The Three Kingdoms period (simplified Chinese: 三国时代; traditional Chinese: 三國時代; pinyin: Sānguó shídài) is a period in the history of China, part of an era of disunity called the Six Dynasties following immediately the loss of de facto power of the Han Dynasty emperors. In a strict academic sense it refers to the period between the foundation of the Wei in 220 and the conquest of the Wu by the Jin Dynasty in 280. However, many Chinese historians and laymen extend the starting point of this period back to the uprising of the Yellow Turbans in 184.
The three kingdoms were Wei (魏), Shu (蜀), and Wu (吳). To help further distinguish these states from other historical Chinese states of the same name, historians add a relevant character: Wei is also known as Cao Wei (曹魏), Shu is also known as Shu Han (蜀漢), and Wu is also known as Dong Wu or Eastern Wu (東吳). The term Three Kingdoms itself is somewhat of a mistranslation, since each state was eventually headed not by kings, but by an emperor who claimed legitimate succession from the Han Dynasty. Although the translation Three Empires is more contextually accurate, the term Three Kingdoms has become standard among sinologists.
The earlier, "unofficial" part of the period, from 184 to 220, was marked by chaotic infighting between warlords in various parts of China. The middle part of the period, from 220 and 263, was marked by a more militarily stable arrangement between three rival states, Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The later part of this period was marked by the collapse of the tripartite situation: first the destruction of Shu by Wei (263), then the overthrow of Wei by the Jin Dynasty (265), and the destruction of Wu by Jin (280).
Although relatively short, this historical period has been greatly romanticised in the cultures of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. It has been celebrated and popularised in operas, folk stories, novels and in more recent times, films, television series, and video games. The best known of these is undoubtedly the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a novel dealing with the period that draws heavily on history. The authoritative historical record of the era is Chen Shou's Sanguo Zhi, along with Pei Songzhi's later annotations of the text.
The Three Kingdoms period was one of the bloodiest in Chinese history. A population census during the late Eastern Han Dynasty reported a population of approximately 50 million, while a population census during the early Western Jin Dynasty (after Jin re-unified China) reported a population of approximately 16 million. However, the Jin dynasty's census was far less complete than the Han census, so these figures are in question.
Technology advanced significantly during this period. Zhuge Liang invented the wooden ox, suggested to be an early form of the wheelbarrow, and improved on the repeating crossbow. A brilliant mechanical engineer known as Ma Jun, in Wei, is considered by many to be the equal of his predecessor Zhang Heng. He invented a hydraulic-powered, mechanical puppet theatre designed for Emperor Ming of Wei (Cao Rui), square-pallet chain pumps for irrigation of gardens in Luoyang, and the ingenious design of the South Pointing Chariot, a non-magnetic directional compass operated by differential gears.
Yellow Turban Rebellion
The power of the Eastern Han Dynasty went in to depression steadily declined after the reign of Emperor He of Han from a variety of political and economic problems. A series of Han emperors ascended the throne while still youths, and de facto Imperial power often rested with the young emperors' older relatives. Because these relatives occasionally were loath to give up their influence, emperors would, upon reaching maturity, be forced to rely on political alliances with senior officials and eunuchs to achieve control of the government. Political posturing and infighting between Imperial relatives and government eunuchs was a constant problem in Chinese government at the time. During the reigns of Emperors Huan and Ling, leading officials' dissatisfaction with the eunuchs' usurpations of power reached a peak, and many began to openly protest against them. The first and second protests met with failure, and the court eunuchs persuaded the Emperor to execute many of the protesting scholars. Some local rulers seized the opportunity to exert despotic control over their lands and citizens, since many feared to speak out in the oppressive political climate. Emperors Huan' and Ling's reigns were recorded as particularly dark periods of Han Dynasty rule. In addition to political oppression and mismanagement, China experienced a number of natural disasters during this period, and local rebellions sprung up throughout China.
