Denmark's capital, the country's largest commercial port. Population 1.73 million (1994). Largest city in Northern Europe and the sea and air transport hub. Industry are shipbuilding, machine building, food. There Jielao Fountain, Tivoli amusement park and other tourist attractions. Bin Park, Little Mermaid, is a symbol of the city.
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1. Copenhagen, Denmark (Copenhagen)
Copenhagen population of 501,000 (January 2006). The country's major food, shipbuilding, machinery, electronics and other industries are concentrated here. Copenhagen's harbor, the water depth in Hong Kong wide, good equipment, is Denmark's largest commercial port. Ships out of port every year up to thirty-five thousand or more, more than half of Denmark's foreign trade import and export are through here. Copenhagen by train ferry and rail Jutland and the Scandinavian countries are connected. There are many international airlines have been here, the Western European and Nordic railway, aviation hub. Copenhagen is both a traditional trade and shipping center, but also a new manufacturing city. National 1 / 3 of the plant in Greater Copenhagen area. Major industrial projects are shipbuilding, machinery, canned food, brewing and so on. Local Asian companies, Bumisite ─ Wynne machinery and the shipping industry world-famous companies and other manufacturers. Post-industrial and population in 1950 moved to the outskirts of the urban population is gradually reduced. Urban transport in cars, electric rail and bus based. 8 km southeast of the city airport. Institutions of higher learning are the University of Copenhagen (1479), Technical University of Denmark, the Danish Engineering College, Royal College of Music and Fine Arts (1754) and so on. Copenhagen, beautiful and clean city, the city's large industrial enterprises in emerging ancient and medieval buildings each other, it is both a modern metropolis, but also has antique features. In many ancient buildings, some of the most representative is the old castle. Located in downtown Fort's most ancient Christian. Christian is now Fort was burnt in 1794 after the reconstruction. In the past, it was the Danish king's palace, now the seat of parliament and government buildings. Exit building in Oresund Karen Castle on the rock, is a former military guards the ancient city fortress, still holds the fort was built and weapons. In addition, the King of Denmark now living in the palace - A Malin Fort, also quite well known. Copenhagen City Hall clock tower, and are often packed with curious visitors. Because there are parts of a complex, ingenious astronomical clock. It was said to go not only extremely accurate astronomical clock, but also to calculate the position of the planet in space, to tell people: one week the name of the day, date and month and year of the Gregorian calendar, sign of operation, the sun, the Central European Time and sidereal time and so on. This astronomical clock is a locksmith named Olsen spent four years of effort, it caused huge amounts of money spent. October 7, 2009, in Copenhagen announced the host city for 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro.
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Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory
Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory is a paradox in mind. Any experiments in physics, whether it is about the phenomenon of everyday life, or the relevant atomic events, are terms of classical physics to describe. Constitute the concept of classical physics describe the experimental _set_up and the presentation of our results in the language. We can not and should be replaced by any other things to these concepts. However, the application of these concepts by the uncertainty relation limits. When using these concepts, we have in mind Laoji classical concept of this limited scope, but we can not and should attempt to improve these concepts. To better understand this paradox, a comparison of the classical physics and quantum theory in an experiment to explain the procedure to be useful. For example, in Newtonian mechanics, we need to study the movement of planets, can measure its position and speed start. As long as the planet by observing a series of projected coordinate values and dynamic values, it can be translated into a mathematical observation. Since then, the equations of motion to be used to _set_ the time from the fixed values of these derived coordinates and the coordinates of the system later, or any other nature, so that astronomers can predict the nature of the system at a later date. For example, he can predict the exact time of the eclipse. In quantum theory, the program is slightly different. For example, we may have an electron cloud chamber interested in sports, and certain observations can determine the initial position and velocity of electrons. However, this determination will not be accurate; it contains at least caused by the uncertainty relation is not accurate, and perhaps also because of difficulties in the experiment contained more errors. First, it is precisely because these are not accurate, it allows us to translate observations of quantum theory teaching program. Probability function is written on behalf of the experimental conditions for measurement, in which even includes the possibility of measurement error. This probability function represents a mixture of two things, partly fact and partly our knowledge of the facts. It