and adjectives because no deformation, no matter what appears on the syntactic positions, forms are the same. This resulted in the phenomenon of multi-functional parts of speech in Chinese. Secondly, sentences and clauses in the Indo-European must have qualified verb, and verb phrases have the words in the only form of non-qualified, can not be limited to the form. Thus, sentences and clauses is a _set_ of structural principles, the phrase is another _set_ of structural principles. Chinese verbs do not limit the opposition and non-limited, where the verb does not work, forms are the same, therefore the construction of the sentence with the phrase structure principle is the same principle; sentence, but is independent of the phrase only. Syntax is also reflected in the main features of the structure and dynamics that make up the structure. Chinese subject-predicate structure of sentences or clauses with the Indo-European is different from loose structure. This can be manifested in the subject during the first pause, or with modal. Of particular note is often not spoken in the subject. Another main feature is that the structure can act as a predicate. Verb complement structure is very important in modern Chinese a syntactic structure. There is no Indo-European and its corresponding format. Side from the word order, an important feature of Chinese is that all modifiers have been modified ingredients must be placed in front. Dialect of China is a vast population, dialects complicated. Chinese Mandarin and dialects can be divided into two major categories of non-Mandarin. Mandarin distributed in the area north of the Yangtze River and the Yangtze River in Jiujiang and Zhenjiang south along the river between the Strip and Hubei, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi provinces in central, including the northern Mandarin, Jianghuai Mandarin, Southwestern Mandarin dialect few. Mandarin dialect higher degree of internal consistency. Non-Mandarin dialects include the Wu dialect (southern Jiangsu, Zhejiang, most), Gan dialect (Jiangxi most), Hunan dialect (most of Hunan, Guangxi North), Cantonese (Guangdong most, southeastern Guangxi), Min dialects (Fujian , Taiwan, Guangdong, Chaozhou, Shantou and Hainan), Hakka dialects (the eastern and northern Guangdong, western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, and Taiwan). Large differences in non-Mandarin dialects, generally can not talk to each other, even within the same dialect, have difficulty talking. Chinese parties made the difference between the voice on the largest, followed by vocabulary, grammar, the differences in the minimum. China's current policy, the national promotion of Putonghua as the common language of communication of the whole nation. In a broad sense refers to the Chinese Han language, in the narrow sense refers to the Mandarin, in addition to Mandarin, Chinese, Chinese refer to such names are Chinese. There is no doubt that Chinese is the world's largest language in the world there are about 1 / 5 of people use Chinese as their mother tongue. Chinese around the country have their language have great influence. Such as Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese have retained a large number of Chinese words and the Chinese writing system by the text. Chinese is one of the United Nations working languages. Chinese is a language or a Chinese. As the world's unique hieroglyphs of Chinese language to a high degree of unity and norms, there is uniformity and standardization of modern Chinese grammar, although particularly large differences in dialect pronunciation, but the written language norms, there is no written communication caused by differences in dialect barrier. Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family, is a kind of tonal language. Is an independent Chinese language, of language. Chinese way is a kind of hieroglyphic writing Chinese characters. Prior to the May Fourth Movement of the written language used is called "classical" is a kind of used to the time of Confucius, "elegant language" as the basis of written language. After the May Fourth Movement promoted the written Chinese is often referred to as "vernacular", that is the basis of the North, then the modern written language. In the modern Chinese written language, classical has rarely used. Chinese One of the world's major languages. Is a Sino-Tibetan language family, is the most important languages in the language. In addition to outside the Chinese mainland and Taiwan Province of China, Chinese is also located in Singapore, Malaysia and other places. The Chinese National People's Congress is about 940 million native speakers. Chinese is one of the working languages of the United Nations. The standard language is Mandarin in recent centuries based on the North gradually formed. It is Beijing standard pronunciation sound. The standard language in China, known as Mandarin, Mandarin in Taiwan as in Singapore, Malaysia, known as the Chinese. Voice Chinese syllables can be analyzed into consonants, vowels, tone 3. Beginning with a consonant sound, the rest is the finals, the whole syllable pitch tone. The tone is also seen as part of a syllable, because the tones of Chinese are identified justice. Such as "soup, sugar, lying, hot," 4 words of the consonants are [tang], vowels are [ang] (square brackets is the International Phonetic Alphabet, the IPA table in brackets omitted), only because the tone is different not the same meaning in languages representing four different morpheme (the smallest meaningful language unit), in writing, written in four different words. 1918 by the then Ministry of Education promulgated the Mandarin phonetic alphabet is a _set_ of Chinese characters using phonetic alphabets. The letter of the main vowel and coda together with a symbol (for example: ㄠ = [au], ㄢ = [an]), reflects the traditional spirit of consonant vowel two points. Phonetic alphabet widespread significant influence. Taiwan still in use. Published in 1958 by the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet Latin alphabet (Table 2 Initials, Finals Beijing parent, if Beijing finals Table 3). Since 1978, the Chinese phonetic alphabet names names all use the spelling, replacing Wade and other old-style spelling. Syntax Most of the Chinese language is monosyllabic morpheme (hand washing │ China │ │ loss). Morphemes and morphemes can be combined into words (horse + road → Road → │ On + Off switch). Some of the word itself is a morpheme (hand washing), some morpheme itself is not a word, can only be formed with other morphemes in compound words together (people → people → │ loss loss). Two-syllable words in modern Chinese accounted for the largest proportion. Most two-syllable words are