In the second month of 184 AD, Zhang Jue, leader of the Dao of Supreme Harmony Daoist movement, along with his two brothers Zhang Liang and Zhang Bao, led the movement's followers in a rebellion against the government that was called the Yellow Turban Rebellion. Their movement quickly attracted followers and soon numbered several hundred thousands and received support from many parts of Han China. They had 36 bases throughout China, with large bases having 10,000 or more followers and minor bases having 6,000 to 7,000, similar to Han armies. Their motto was: "The Han Emperor's already dead, Lord Zhang Jue shall take his stead; the year-cycle is at its head, into fortune shall all be led!" (Chinese: 蒼天已死,黃天當立,歲在甲子,天下大吉) Emperor Ling of Han dispatched Generals Huangfu Song, Lu Zhi, and Zhu Jun to lead the Han armies against the Yellow Turbans, and decreed that local governments had to supply soldiers to assist in their efforts. It is at this point that the great epic Romance of the Three Kingdoms begins its narrative. The Yellow Turbans were ultimately defeated and its surviving followers dispersed throughout China, but due to the turbulent situation throughout the empire, many were able to survive as bandits in mountainous areas, thus continuing their ability to contribute to the turmoil of the era.
With the widespread increase in bandits across the Chinese nation, the Han army had no way to repel each and every raiding party. In 188, Emperor Ling accepted a memorial from Yizhou governor Liu Yan suggesting he grant direct administrative power over feudal provinces and direct command of regional military to local governors, as well promoting them in rank and filling such positions with members of the Liu family or court officials. This move made provinces (zhou) official administrative units, and although they had power to combat rebellions, the later intra-government chaos allowed these local governors to easily rule independently of the central government. Soon after this move, Liu Yan severed all of his region's (modern Sichuan) ties to the Han court, and several other areas followed suit.
Dong Zhuo in power
That same year, Emperor Ling died, and another struggle began between the court eunuchs for control of the Imperial family . Court eunuch Jian Shuo planned to kill General He Jin, a relative of the royal family, and to replace the Crown Prince Liu Bian with his younger brother Liu Xie, the Prince of Chenliu (in modern Kaifeng), though his plan was unsuccessful. Liu Bian took the Han throne as Emperor Shao of Han, and General He Jin plotted with warlord Yuan Shao to assassinate the Ten Attendants, a clique of ten eunuchs led by Zhang Rang who controlled much of the imperial court. He Jin also ordered Dong Zhuo, the frontier general in Liangzhou, and Ding Yuan, Inspector of Bingzhou (the area now between Baoding and Taiyuan), to bring troops to the capital to reinforce his position of authority. The eunuchs learned of General He's plot, and had him assassinated before Dong Zhuo ever reached the capital, Luoyang. When Yuan Shao's troops reached the capital they stormed the palace complex, killing the Ten Attendants and two thousand of those loyal to them. Though this move effectively ended the century-long feud between the eunuchs and the Imperial family, it ushered in the era of warlords and martial law that became the Three Kingdoms Era.
This event prompted the invitation of Dong Zhuo to enter Luoyang from the northwest boundary of China. At the time China faced the powerful barbarians of Qiang tribe to the northwest, and thus Dong Zhuo controlled a large army with elite training. When he brought the army to Luoyang, he was able to easily overpower the existing armies of both sides and took control of the imperial court, ushering in a period of civil war across China.
Dong Zhuo then manipulated the succession so that the future Emperor Xian could take the throne in lieu of his elder half-brother. Dong Zhuo, while ambitious, genuinely wished for a more capable emperor. On his way to Luoyang, he encountered a small band of soldiers protecting the two sons of Emperor Ling fleeing the war zone. In the encounter Dong Zhuo acted arrogantly and threateningly, causing the elder half-brother to be paralyzed with fear; the younger brother, the future Emperor Xian, responded calmly with authority and commanded Dong Zhuo to protect the royal family with his army to return to the Imperial Court.
While Dong Zhuo originally wanted to re-establish the authority of Han Empire and manage all the political conflict properly, his political capability proved to be much worse than his military leadership. His behaviour grew more and more violent and authoritarian, executing or sending into exile all that opposed him, and showed less and less respect to the Emperor. He ignored all royal etiquette and frequently carried open weapons into the imperial court. In 190 a coalition led by Yuan Shao was formed between nearly all the provincial authorities in the eastern provinces of the empire against Dong Zhuo. The mounting pressure from repeated defeat on the southern frontline against the Sun Jian forces drove the Han Emperor and later Dong Zhuo himself west to Chang'an in May 191.