is _select_ed for the initial state, said initial time the probability is 1 (ie completely sure) that says it represents the fact that: e was observed in the position to the speed of movement was observed; "was observed" means the accuracy of the experiment was observed within. While another observer may be able to more accurately know the location of this e-that it represents to our knowledge. Experimental error is not (at least in part) on behalf of the nature of the electron, and that our knowledge of the electronic defects. This knowledge of the defect is represented by a probability function. In classical physics, when carrying out detailed research, people also should take into account observational errors. Result, people get on the coordinates and speed of the initial value of the probability distribution and, therefore, be very similar to the probability function in quantum mechanics of something. Quantum mechanics is uncertainty relation due to the uncertainty of which there must be, in classical physics is not. Thus, the theoretical interpretation of an experiment requires three distinct steps: (1) turn the initial experimental conditions to reach a probability function; (2) to track the time course of this probability function; (3) made on the system statement of the new measurement, the measurement results can be derived from the probability function. For the first step is not difficult to meet the relationship test is a necessary condition. The second step can not be described in terms of classical concepts: There is no on the initial observations and between the second measurement system, a description of what happened. Only the third step, we from the "possible" changes to "reality." The first step, will reach an observation probability function transfer is possible to do, only to meet the uncertainty in the observed relationship between the post, this is possible. E can be observed was that the location is accurate, the accuracy with the γ-ray wavelengths may be. E can be said before the observation is actually static. However, the role of the observation process, at least one γ-ray photons must be through a microscope, and must first be deflected electrons. Therefore, quantum electronics is also the impact, which changed its momentum and speed. It can be proved that the uncertainty of change just large enough to ensure the establishment of uncertainty relation. Accordingly, the first step, not the slightest difficulty. Also, people can easily understand not observed around the nucleus of the electronic orbital. The second step is to show a movement but do not leave the atom around the nucleus of the wave packet, because the first light quantum has played electrons from atoms. If the γ-ray wavelength is smaller than the size of atoms, γ-ray photon electron momentum will be much larger than the original momentum. Therefore, the first light quantum is sufficient electron from the atom in the play, and it must not be observed in the other point of orbit; Therefore, there is no general sense of the track. The next observation - the third step - will show the atomic electron to leave the line. Between two successive observations of what happened, the general is completely impossible to describe. Of course, people always want to say: between the two observations, e must be in certain places, which will also depict a route or track, even impossible to know how the route. In classical physics this is a reasonable inference. However, in quantum theory, we will later see that this is unreasonable misuse of language. Never mind the warning that we can temporarily what is the way we talk about atomic events, or an atomic event itself, how it relates to epistemology or ontology. But in any case, the behavior of atomic particles we make any statement, the wording must be very careful. In fact, we totally do not need to say anything particles. For many experiments, that the matter wave is more convenient; for example, that stand around the nucleus of the matter wave in the more convenient. However, if you do not pay attention given uncertainty relation limits, such a description and another description of a direct contradiction. With these restrictions, to avoid conflicts. Use the "matter wave" is convenient, for example, atomic emission of radiation treatment is like that. Radiation to its frequency and intensity of the oscillation provides the atomic charge distribution of the information, and therefore fluctuations in the image closer to the truth than the particle image. Therefore, the Bohr be used to promote two kinds of images, he said they are "complementary". The two images are mutually exclusive, of course, because a thing can not also be a particle (ie, small volume limit level entity〕 who is a wave (that is, extended to a large space of games), but they are complement each other. playing with these two images from one image to another image, then from the other images back to the original image, we end up hidden in the back of our atomic experiments strange impression is correct. Bohr interpretation of quantum theory in several places using the "complementary" concept. knowledge about the particle position and momentum on its speed or complementary knowledge. If we take a high degree of accuracy of know one of them, we can not know the other a high degree of accuracy; but in order to determine the behavior of the system, we must both know. atomic space-time description of events and their decisions on the description