in accordance with the above-mentioned result of complex ways. Text We can see from the first batch of text data ─ ─ Shang oracle bone inscriptions date, over 3,000 years of Chinese history. Because Oracle is already fairly mature character writing system, we can infer the occurrence of certain characters as far away as 3,000 years ago. The development of Chinese characters can be divided into two major phases. Word from Oracle to the small seal script is a stage; from the Qin and Han times Clerical Here is another stage. The former is the scope of the ancient text, which belongs to the category of modern language. Generally speaking, from the official script to modern Chinese characters in use today do not have much change. Relationship with the Chinese from the Chinese perspective, character is a morpheme words. Constructed from the characters themselves look Chinese is ideographic, phonetic radical (of the form next to the sound side), and neither form nor meaning of the symbol phonetic writing system consisting of. Origin of Chinese Characters in the picture. Produced in the early stages of Chinese characters, pictograph glyphs morpheme with the meaning it represents a direct contact occurs. While each has its own fixed word pronunciation, but the shape itself is not phonetic symbols, with the phonetic letters of a different nature. Pictographic character that it represents the pronunciation of the morpheme is passed on it. With the evolution of shape, become less and less pictograph pictographic. The result is shaped with the morpheme it represents lost in the sense of the original contact. This time, the shape itself is neither phonetic nor semantic, into abstract tokens. If you are Chinese, all of the morpheme phonetic by this is neither a sign nor the representative of semantic, then the character can be said to mark a pure text. But it is not. Chinese characters are single characters and compound characters of distinction. Only single characters is the mark of pure text. Compound characters are combined by the result of single characters. From the structure, said compound characters than a single high-level characters. Because the composition of compound characters of the single characters which itself has also marked, but when it is used as a component of compound characters, it is a sound has defined "the word" status to participate. Compound characters can be divided into the following three categories: ② fit Associative. The ancients said, "just as Wu Ge," "hide the letter." For the "Wu", "believe" the word, this explanation is wrong. However, in the Chinese system does have caused in this way the word, such as "not correct for the distortion," "bad for the NAO." Characterized by this type of word meaning to join the radical performance of the whole meaning of the word fit. The very few words, only individual examples. Chinese characters have been used to record more than 3,000 years of history, has been in use to this day, never stopped. In such a long period of time, the Chinese people's real life, not only for services, and record information on a very rich culture; even across national boundaries, are Japan, Korea, Vietnam and other neighboring countries to record through the non-Chinese languages. On the other hand, has long been criticism of Chinese characters are also disadvantages, mainly that characters illegible, difficult to write, difficult to mechanization (print type_set_ting, typing, etc.). Therefore, in literacy, child literacy, education, culture and communication, etc., are not as phonetic and high efficiency. Compared with the phonetic system of Chinese characters has its shortcomings, but also has its strengths. Chinese greatest strengths is the ability to transcend space and time constraints. Significant difference between ancient and modern Chinese pronunciation. However, due to shape fairly stable in 2000, did not change much, meaning the change is relatively small, so the Qin and Han Dynasties of ancient books, some of today's average person can understand. If the ancient books is written with alphabetic writing, modern people simply can not understand. Some dialects differ greatly voice, they can not talk, but written in Chinese characters, will be able to understand each other, the reason is the same. 50, began working to simplify Chinese characters. 1986 re-release of the "simplified summary table" provides more than 2200 Simplified Chinese characters (including a simplified analogy of the word radical.) This work has now come to an end a period of time in the future will remain stable, do not continue to streamline. Been simplified because the text would undermine the stability, and simplify the number of words later, the original complex characters and can not be repealed. The result is increasing the total number of Chinese characters, but increase the learning and use of people's burden. Romanization issue on the text, has long been controversial. In theory, any natural language can be used phonetic records. However, due to dialect differences, in the promotion of Putonghua is not a broad, practical results before use phonetic dialect area will bring great difficulties. In addition, Chinese long history and extensive literature is recorded in Chinese characters. When change course, bound to the extensive use in the literature, causing some difficulties in social psychology and may also cause fluctuations in national sentiments. In fact, prolonged use of Chinese characters that can be ideographic writing systems, there can be a large number of homonyms in Chinese terms, but this phenomenon does occur, it corresponds to a syllable up to tens of hundreds of Chinese characters, if you use pinyin to record voice, there will not read it I can not understand the phenomenon, even after long-term training can not completely solve this problem, so if you really want to be the work of Latin characters, and never was able to complete overnight, and in the development of a suitable Chinese the extent of past, the best plan to hold Latin.
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Features Chinese