Dong Zhuo once again demonstrated his political shortcomings by forcing millions of residents of Luoyang to migrate to Chang'an. He then set fire to Luoyang, preventing occupation by his enemies and destroying the biggest city in China at that time. In addition, he ordered his army to slaughter a whole village of civilians. The soldiers beheaded the civilians and carried their heads into Chang'an to show off as war trophies, pretending to have had a great victory against his enemies. A year later Dong Zhuo was killed in a coup d'etat by Wang Yun and Lü Bu.
Rise of Cao Cao
Sculpture of a foreign soldier, Three Kingdoms, 3rd century AD, China.
In 191, there was some talk among the coalition of appointing Liu Yu, an imperial relative, as emperor, and gradually its members began to fall out. Most of the warlords in the coalition, with a few exceptions, sought the increase of personal military power in the time of instability instead of seriously wishing to restore the Han Dynasty's authority. The Han empire was divided between a number of regional warlords. Yuan Shao occupied the northern area of Ye and extended his power, by taking over his superior Han Fu with trickery and intimidation, north of the Yellow River against Gongsun Zan, who held the northern frontier. Cáo Cāo, directly to Yuan's south, was engaged in a struggle against Yuan Shu and Liu Biao, who occupied respectively the Huai River basin and Middle Yangzi regions. Further south the young warlord Sun Ce, taking over after the untimely death of Sun Jian, was establishing his rule in the Lower Yangzi, albeit as a subordinate of Yuan Shu. In the west, Liu Zhang held Yizhou province while Hanzhong and the northwest were controlled by a motley collection of smaller warlords such as Ma Teng of Xiliang, the original post of Dong Zhuo.
Dong Zhuo, confident in his success, was slain by his own adopted son, Lü Bu and his father-in-law Wang Yun. Lü Bu, in turn, was attacked by Dong Zhuo's supporters: Li Jue, Guo Si, Zhang Ji and Fan Chou. Wang Yun and his whole family were executed. Lu fled to Zhang Yang, a northern warlord, and remained with him for a time before briefly joining Yuan Shao, but it was clear that Lü Bu was far too independent to serve another.
In August 195, Emperor Xian fled the tyranny of Li Jue at Chang'an and made a year long hazardous journey east in search of supporters. By 196, when he was received by Cao Cao, most of the smaller contenders for power had either been absorbed by larger ones or destroyed. This was an extremely important move for Cao Cao following the suggestion from his primary advisor, Xun Yu, commenting that by supporting the authentic Emperor, Cao Cao would have the formal legal authority to control the other warlords and force them to comply in order to restore the Han dynasty.
Cao Cao, whose zone of control was the precursor to the Kingdom of Wei, had raised an army in the winter of 189. In several strategic movements and battles, he controlled the Dui province and defeated several factions of the Yellow Turban rebels. This earned him the aid of other local militaries controlled by Zhang Miao and Chen Gong, who joined his cause to create his first sizable army. He continued the effort and absorbed approximately 300,000 Yellow Turbans into his army as well as a number of clan-based military groups from the eastern side of Qing province. In 196 he established an imperial court at Xuchang and developed military agricultural colonies (tuntian) to support his army. Although the system imposed a heavy tax on hired civilian farmers (40% to 60% of agricultural production), the farmers were more than pleased to be able to work with relative stability and professional military protection in a time of chaos. This was later said to be his second important policy for success.
In 194, Cao Cao went to war with Tao Qian of Xuzhou, whose officers had executed his whole family. Tao Qian received the support of Liu Bei and Gongsun Zan, but even then it seemed as if Cao Cao's superior forces would overrun Xuzhou entirely. However, Cao Cao received word that Lü Bu had seized Yan province in Cao Cao's absence, and accordingly he retreated, putting a halt to hostilities with Tao Qian for the time being. Tao Qian died that same year, leaving his province to Liu Bei. A year later, in 195, Cao Cao managed to drive Lü Bu out of Yan. Lu Bu fled to Xuzhou and was received by Liu Bei, and an uneasy alliance began between the two.