of complementary. chance function subject to a motion equation, as coordinates, as in Newtonian mechanics; it changes over time is completely determined equation of quantum mechanics, but it does not allow for atomic events in space and time to describe. On the other hand, observation requirements in space and time description of the system, but because of observations changed our knowledge of the system, it also destroyed the probability function that has been given continuity. For this purpose, to discuss the following ideal experiment is good, we only along a small monochromatic light source to a black screen with two small holes radiation. Diameter hole than the wavelength of light can not be too much large, but the distance between them is much larger than the wavelength of light. After a certain distance of the screen with a photographic film record of the incident light. If people use to describe the experimental wave images, people will say that the initial wave through two holes; will have a secondary spherical wave starting from the hole and interfere with each other, and interference in the photographic film will produce a change in intensity pattern. Photographic negatives of the black is a quantum process, the chemical reaction is caused by a single light quantum. Therefore, to describe the experiment must be quantum light is also possible. If you allow the discussion of a single photon emission from the light source in its photographic film and absorbed by what is happening between the words, people can draw the following inferences: a single photon through the first hole or holes through the second. If it through the first hole, and there is scattered, it is a point on the photographic plate is absorbed is not likely to depend on the second hole is closed or open. Probability distribution on the film should be only the first hole with the case open. If the experiment is repeated several times, the photons pass through the first hole all the circumstances together, the black film because some of these cases will correspond to the probability distribution. If you only consider those small holes through the second light quantum, black part will correspond to only the second hole from the assumption that open probability function derived. Therefore, the whole black part of the two cases will be exactly the sum of its parts black; in other words, there should be no interference pattern. But we know that this is not correct, because the experimental interference pattern will appear. This shows that any one of the quantum, if not bound by the first hole to hole by a second, this argument is problematic, and will lead to contradictions. This example clearly shows that the concept of probability function describes the two observations do not allow what happened in between. Any attempt to seek such a description would lead to contradictions; it must mean that the "occurrence" is limited to observation. This is indeed a very strange results, because they seem to indicate that observation plays a decisive role in the incident, and observed that it is because we are different. In order to more clearly show this, we must be more careful analysis of the observation process. First of all, remember this is important: in the natural sciences, we are not on, including the entire universe, including our own interest, we only pay attention to a part of the universe, and as the object of our study. In atomic physics, this part is usually a very small object, an atomic particle or a group of such particles, and sometimes may be much larger - size is not crucial; However, it is important, including our including most of the universe does not belong to this object. Now, when we observed a second time, its results should come out from the theoretical predictions; realize this is very important that our subjects were observed before or at least must be observed Yishun Jian another world parts in contact, which is another part of the world's experimental device, scale and so on. This means that the equation of motion probability function and measurement equipment now includes the impact of the interaction. This effect introduces a new uncertainty factor, as is the measuring instrument must be described in terms of classical physics; such a description contains information about the microscopic structure of the instrument uncertainty, which is the thermodynamics we cognizant; However, because the instruments and the rest of the world is linked, it is in fact also includes the microscopic structure of the whole world of uncertainty. From the uncertainty of just term used described the consequences of classical physics and does not depend on any observer that that they can be called objective. The uncertainty of those involved from our incomplete knowledge of the world that say they are also can be called subjective. In the wake of this interaction, the probability function contains the objective factors and the tendency to incomplete knowledge of the subjective factor, and even if it previously had been a "pure intelligence state", it is still the case. It is for this reason, observations generally can not accurately predict expected to Z can only be a chance observation, while the probability of such a statement can be repeated to verify the experiment. Probability function does not describe a certain event (that is, not like the kind of Newtonian mechanics in the normal approach), but all the whole ensemble of possible events, at least in