Voice Features: In general, a syllable can be divided into initial and final two parts. There are 21 consonants, that is, b, p, m, f, d, t, n, l, ɡ, k, h, j, q, x, zh, ch, sh, r, z, c, s; 35 个vowel, vowel sound units of which: ɑ, i, e, o, u, ū, compound vowels vowels, such as ɑi, ei, ɑo, ou and so on. There vowel plus nasal consonant vowel composition, such as ɑn, en, ɑnɡ, enɡ and so on. The finals, in principle, can also add rhyme head i, u, ū, as iɑo, iou, uɑi, uɑn, ūɑn, ūe and so on. Only a special finals er ("child" word sounds), it is never with the initials spell. Some syllables can not initials, such as ɑi "love", ou "Europe", ɑnɡ "expensive" and so on; but not without vowels. Chinese voice is very rich with systemic, not every consonant and a vowel can match any, or any one of each vowel and tone can be matched, but there are laws. To initials, the press of articulation can be divided into 6 categories: ① b, p, m, f is the lip; ② d, t, n, l is the tip of the tongue sound; ③ z, c, s is the tip of the tongue before the voice; ④ zh, ch, sh , r is the tip of the tongue after the tone; ⑤ j, q, x is the tongue sound; ⑥ g, k, h is the Factors Resulting in. The same articulation, voice, generally with the same situation, for example, ū is not lip b, p, m, f appears behind. Tip of the tongue before the voice, tongue after the tone, Factors Resulting in the back did not i and ū; In contrast, only the back of the tongue sound i and ū. Sound in the back of the tongue does not appear, nor ūn. For vowels, the voice is also a regular co-ordination. For example, ɑi, ei there is no rhyme in front of the first i; ɑo, ou do not rhyme in front of the first u; ɑi, ei, ɑo, ou do not rhyme in front of the first ū. On the tone, the voice of the match there are some rules to be found. If the consonant is b, d, ɡ, j, zh, z (such as unaspirated initials initials), but the nasal consonant radio, and all the sound does not match with Hinata. In Mandarin Chinese with a sound not a sound to match, there are two reasons: ① the constraints of their own voice, a voice with a sound together, pronunciation is not convenient, for example, zh, ch, sh, r not, and i, ū fight, j, q, x is not, and ɑ, o, u fight, is the truth. ② caused by the history, such as d, t, n, l do not, and in, ūn fight. Not with a tone of a voice in history, with the result. Lexical And Chinese characters is the righteousness of the characteristics of mono compatible. Since each sound has a meaning, so I used the Chinese character as the representative of one syllable. Grammatical features The greatest feature of the grammar has two, namely: the fixed word order; function word application. Chinese word order of the fixed so being the main characteristics and applications necessary, the word itself is not necessarily because the morphological changes, by going with Biaoshi sentence elements without the sign, this is not a disadvantage of Chinese language, because the location of components of Chinese sentences fixed later, so that people can clearly identify the subject, predicate, object, attribute, adverbial and so on. ② the application of function words. Chinese grammar in occupied an important position. Modal is a major feature of Chinese and Western language of comparison, they lack the tone words, or some so-called "word pieces" in the role of the tone a bit like the Chinese words, unlike the Chinese, as clear that the modal tone, but also not so rich in content. The tone of modern Chinese words on the end of the sentence, they determined that the tone can be divided into tone, speculation mood, subjunctive, to discuss the mood, to persuade tone, tone, of course, answer tone, exaggerated tone, interrogative mood, tone, etc. to ask. Determine the tone with the tone of "La" in the word, which is "the" and "ah" chorus, like "He want to leave." Tone with the tone of speculation that the word "right" words, such as "it will not rain today." Subjunctive mood also used the word "right" words, such as "Go, do not have time, do not go, can not be solved." Discuss the tone of voice also used the word "right" words, such as "Let's go." Convince the tone with the tone of the word "ah" word (with change the sound "ah", "wow," "what", etc.), such as "I really can not help it ah!", "What he said was right!", "He sings it really Hurrah! "," where it easy to get!. " Tone with the tone of course the word "chant" and the words such as "do not know, we like the eager to learn hymns!" Tone with the tone of reply the word "Well" and the words such as "There are views to put them!" Exaggerated tone with the tone of "ne" word such as "this kind of thing are plenty!." Tone with the tone of question words "what," "you" or "ah" ("Yes", "wow", "which"), the use of these three words and different. "It" word is used alternately to ask, such as "he did not visit it?", But also have questions for the sentence the word end of a sentence such as "When will he come?" And for incomplete sentences, such as "I came, him?." "You" word for word sentence no doubt end of the sentence, such as "Do you agree?." Interrogative word "ah" word ("ah", "wow", "what") uses a wider, It can replace the "it", such as "he did not visit you?"; And in some cases, instead of " do, "such as" what you say is true ah?. " Tone is also used to ask "what", "do" such as "How could I not believe it!", "Do not you believe it!." Mood listed above can not be said to be comprehensive, but has made people see that they are very rich tone. Most of these tone with strong emotions. With a million different tone, in fact, there is the tone at work.
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The development of Chinese
Language is a tool of communication is a social phenomenon, it developed along with the development of society. It is the result of the gradual accumulation of new quality factor, the gradual decline of the old quality factor achieved. So different from the ancient Chinese and modern Chinese. Faster development of voice and vocabulary, grammar, develop more slowly. Language is a manifestation of human progress. The development of voice Voice of the different ancient and modern, often ignored by people. Chinese is not phonetic system, even if the shape of different ancient and modern, some people tend to only think that is the shape of the change. From the Han Dynasty to the present, has been shaped largely stabilized. People use modern pronunciation of a Chinese character reading ancient books, although they may be read, but the sound is generally not aware of the differences between ancient and modern. In fact, the difference between ancient and modern sounds is great. ① ancient Chinese have coda ɡ, d, b, This is completely different from Modern Chinese. Ancient coda ɡ, d, b, to have been lost in modern Mandarin, and ending in a vowel and the word becomes a homophone. For example: There are 3 ancient Chinese nasal consonant, which nɡ, n, m. Modern Mandarin into n m tail end, and the confluence of the original n the end, only nɡ, n two coda. For example: Changes in the finals, a lot of rhyming words of ancient and modern have different rhyme; ancient rhyme a little different, modern but with a rhyme. ② The situation initials and finals, many consonants have changed. First, become voiceless voiced. The so-called voiceless, referring to the pronunciation of the vocal cords do not