In the south, Sun Ce, then an independent general under the service of Yuan Shu, defeated the warlords of Yangzhou, including Liu Yao, Wang Lang, and Yan Baihu. The speed with which Sun Ce accomplished his conquests led to his nickname, "Little Conqueror" (小霸王), a reference to the late Xiang Yu. In 197, Yuan Shu, who was at odds with Cao Cao, Yuan Shao, and Liu Bei, felt assured of victory with his subordinate's conquests, and thus declared himself emperor of the Cheng Dynasty. The move, however, was a strategic blunder, as it drew the ire of many warlords across the land, including Yuan Shu's own subordinate Sun Ce, who had advised Yuan Shu not to make such a move. Cao Cao issued orders to Sun Ce to attack Yuan Shu. Sun Ce complied, but first convinced Cao Cao to form a coalition against Yuan Shu, of which Liu Bei and Lü Bu were members. Attacked on all sides, Yuan Shu was defeated and fled into hiding.
Afterwards, Lü Bu betrayed Liu Bei and seized Xuzhou, forming an alliance with Yuan Shu's remnant forces. Liu Bei fled to Cao Cao, who accepted him. Soon, preparations were made for an attack on Lü Bu, and the combined forces of Cao Cao and Liu Bei besieged Xia Pi. Lü Bu's officers deserted him, Yuan Shu's forces never arrived as reinforcements, and he was bound by his own officers Song Xian and Wei Xu and executed along with many of his officers. Thus, the man known as the mightiest warrior in the land was no more.
In 200, Dong Cheng, an officer of the Imperial Court, received a secret edict from the Emperor to assassinate Cao Cao. He collaborated with Liu Bei on this effort, but Cao Cao soon found out about the plot and had Dong Cheng and his co-conspirators executed, with only Liu Bei surviving and fleeing to the Yuan Shao in the north.
After settling the nearby provinces, including a rebellion led by former Yellow Turbans, and internal affairs with the court, Cao Cao turned his attention north to Yuan Shao, who himself had eliminated his northern rival Gongsun Zan that same year. Yuan Shao, himself of higher nobility than Cao Cao, amassed a large army and camped along the northern bank of the Yellow river.
In 200, after winning a decisive battle against Liu Biao at Shaxian and putting down the rebellions of Xu Gong and others, Sun Ce was struck by an arrow and fatally wounded. On his deathbed, he named his younger brother, Sun Quan, as his heir.
Following months of planning, Cao Cao and Yuan Shao met in force at Guandu. Overcoming Yuan's superior numbers, Cao Cao decisively defeated him by setting fire to his supplies, and in doing so crippled the northern army. Liu Bei fled to Liu Biao of Jing province, and many of Yuan Shao's forces were destroyed. In 202, Cao Cao took advantage of Yuan Shao's death and the resulting division among his sons to advance north of the Yellow River. He captured Ye in 204 and occupied the provinces of Ji, Bing, Qing and You. By the end of 207, after a lightning campaign against the Wuhuan barbarians, Cao Cao had achieved undisputed dominance of the North China Plain.
Battle of Red Cliff
In 208, Cao Cao marched south with his army hoping to quickly unify the empire. Liu Biao's son Liu Cong surrendered the province of Jing and Cao was able to capture a sizable fleet at Jiangling. Sun Quan, the successor to Sun Ce in the Lower Yangzi, continued to resist, however. His advisor Lu Su secured an alliance with Liu Bei, himself a recent refugee from the north, and Sun Ce's sworn brother Zhou Yu was placed in command of Sun Quan's navy, along with a veteran officer of the Sun family, Cheng Pu. Their combined armies of 50,000 met Cao Cao's fleet and 200,000-strong force at Red Cliffs (Chinese: 赤壁 Chi Bi) that winter. After an initial skirmish, an attack beginning with a plan to set fire to Cao Cao's fleet was set in motion to lead to the decisive defeat of Cao Cao, forcing him to retreat in disarray back to the north. The allied victory at Red Cliffs ensured the survival of Liu Bei and Sun Quan, and provided the basis for the states of Shu and Wu.