the process of observation is so. Continuous observation does not in itself change the probability of country Z is the number of all possible events from the _select_ed actual events. Because through observation, our knowledge of the system is changed discontinuously, its mathematical representation has undergone discontinuous change, we call this the "quantum jump." When the old adage "no natural mutation" is used as the basis for criticism of quantum theory, we can answer that: no doubt that our knowledge is the ability to suddenly change, and the fact that the use of "quantum jump" is the term correct. So, we perceive the world, especially in the most objective description of the atomic world Ku what extent can achieve it, in classical physics, science started from the belief - or the illusion that people should say from the start? - That is, I believe we can describe the world, or at least be able to describe parts of the world, but not involved in the slightest to our own. This is largely practical possibility. We know the city of London there, whether we see it or not. It can be said that classical physics is the ideal situation, in this ideal case, we can talk about some parts of the world, and did not involve us. Its success is the objective description of the world guide to the universal ideal. Objectivity into the results of any scientific assessment of the value of the primary standard. Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory still agree with this ideal it? One might say that quantum theory is as much as possible consistent with this ideal. Indeed, quantum theory does not include the subjective features of the real, it does not introduce atomic physicist's spirit as part of the event. However, the starting point of quantum theory is the world divided into "subjects" and the rest of the world, in addition, it also proceed from the fact, which is at least the rest of the world, we use in our description is the classic concept. This distinction is arbitrary, and from the history of it, is a direct consequence of the scientific method; and classic application of the concept after all, the consequences of the general human way of thinking. But this has involved our own, so that our description is not entirely objective was. Have said in the beginning, the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory is a paradox from the beginning. It from classical physics we use the term to describe our experiments such a facts, and from these concepts are not exactly the same time to adapt to such an understanding of the natural starting. This opposition between two points of departure between the statistical properties of quantum theory is the source. Therefore, from time to time been suggested, should all abandon the classical concept, and because the concept used to describe a fundamental change in the experiment, and perhaps may make it back to nature for non-static, fully objective description. Only when measuring instruments with close contact with the rest of the world, only when the instrument and the interaction between the observers, measuring instruments is worthy of the name. Therefore, as in the first interpretation, as here, the microscopic behavior of the world uncertainty of quantum theory will also enter the system. If the measurement instrument and the rest of the world to isolate, it is neither a measuring instrument, they did not use the terminology of classical physics to describe. About the condition, Bohr emphasized that the object and the rest of the world this distinction is not arbitrary argument is more realistic. In atomic physics, our research work is usually the actual situation is this: We want to see a certain phenomenon, we hope to understand how some of these phenomena is the natural law in general derived. This indicates that part of the phenomenon is the theory of matter or radiation treatment in the course of the "object", and in this regard, they should be, and the tools used to study the phenomenon of separated. This in turn makes the description of atomic events highlight the subjective factors out, because measuring instruments created by the observer, and we must remember that we have not observed the nature itself, but by the way we used to explore the issues revealed Nature. In physics, our scientific work is to use the language at our disposal to put forward the question about nature, and try to deploy from our experiments random answer. As shown by Bohr, that quantum theory to remind us of an old adage: When looking for harmony in life, people should never forget the drama of life, both our own actors and the audience. Can understand the science in our relationship with nature, when we have to deal only with the most sophisticated tools to in-depth nature of that part of the past, our own activity becomes very important.
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Drama "Copenhagen"