vibrate; the so-called voiced, referring to the pronunciation of the vocal cords vibrate. Ancient b, d, f, h, zn, sh, z, s are divided into two categories voicing, it is now written in a class of the dullness of the stuffy, ╨, enraged, ╪, ╘ ╪, ▄ ╪, ╘, ▄. Voiced such as "voiced." There is also a class called "sub-cloud", that is: m, n, l, r, as well as a part of this study Mandarin w, y at the beginning of the word. Modern Chinese, the "voiced" has disappeared, they have become voiceless, so that certain words could have been voicing opposition, have been combined in modern Mandarin. For example: Note that j, q, x the source. They have two sources: First, ɡ, k, h (including the enraged, ╪), first z, c, s (including ╘, ▄). When they are i, ū ago when no longer maintain the original ɡ, k, h or z, c, s, and all becomes j, q, x. In other words, ɡ, z and non-level tone of enraged, ╘ have become j; k, c peaceful sound of enraged, ╘ have become q; h and s are into x. Thus, many different sources are combined into one pronunciation of the word. For example: ③ tone system evolved, a little simpler than the initial and final. Ancient (Middle) Tone There are 4 species, level tone, rising tone, falling tone, entering tone. The 14th century, no longer exists in some areas north of Tone, Yang Ping voiced word change, times change the word cloud falling tone, rising tone voiceless words change, so change into the rising tone of the words Tone up, then there are some changes. The level tone is divided into two categories, namely IA and Hinata. Voiceless word change Yinping, voiced the word change Hinata. Mandarin Middle Ages and modern 4-sound correspondence as follows: Correspondence from the above view, the relationship between medieval Falling the most simple, it is to the modern Mandarin is still falling tone. Middle level tone of the relationship is relatively simple, it is just voicing the two systems according to differentiate into IA and Hinata. More complex relationship between Cuba Shangsheng, voiceless words such as "to, playing, dog, light, Lord, the Son," etc., sub-cloud words such as "mother, you, Lu, Liu, a, tail, five", etc., still is on sound, and voiced rising tone words such as "move, items, skills, pheasant, Syria, strikes, crime, kidney and anger", etc., have been transformed into falling tone. Medieval and modern Mandarin Tone Tone correspondence between the most complex: Falling into a second cloud characters, such as "Mo, female, force, socks, Yu, Yu, Yue", etc.; voiced almost all turned into Hinata words such as " Do not, alone, together, axis, pole, turbidity, cooked, mixed, vulgar, "etc.; the same time with the 14th century. Voiceless word is changed greatly, it is not just into a rising tone, but dispersed in IA, Yang Ping, rising tone, falling tone into the sound 4. Read Yinping such as "call, throwing, hair, Governor, kicking, pigeons, Guo, cry, drink, pick, seven, porridge, plug, lost, killed, cut", etc.; read Hinata, such as "Fu, fu, Germany, cell, section, but unfortunately, the staff, Sapporo, tert ", etc.; read Shangsheng such as" hundred, hair (the hair), Benedict, tower, bone, thirst, Hao, blood (oral speech), snow, blinking, bids, feet color (mouth voice) "and so on; read Falling such as" will, abdomen, the, tart, the, passenger, He, millet, concubine, Zhi, Sunburn, red, brake, thorough, style, evil, Chek, speed "and so on. All in all, entering characters turn into falling tone of most of the second turn into the second tone, at least turn into a rising tone. Vocabulary Development Words, the ancient and modern changes is great. With the development of society, some old words disappear, but at the same time created a lot of new words. ② Change of meaning there are 3 ways: First, the expansion of meaning, that expanded the meaning of the word; the second is the narrow meaning, that meaning of the word narrowed; third is the transfer of meaning, that a change of meaning, but the meaning of must be nearby. For example: "eyes" of the original meaning of the eye, "Book of Jin Ruan Biography" that "membership for blue eyed." Later, the "eye" into the "eye" synonymous, is the "eye" meaning to expand. "W" is a narrow example. "W" was intended to have been fired earthenware general name ("Dictionary"). Such as the "Little Book of Karl dry": "Health is a woman, get the tile _set_." Where "W" is the earth spinning burning brick. Later, refers specifically to cover the roof of the "W" and "W" meaning narrow. "Feet" is the transfer case. "Feet" of the original meaning of tibia, Sima Qian, "A Letter to Ren," said "grandchildren Bin feet, column repair art of war." Bin feet and cut off the feet foot slave and feudal society is cruel punishment, but the patella than cut off the feet feet feet heavier penalty. Cut off the feet feet feet are cut off, while the foot is removed knee patella. Later, "feet" to and "adequate" synonymous, is the "feet" of the significance of the transfer. Development of grammar Syntax, small changes in some, but not immutable. Only two grammatical structure is the development of the column. ① judge sentence. Today refers to the use to judge the word "YES" causes the sentence, such as "China is a vast land of the country", "He is authentic Peking Man" and so on. Determine the sentence is not in the ancient Chinese, "is" word. Many people understand the ancient times "to" is the word "is" means, but do not often use ancient Sentences "to" word. The Judgement of the most common form is the subject part of the structure behind the slight pause, followed by a predicate part of the word "also", such as "Confucius, Lu people." Of modern thousand words or more article, the word often used to judge ten or more articles in ancient times more than thousand words, the general term of a judge not. Later to determine the word "is" the word is from the demonstrative pronoun "Yes" came the word development. "VII," said: "The virtue or revision, learn the do not speak, smell sense can not migration, poor can not be changed, is I should be worried." Here, "YES" when "this" word say, "Yes I be worried, "to say" This is what I worry about it. " Demonstrative pronoun "that" word in this case it is judged in future generations to judge sentences in the position of the word, so gradually into the nature of the word with the judge, its use has gradually expanded to determine the sentence to the other So, "Confucius, Lu people" also become "Confucius is the State of Lu," the. In short, the study of Chinese historical evolution of various grammatical structures, we should observe the principle is: in the study grammar, you can not think that there is something ancient to the modern must have, or that something is not modern to ancient times can not have.
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Chinese dialect
Chinese dialects are formed by history. Dialects around the complex in any case, be traced back to the end, the same source. This explains why some of the corresponding parts of the phonetic laws, there are many things in common vocabulary, the syntax is basically the same. Chinese dialects can be divided into 7 kinds: ① the Northern dialect, which is a regional maximum. Although known as the Northern dialect, in fact, starting from the northeast to the southwest of only including the area north of the Yangtze River, the Yangtze River over the south of Zhenjiang and Jiujiang the following areas in Hubei (except the southeast corner) and Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, four provinces, Hunan Province, northwest corner and northern Guangxi. ② Wu dialects, including Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, east of the Yangtze River most of the south and almost the whole province of Zhejiang. ③ Xiang dialects, including 30 counties in central Hunan province and cities. ④ Gan dialects, including most of Jiangxi Province and Hubei Province, southeast corner. ⑤ Hakka dialects, spread in Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, and Taiwan Province. Guangxi, Hunan and Sichuan provinces, districts also said that Hakka. ⑥ Min dialects, including most of Fujian Province, Taiwan Province and Guangdong Province, Chaozhou, Shantou and Hainan Island area. Within the dialect, Fujian Province can be divided into words and northern Fujian Minnan dialect words. If represented in Fuzhou Fujian, Taiwanese representatives to Xiamen, then to northern Fujian Jianou words represented. ⑦ Cantonese, including Canton's central, western, southern and eastern part of Guangxi, south. The 7 major dialects, quite different, but each have a common or similar place. Dialect Voiced consonants preserved in the Wu dialect, the most complete. Gordon also holds the majority of all dialects voiced initials. Cantonese is adjusted to reflect the ancient with the whispered voiced initials. Dialects The difference between the parties made the difference is not as big as the audio. Overall, the written language is the basically the same. You will get some local color with the phrase, such as "neck", Cantonese was the "neck", Suzhou dialect is the "neck", the Beijing dialect is the "neck"; such as "arm", Cantonese is the "arm" Suzhou dialect is "Bibo" Beijing dialect is the "arm." Accent Wu dialect, the word order of the performance of the most prominent voice in doubt the word "ah" word position. "Ah" denotes a tone equal to the Mandarin "you" word, but its location on the contrary, "ma" for the end of the sentence, "ah" in front of the word used in the predicate. For example, "you eat it?" In Shanghai dialect, is "Lennon ah eat?" In addition, there are a verb or adjective adverbial on the back, for example, "Shanghai is coming" in the Shanghai dialect, is the "Shanghai to Yoshiya ";" Nanjing quite hot ", Shanghai dialect is" not too hot in summer in Nanjing, "and so on. Putonghua Modern Chinese dialects, dialect complex, many Han people in different parts of each other to communicate. In order to strengthen the unity of the people and promote economic and cultural development, the implementation of the Han people to feel more and more common language of Mandarin ─ ─ needs. Promotion of Putonghua in the country on China's political, economic, cultural, defense and other aspects of significance. The gradual promotion of Mandarin, but also for Chinese characters and create favorable conditions for further reform. Chinese Communist Party and Chinese people's government attached great importance to the development and standardization. Held in Beijing in 1955, the National Conference and the modern Chinese language reform regulatory issues conferences, determine the standardization of modern Chinese Mandarin. In 1956, the State Council issued "instructions on the promotion of Putonghua", _set_ up by Chen Yi as director of the Central Committee of the promotion of Putonghua. Ministry of Education requires all primary and secondary classes in Mandarin language teaching. Mandarin Pronunciation Committee of Different Words of more than 1,800 articles and pronunciation of more than 190 names were considered; published "Three Different Words Mandarin Pronunciation draft summary table." Radio, television, drama, film and so often plays a role model. In the "strong advocate, focusing on implementation, and gradually universal" guiding principle, after years of hard work has begun to gradually become the country Mandarin universal language of communication, Southern dialect gradually adopt Putonghua teaching in many schools, many young people can basically Mandarin communication. Chinese expansion to the world Now China has been popular in the world, the intellectuals, including Confucianism, and later Chinese.
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Study of Chinese History
Chinese history is the study of the law of development of Chinese science. It is with linguistics, general linguistics, history of first Han Chinese history are closely linked. It is to study how the modern Chinese development comes from the ancient Chinese, the modern Chinese phonetic system, grammar, vocabulary and text how formed. This is the modern language education, a better grasp of modern Chinese, and promote the work of great significance in Chinese standardization. Has documented more than three thousand years of Chinese history as long. In order to more clearly leads the development of Chinese language, so that each of the key changes more prominent in Chinese history, the need to make the necessary stages. Because of language development is gradual, it can not say for sure that a year is the beginning of a period, only the approximate time limit. Stages of Chinese history is based, because of the language is different from other social phenomena, it is not simply to stages in accordance with the development of society, and to follow the development of language itself to staging. In the language of the three elements, namely voice, vocabulary, grammar, syntax is the key to language development. Changes in the structure because the syntax is the slowest, the grammatical structure has undergone significant changes, can prove language has changed, the vocabulary is almost always in flux. The initial stages of Chinese history designated as 4 times. Ancient 3rd century AD, formerly of the ancient period, 3 to 4 centuries for the transition phase. The main features of this period: ① generally do not determine the sentence copula; ② pronouns as object in front of the verb; ③ Tone there are two types (a class turned out to be falling tone), and so on. Medieval period: 4 to 12 century AD Medieval period (12 to 13 century for the transition phase). Main features are: ① copula sentence in spoken language as a necessary component to determine; ② Disposal produce; ③ "被" general application; ④-shaped tail, "the", "the" generation; ⑤ part of entering characters into a falling tone word, and so on. Modern: 13 ~ 19 century modern period (from the Opium War in 1840 to the May Fourth Movement in 1919 for the transition phase). The main characteristics of modern Chinese: ① voiced consonants in the north, then disappeared; ②-m rhyme, then disappeared in the north; ③ Tone disappeared in the northern dialect, and so on. Modern: 20th century, the modern period. Modern Chinese characteristics: ① proper absorption of Western grammar; ② a significant increase in polysyllabic words, and so on. Ancient Chinese scholars in Chinese studies has an excellent tradition in different times have made important contributions. Previous studies we can be roughly summarized as four stages. ② The second stage, from the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420 ~ 589) to the Ming Dynasty (1368 ~ 1644) the end is the voice of the stage. At this stage, Chinese scholars under the influence of phonetics in India, began to analyze the structure of Chinese speech, resulting in a series organized by the Ministry of tone and rhyme and rhyme Figure phonology. Phonology is the earliest existing land law made by the Sui Dynasty "Qieyun" Fragments and Tang Ren-Xu's "absurd filled Qieyun Journal" This book saved several ancient and modern sounds of country side, we pushed the ancient sound, the second line modern pronunciation of a Chinese character bridge. Subsequent "Rhyme", "Ji Yun" is also kind of phonology. Yuan Zhou Deqing's "Chung Yuan Yin" According to the 14th century, written in the North Sound, is