"Copenhagen" to the German scientist Werner Heisenberg and the Nazi era Bohr Danish scientist and his wife Margaret Reiter's memories of the soul after death and dialogue, the history of modern science leads to the famous 1941 "Mystery of the Copenhagen meeting." The mystery has not yet opened for the development of the atomic bomb during World War II and put into combat, and today the nuclear threat facing the world, the future science and human survival so far-reaching implications. "Copenhagen" by decrypting the "mystery of the Copenhagen meeting," launched after the successful development of the atomic bomb look at history. White oval stage, white walls, embedded in the white walls of the two doors open at any time. The two doors separated the two worlds, outside the golden birch, it is one of the world; door is white underworld, the soul walk the land meet. A dry white birch cable, three white and ivory chair, the three meet the soul after death. German physicist Werner Heisenberg went to Copenhagen to visit his peers and teachers Pol. Heisenberg, Bohr, Margaret Reiter talked about the three ghosts of war in 1941, talked about a rainy night in Copenhagen in September, Nazi Germany's nuclear reactors, the Allies are developing the atomic bomb; talk about quantum, particles, and measurement of uranium fission principle not allowed to talk about Beethoven, Bach's piano music; talk about the state of war individual responsibilities and obligations of the city after the atomic bombings messy distorted body. Heisenberg love of his country, he sees his country is his family, wife, child, he wanted for his country to contribute their efforts, but to his native Germany by the world as the devil --- a country . His choice, a dilemma. "One has a moral conscience should not be engaged scientists study the atomic bomb?" He asked Boer, is asking himself. When the atomic bomb explosion in Hiroshima, he was the same as his hands covered with blood. Bohr developed the atomic bomb to win the applause of the world, not Heisenberg developed the atomic bomb was carrying three decades of doubt, explains the three decades ... ... Because the room is installed listening devices, their conversation could not start not in depth. The mystery of the meeting on the future of research and manufacture of atomic bombs on the future course of the war had a significant impact. But Heisenberg told Bohr said something in the end, their souls can not clear. "Copenhagen meeting," interpreted by three ghosts 4 times, each time put forward different possibilities. They continue to return to the evening in 1941, the year the face of confusion, but the result is always caught in the fog, until the last failed to find the exact answer. "Brother" after the play premiered in London in the year, writer 麦克弗雷恩 even won the Pulitzer, Tony awards, widespread in European and American theater have been hit, and became the 2002 Best Drama Award winning Broadway plays. "Copenhagen" This play in terms of content and drama, both in terms of art with mystery, the content it is about a world of mystery, from an artistic sense it gives artists a great studio space. It is said that the play performed in foreign countries, most countries have adopted the three chairs of the stage _set_ting, Wang Ying of the Chinese version is no exception, but the play abstract, realistic and poetic speech of three areas of space not only expanded, but also for the world the atmosphere of the play added a _set_ expression. Play in some key scenes also used the projection technique, if the audience experience the playback of real historical events. Wang Ying told a reporter said that when he saw the script was very annoyed when, because not understand read it twice, one is aware of this show in the world, a very wide range of performances, known as the "Copenhagen phenomenon", One is his view that a good director or China how to read it. But having read three times, he finally felt the challenge of this play, so today we have seen the Chinese version of "Copenhagen." The play only Heisenberg, Bohr and his wife Margaret --- the same as the physicist Reiter three characters, the use of post-modern collage-style approach to revive the character of these dialogues. The Danish capital, Copenhagen, one of Northern Europe's largest city, located in the eastern part of Zealand, Denmark, and Sweden across the Oresund Strait, an important port Malmö Sea. Copenhagen was originally a small fishing village, due to the growing prosperity of maritime trade, to the 12th century has developed into a commercial town, in 1443 the Danish capital. In Danish, the Copenhagen meaning "merchants of the port" or "trade port." Copenhagen, Hong Kong, Hong Kong wide water depth, good equipment, is Denmark's largest port, each ship out of port as much as tens of thousands of ships, to carry more than half of Denmark's foreign trade mission. Copenhagen is a famous historical cities in Northern Europe, the city has many historical sites, ancient castles and churches buildings, many standing on the streets cast in bronze. Built in 1479 the University of Copenhagen is Scandinavia's oldest institution of higher learning. Each other with these medieval buildings is the old style of new modern high-rise buildings and new large industrial enterprises. Copenhagen existing more than 170 million people, about the country's population of 1 / 3. The country's major food, shipbuilding, machinery, electronics and other industries are concentrated here. Walking the streets of Copenhagen, notably its old town. There are many ancient palaces, most notably Kerry Siqin Fort, which used to be the king's palace, now the seat of parliament. Kerry Siqin near Fort A Meilin and now live in the royal castle and the Palace Museum open to the public such as Rosenberg. City Central's "Tivoli" The Park is a world famous casino, which has a unique Chinese-style pavilion. Copenhagen City Hall clock tower 105 meters high, is to make visitors feel strange place, there is a tower clock in the same parts in the most complex and highly