the study of important historical documents of modern Mandarin. See the first modern map is anonymous rhyme "rhyme mirror," Zheng Qiao's "Qiyin strategy", which is transferred through the rhyme with the form, reflecting the "Qieyun" voice system. Were subsequently asked Sima Guang's "Qieyun his hand map," Song of the "four tones and other child" and Yuan Liu Kam's "classics, history, pronunciation Qieyun Guide", etc. These are essentially based on the Song, Yuan's voice system made, and the rhyme and early maps, "Yun Mirror", "Qi Yin a little" significant difference. ③ The third stage, from the early Qing Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty (1644 ~ 1911), is a comprehensive development phase. Chinese language study at this stage is the most successful era. First in the "Dictionary" study, produced what is known as "the text said," Four of Duan, Gui Fu, Yun Wang, Jun Zhu sound. Duan's "Annotation" is an influential books, notes accurately, not superstition, Xu Shen, will be able critically to accept the "Dictionary", it has a historical perspective, and often can point out the semantic development process. Jun Zhu sound, "said Wen Tong training _set_ sound" as he _set_ rhyme 18 and shaped sound of symbol arrangement, as can the sound, exegetical similarities Management Exposition, "said the text", often break the shape of the barrier and see the semantic contact. Secondly, the study of the ancient sound, has made remarkable achievements. Gu as "Phonetics in five books," Ancient Melodies for the 10 points, followed by Jiang Yong, Dai Zhen Duan, Kong Guangsen, Wang Nian Sun, and so gradually by Jiang Patent amendment to the Ancient Rhymes basically become conclusive. Qian Daxin research presented at the initials "Ancient no light lip", "no tongue of ancient sound" through the ages and indisputable statement. Since ancient phonology development, Wang Nian Sun, Wang cited the father and son in their "Guang Ya," "reading magazines", "Jing Yi Shu Wen", the clearly stated that "the ancient tones seeking ancient meaning, informal body," the scientific view, breaking the shackles of shape, to the semantic of a new path opened up. ④ The fourth stage, from the Qing Dynasty to the present, is a western learning, the establishment stage of modern Chinese linguistics. Chinese scholars note that this stage is learning from the West, the establishment of modern Chinese linguistics period. In grammar, the study of Western Latin Ge Ma Jianzhong Ma Lang, wrote China's first grammar book "Ma." Chen Chengze then "National Grammar grassroots," Li Jinxi's "new book Mandarin grammar," Wang's "Chinese Grammar", Shuxiang's "Outline of Chinese Grammar", Zhu Dexi's "Modern Chinese Grammar" and be developed step by step to gradually establish a Chinese grammar system. Western scholar of China's ancient sound played a larger role in promoting. Swedish scholar Karlgren (KBJ Carlgren) principles of modern linguistics, the study of Chinese phonology, written as "Chinese Phonology" (four volumes, 1915 ~ 1927), a book value of the structure to be sound medieval, reconstruction of the Middle Ages voice system. Under the influence of the Western scholar, dialect study also booming, Zhao's "modern Wu's research," "Zhongxiang dialect in mind," Luo Changpei the "Department of Xiamen tone", "Linchuan phonology" and laid the theoretical study of dialects and methods. "Hubei dialect survey report," and after the establishment of People's Republic of large-scale dialect survey, for the dialect study provides a wealth of information. "Modern Chinese Dictionary" in 1973 after the advent of praise by the majority Han people. Of Chinese Language and Chinese History, the New China, has achieved some important results. Wang Li of "History of Chinese Linguistics" and "Chinese History of" and some of the other experts, are subject to people's attention. The vast majority of Chinese grammar monosyllabic morpheme (hand / wash / glass / dill). Morphemes and morphemes can be combined into words (horse + road → Road / On + Off → switch). Some of the word itself is a morpheme (hand washing), some morpheme itself is not a word, can only be formed with other morphemes in compound words together (Glass → Glass / dill → radish). Comparison of Chinese and Indo-European language, you can see some of the important Chinese grammatical features. Chinese and Indo-European is the difference between a clear no form change. First, during the first Indo-European verbs and adjectives can be changed only with some of the grammatical root word meaning without changing its suffix. The Chinese had no such suffix. Second, the Indo-European verbs are limited and non-limited type of difference. Chinese no such distinction. This difference makes the Chinese grammar and Indo-European grammar huge difference. First, in the Indo-European, the relatively simple function of parts of speech. For example, can only act as subject and object nouns, attributive and predicative adjectives can only act. In Chinese, verbs and adjectives because no deformation, no matter what appears on the syntactic positions, forms are the same. This resulted in the phenomenon of multi-functional parts of speech in Chinese. Secondly, sentences and clauses in the Indo-European must have qualified verb, and verb phrases have the words in the only form of non-qualified, can not be limited to the form. Thus, sentences and clauses is a _set_ of structural principles, the phrase is another _set_ of structural principles. Chinese verbs do not limit the opposition and non-limited, where the verb does not work, forms are the same, therefore the construction of the sentence with the phrase structure principle is the same principle; sentence, but is independent of the phrase only. Syntax is also reflected in the main features of the structure and dynamics that make up the structure. Chinese subject-predicate structure of sentences or clauses with the Indo-European is different from loose structure. This can be manifested in the subject during the first pause, or with modal. Of particular note is often not spoken in the subject. Another main feature is that the structure can act as a predicate. Verb complement structure is very important in modern Chinese a syntactic structure. There is no Indo-European and its corresponding format. Side from the word order, an important feature of Chinese is that all modifiers have been modified ingredients must be placed in front. Dialect of China is a vast population, dialects complicated. Chinese Mandarin and dialects can be divided into two major categories of non-Mandarin. Mandarin distributed in the area north of the Yangtze River and the Yangtze River in Jiujiang and Zhenjiang south along the river between the Strip and Hubei, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi provinces in central, including the northern Mandarin, Jianghuai Mandarin, Southwestern Mandarin dialect few. Mandarin dialect higher degree of internal consistency. Non-Mandarin dialects include the Wu dialect (southern Jiangsu, Zhejiang, most), Gan dialect (Jiangxi most), Hunan dialect (most of Hunan, Guangxi North), Cantonese (Guangdong most, southeastern Guangxi), Min dialects (Fujian , Taiwan, Guangdong, Chaozhou, Shantou and Hainan), Hakka dialects (the eastern and northern Guangdong, western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, and Taiwan). Large differences in non-Mandarin dialects, generally can not talk to each other, even within the same dialect, have difficulty talking. Chinese parties made the difference between the voice on the largest, followed by vocabulary, grammar, the differences in the minimum. China's current policy, the national promotion of Putonghua as the common language of communication of the whole nation. In a broad sense refers to the Chinese Han language, in the narrow sense refers to the Mandarin, in addition to Mandarin, Chinese, Chinese refer to such names are Chinese. There is no doubt that Chinese is the world's largest language in the world there are about 1 / 5 of people use Chinese as their mother tongue. Chinese around the country have their language have great influence. Such as Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese have retained a large number of Chinese words and the Chinese writing system by the text. Chinese is one of the United Nations working languages. Chinese is a language or a Chinese. As the world's unique hieroglyphs of Chinese language to a high degree of unity and norms, there is uniformity and standardization of modern Chinese grammar, although particularly large differences in dialect pronunciation, but the written language norms, there is no written communication caused by differences in dialect barrier. Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family, is a kind of tonal language. Is an independent Chinese language, of language. Chinese way is a kind of hieroglyphic writing Chinese characters. Prior to the May Fourth Movement of the written language used is called "classical" is a kind of used to the time of Confucius, "elegant language" as the basis of written language. After the May Fourth Movement promoted the written Chinese is often referred to as "vernacular", that is the basis of the North, then the modern written language. In the modern Chinese written language, classical has rarely used. Chinese One of the world's major languages. Is a Sino-Tibetan language family, is the most important languages in the language. In addition to outside the Chinese mainland and Taiwan Province of China, Chinese is also located in Singapore, Malaysia and other places. The Chinese National People's Congress is about 940 million native speakers. Chinese is one of the working languages of the United Nations. The standard language is Mandarin in recent centuries based on the North gradually formed. It is Beijing standard pronunciation sound. The standard language in China, known as Mandarin, Mandarin in Taiwan as in Singapore, Malaysia, known as the Chinese. Voice Chinese syllables can be analyzed into consonants, vowels, tone 3. Beginning with a consonant sound, the rest is the finals, the whole syllable pitch tone. The tone is also seen as part of a syllable, because the tones of Chinese are identified justice. Such as "soup, sugar, lying, hot," 4 words of the consonants are [tang], vowels are [ang] (square brackets is the International Phonetic Alphabet, the IPA table in brackets omitted), only because the tone is different not the same meaning in languages representing four different morpheme (the smallest meaningful language unit), in writing, written in four different words. 1918 by the then Ministry of Education promulgated the Mandarin phonetic alphabet is a _set_ of Chinese characters using phonetic alphabets. The letter of the main vowel and coda together with a symbol (for example: ㄠ = [au], ㄢ = [an]), reflects the traditional spirit of consonant vowel two points. Phonetic alphabet widespread significant influence. Taiwan still in use. Published in 1958 by the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet Latin alphabet (Table 2 Initials, Finals Beijing parent, if Beijing finals Table 3). Since 1978, the Chinese phonetic alphabet names names all use the spelling, replacing Wade and other old-style spelling. Text We can see from the first batch of text data ─ ─ Shang oracle bone inscriptions date, over 3,000 years of Chinese history. Because Oracle is already fairly mature character writing system, we can infer the occurrence of certain characters as far away as 3,000 years ago. The development of Chinese characters can be divided into two major phases. Word from Oracle to the small seal script is a stage; from the Qin and Han times Clerical Here is another stage. The former is the scope of the ancient text, which belongs to the category of modern language. Generally speaking, from the official script to modern Chinese characters in use today do not have much change. Relationship with the Chinese from the Chinese perspective, character is a morpheme words. Constructed from the characters themselves look Chinese is ideographic, phonetic radical (of the form next to the sound side), and neither form nor meaning of the symbol phonetic writing system consisting of. Origin of Chinese Characters in the picture. Produced in the early stages of Chinese characters, pictograph glyphs morpheme with the meaning it represents a direct contact occurs. While each has its own fixed word pronunciation, but the shape itself is not phonetic symbols, with the phonetic letters of a different nature. Pictographic character that it represents the pronunciation of the morpheme is passed on it. With the evolution of shape, become less and less pictograph pictographic. The result is shaped with the morpheme it represents lost in the sense of the original contact. This time, the shape itself is neither phonetic nor semantic, into abstract tokens. If you are Chinese, all of the morpheme phonetic by this is neither a sign nor the representative of semantic, then the character can be said to mark a pure text. But it is not. Chinese characters are single characters and compound characters of distinction. Only single characters is the mark of pure text. Compound characters are combined by the result of single characters. From the structure, said compound characters than a single high-level characters. Because the composition of compound characters of the single characters which itself has also marked, but when it is used as a component of compound characters, it is a sound has defined "the word" status to participate. Compound characters can be divided into the following three categories: ② fit Associative. The ancients said, "just as Wu Ge," "hide the letter." For the "Wu", "believe" the word, this explanation is wrong. However, in the Chinese system does have caused in this way the word, such as "not correct for the distortion," "bad for the NAO." Characterized by this type of word meaning to join the radical performance of the whole meaning of the word fit. The very few words, only individual examples. Chinese characters have been used to record more than 3,000 years of history, has been in use to this day, never stopped. In such a long period of time, the Chinese people's real life, not only for services, and record information on a very rich culture; even across national boundaries, are Japan, Korea, Vietnam and other neighboring countries to record through the non-Chinese languages. On the other hand, has long been criticism of Chinese characters are also disadvantages, mainly that characters illegible, difficult to write, difficult to mechanization (print type_set_ting, typing, etc.). Therefore, in literacy, child literacy, education, culture and communication, etc., are not as phonetic and high efficiency. Compared with the phonetic system of Chinese characters has its shortcomings, but also has its strengths. Chinese greatest strengths is the ability to transcend space and time constraints. Significant difference between ancient and modern Chinese pronunciation. However, due to shape fairly stable in 2000, did not change much, meaning the change is relatively small, so the Qin and Han Dynasties of ancient books, some of today's average person can understand. If the ancient books is written with alphabetic writing, modern people simply can not understand. Some dialects differ greatly voice, they can not talk, but written in Chinese characters, will be able to understand each other, the reason is the same. 50, began working to simplify Chinese characters. 1986 re-released "simplified summary table" provides more than 2200 Simplified Chinese characters (including a simplified analogy of the word radical.) This work has now come to an end a period of time in the future will remain stable, do not continue to streamline. Been simplified because the text would undermine the stability, and simplify the number of words later, the original complex characters and can not be repealed. The result is increasing the total number of Chinese characters, but increase the learning and use of people's burden. Romanization issue on the text, has long been controversial. In theory, any natural language can be used phonetic records. However, due to dialect differences, in the promotion of Putonghua is not a broad, practical results before use phonetic dialect area will bring great difficulties. In addition, Chinese long history and extensive literature is recorded in Chinese characters. When change course, bound to the extensive use in the literature, causing some difficulties in social psychology and may also cause fluctuations in national sentiments. In fact, prolonged use of Chinese characters that can be ideographic writing systems, there can be a large number of homonyms in Chinese terms, but this phenomenon does occur, it corresponds to a syllable up to tens of hundreds of Chinese characters, if you use pinyin to record voice, there will not read it I can not understand the phenomenon, even after long-term training can not completely solve this problem, so if you really want to be the work of Latin characters, and never was able to complete overnight, and in the development of a suitable Chinese the extent of past, the best plan to hold Latin.