sophisticated production giant astronomical clock, travel time is not only accurate, but also show the year, month, day and weeks, is a self-taught by an engineer named Olson spent 40 years of effort, cost huge amounts of money only constructed of. Andersen bustling city streets, stands a statue of Hans Christian Andersen fairy tale master wearing hat, seated holding the stick of civilization. The old city is the birthplace of Copenhagen, with other cities the difference is so far still the center of Copenhagen, and there is no central area for urban development and displacement. Kerry Siqin to the center of Fort area, an area of only 1 square kilometers, the residents are only 1 million people, but it is the Danish clusters of various government departments, who work here every day to close to 10 million, while the number of people come here for political, economic or commercial activities. The flow of waves, the shuttle car, so that the ancient city is especially busy, full of vitality. Copenhagen, tree-lined city streets clean and beautiful, in order to see the beautiful scenery and attractions of Copenhagen, about 1000 people from all over the world come to visit and tour of Copenhagen. Many urban areas so that this ancient and bronze sculptures of young city full of poetic, "Mermaid" statue is known. Mention of Copenhagen, people immediately think of mermaids. Located in the Waterfront Park, to Hans Christian Andersen fairy tale "The Little Mermaid" as a prototype for the girls head, body, dragging a tail of the statue has become a symbol of Copenhagen, with the Eiffel Tower in Paris, Rome and London church suspension bridge, is representative of the city attractions. Rosenberg is also a famous monument in Copenhagen, was built in the 17th century during a Kerry Siqin V Renaissance palace, the castle is located in the Wang Jiagong flowers blooming garden, a collection of relics of ancient king of precious stones, the crown , tapestry and other precious relics, has been turned into a museum. A Meilin castle is a rococo-style building, with a unique octagonal courtyard, the king and royal family members a place to live, every day at noon to watch the ancient wearing uniforms, carrying weapons guard shift changes, the solemn ceremony. 30 kilometers north of Copenhagen, Department, there are 3 castle worth a visit, Karen Fort Writing Shakespeare "Hamlet" when the castle prototype. Fredensborg Palace, the summer palace of the Danish royal family, royal family members not in this for visitors during their stay, there are beautiful parks and lakes. Rod Hill is a Renaissance palace style building, surrounded by a moat around, and have a beautiful park, Baonei collection reflects the history of many valuable works of art in Denmark, has turned into the National Museum. Copenhagen has more than 20 museums and more than 10 different styles of the park. Denmark's largest, most extensive collection of National Museum, displays the legacy of the Ice Age, the medieval custom furniture and artifacts such as Denmark, are rare treasures. Famous deer park, ancient trees, grass green bonus, flocks of wild deer in the forest was free to chase, full of mythical wonderland. Mountain park also has a rich taste of hotels, restaurants, do not have a flavor.
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Encyclopedia
Gebenhagen Copenhagen K □ benhavn Flat, coastal and more filling by hand. Oresund by dredging, large seagoing vessel passage. Winter ice is generally not serious. Mild climate, January average temperature of -1 ℃, 7 月 15 ℃, annual precipitation is 700 mm, seasonal distribution of uniform. Greater Copenhagen area industrial production accounts for 1 / 3 or more, there are food, machinery, shipbuilding, precision machinery, chemicals, textiles, ceramics, printing and other departments. Food, ships, diesel and other products on the market in the world enjoy a high reputation. Harbour into North Port, Inner Harbour, Outer Harbour and the South. North Port is a major ocean port, 1894, the North Sea - Baltic Canal navigation, Pak was turned into a free port, in recent years built a large container terminal; Outer Harbour is the tanker wharf, the water depth of 11.5 meters; the inner harbor shallow, mainly for the ferry ( to Malmo, Sweden) and offshore marine park. The port a total of 60 berths, the terminal a total length of 30 kilometers, the annual throughput of 600 to 700 million tons, accounting for 1 / 8, of which 2 / 3 in bulk cargo. Mainly for oil, coal, metals, food, chemicals, cotton yarn, the output of manufactured goods, meat and dairy products. A Maie Island in the east Kastrup international airport. There are several railway and road connection at home and abroad by ferry to the city. Very busy because of the ferry, has started construction of Oresund Link tunnel in the Salt Island, and pass by the island's Bridge, Malmo, Sweden. Institution of higher learning founded in 1479 with the University of Copenhagen and the Technical University of Denmark Technical University of Denmark, the Danish Engineering College, Royal College of Music, etc., as well as Northern Europe's largest zoo and botanical gardens, national museums, art galleries and so on. Has a world-famous by the sea the mermaid statue (from Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tales), is often used as a symbol of the city. (See color pictures Mermaid statue in Copenhagen, Denmark) (Solemn million)
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