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Use of
Chinese are mainly used in China, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Myanmar and Chinese communities around the world. Now the Chinese fonts can be roughly divided in accordance with Simplified Chinese and Traditional Chinese. Mainland China and Singapore, Malaysia, the implementation of the norms were simplified Chinese font. In China's Kong, Macao, Europe and America, more use of Traditional Chinese. Across a wide range of cultural exchanges in recent years with Hong Kong, Macao regions have begun to appear all models coexist, but a formal instrument to use traditional. Malaysia, Singapore and other countries the implementation of simplified characters and simplified characters used a formal instrument, but people sometimes use the traditional characters.
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Development of Chinese Characters
Origin of Chinese Characters in the picture. Produced in the early stages of Chinese characters, pictograph glyphs morpheme with the meaning it represents a direct contact occurs. While each has its own fixed word pronunciation, but the shape itself is not phonetic symbols, with the phonetic letters of a different nature. Pictographic character that it represents the pronunciation of the morpheme is passed on it. With the evolution of shape, become less and less pictograph pictographic. The result is shaped with the morpheme it represents lost in the sense of the original contact. This time, the shape itself is neither phonetic nor semantic, into abstract tokens. If you are Chinese, all of the morpheme phonetic by this is neither a sign nor the representative of semantic, then the character can be said to mark a pure text. But it is not. Chinese characters are single characters and compound characters of distinction. Only single characters is the mark of pure text. Compound characters are combined by the result of single characters. From the structure, said compound characters than a single high-level characters. Because the composition of compound characters of the single characters which itself has also marked, but when it is used as a component of compound characters, it is a sound has defined "the word" status to participate. Compound characters can be divided into the following three categories: ② fit Associative. The ancients said, "just as Wu Ge," "hide the letter." For the "Wu", "believe" the word, this explanation is wrong. However, in the Chinese system does have caused in this way the word, such as "not correct for the distortion," "bad for the NAO." Characterized by this type of word meaning to join the radical performance of the whole meaning of the word fit. The very few words, only individual examples. Chinese characters have been used to record more than 3,000 years of history, has been in use to this day, never stopped. In such a long period of time, the Chinese people's real life, not only for services, and record information on a very rich culture; even across national boundaries, are Japan, Korea, Vietnam and other neighboring countries to record through the non-Chinese languages. On the other hand, has long been criticism of Chinese characters are also disadvantages, mainly that characters illegible, difficult to write, difficult to mechanization (print type_set_ting, typing, etc.). Therefore, in literacy, child literacy, education, culture and communication, etc., are not as phonetic and high efficiency. Compared with the phonetic system of Chinese characters has its shortcomings, but also has its strengths. Chinese greatest strengths is the ability to transcend space and time constraints. Significant difference between ancient and modern Chinese pronunciation. However, due to shape fairly stable in 2000, did not change much, meaning the change is relatively small, so the Qin and Han Dynasties of ancient books, some of today's average person can understand. If the ancient books is written with alphabetic writing, modern people simply can not understand. Some dialects differ greatly voice, they can not talk, but written in Chinese characters, will be able to understand each other, the reason is the same. 50, began working to simplify Chinese characters. 1986 re-release of the "simplified summary table" provides more than 2200 Simplified Chinese characters (including a simplified analogy of the word radical.) This work has now come to an end a period of time in the future will remain stable, do not continue to streamline. Been simplified because the text would undermine the stability, and simplify the number of words later, the original complex characters and can not be repealed. The result is increasing the total number of Chinese characters, but increase the learning and use of people's burden. Romanization issue on the text, has long been controversial. In theory, any natural language can be used phonetic records. However, due to dialect differences, in the promotion of Putonghua is not a broad, practical results before use phonetic dialect area will bring great difficulties. In addition, Chinese long history and extensive literature is recorded in Chinese characters. When change course, bound to the extensive use in the literature, causing some difficulties in social psychology and may also cause fluctuations in national sentiments. In fact, prolonged use of Chinese characters that can be ideographic writing systems, there can be a large number of homonyms in Chinese terms, but this phenomenon does occur, it corresponds to a syllable up to tens of hundreds of Chinese characters, if you use pinyin to record voice, there will not read it I can not understand the phenomenon, even after long-term training can not completely solve this problem, so if you really want to be the work of Latin characters, and never was able to complete overnight, and in the development of a suitable Chinese the extent of past, the best plan to hold Latin.
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English Expression
: English
n.: chinese, the Chinese language, Chinese language
French Expression
n. chinois
nf. langue chinoise
Related Phrases
phrase
acceptation
tongue
vocabulary
dict
classifier
cipher
numeral
dialect
the Yangtze River and the Huai River dialect
novel
unix
Chinese
art
Term solution
coccidiosis
convention
become book containing listsof words and phrases grouped according to their meanings