After his return to the north, Cao Cao contented himself with absorbing the northwestern regions in 211 and consolidating his power. He progressively increased his titles and power, eventually becoming the Prince of Wei in 217, a title bestowed upon him by the puppet Han emperor that he controlled. Liu Bei, having defeated the weak Jing warlords Han Xuan, Jin Xuan, Zhao Fan, and Liu Du, entered Yi province and later in 214 displaced Liu Zhang as ruler, leaving his commander Guan Yu in charge of Jing province. Sun Quan, who had in the intervening years being engaged with defenses against Cao Cao in the southeast at Hefei, now turned his attention to Jing province and the Middle Yangzi. Tensions between the allies were increasingly visible. In 219, after Liu Bei successfully seized Hanzhong from Cao Cao and as Guan Yu was engaged in the siege of Fan, Sun Quan's commander-in-chief Lu Meng secretly seized Jing province, and his forces captured and slew Guan Yu.
Three Emperor
In the first month of 220, Cao Cao died and in the tenth month his son Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate, thus ending the Han Dynasty. He named his state Wei and made himself emperor at Luoyang. In 221, Liu Bei named himself Emperor of Han, in a bid to restore the fallen Han dynasty. (His state is known to history as "Shu" or "Shu Han".) In the same year, Wei bestowed on Sun Quan the title of King of Wu. A year later, Shu Han troops declared war on Wu and met the Wu armies at the Battle of Yiling. At Yiling, Liu Bei was disastrously defeated by Sun Quan's commander Lu Xun and forced to retreat back to Shu, where he died soon afterward. After the death of Liu Bei, Shu and Wu resumed friendly relations at the expense of Wei, thus stabilizing the tripartite configuration. In 222, Sun Quan renounced his recognition of Cao Pi's regime and, in 229, he declared himself emperor at Wuchang.
Dominion of the north completely belonged to Wei, whilst Shu occupied the southwest and Wu the central south and east. The external borders of the states were generally limited to the extent of Chinese civilization. For example, the political control of Shu on its southern frontier was limited by the Tai tribes of modern Yunnan and Burma, known collectively as the Southern Barbarians (南蠻).
Consolidation
In 223 Liu Shan rose to the throne of Shu following his father's defeat and death. The defeat of Liu Bei at Yiling ended the period of hostility between Wu and Shu and both used the opportunity to concentrate on internal problems and the external enemy of Wei. For Sun Quan, the victory terminated his fears of Shu expansion into Jing province and he turned to the aborigines of the southeast, whom the Chinese collectively called the "Shanyue" peoples . A collection of successes against the rebellious tribesmen culminated in the victory of 224. In that year Zhuge Ke ended a three year siege of Danyang with the surrender of 100,000 Shanyue. Of these, 40,000 were drafted as auxiliaries into the Wu army. Meanwhile Shu was also experiencing troubles with the indigenous tribes of their south. The Southwestern Nanman peoples rose in revolt against Han authority, captured and looted the city of Yizhou. Zhuge Liang, recognising the importance of stability in the south, ordered the advance of the Shu armies in three columns against the Nanman. He fought a number of engagements against the chieftain Meng Huo, at the end of which Meng submitted. A tribesman was allowed to reside at the Shu capital Chengdu as an official and the Nanman formed their own battalions within the Shu army.
Zhuge Liang's Northern Expedition
At the end of Zhuge Liang's southern campaign, the Wu-Shu alliance came to fruition and Shu was free to move against the north. In 227 Zhuge Liang transferred his main Shu armies to Hanzhong, and opened up the battle for the northwest with Wei. The next year, he ordered the general Zhao Yun to attack from Ji Gorge as a diversion while Zhuge himself led the main force to Qishan. The vanguard Ma Su, however, suffered a tactical defeat at Jieting and the Shu army was forced to withdraw. In the next six years Zhuge Liang attempted several more offensives, but supply problems limited the capacity for success. In 234 he led his last great northern offensive, reaching the Battle of Wuzhang Plains south of the Wei River. Due to the death of Zhuge Liang (234 AD), however, the Shu army was forced once again to withdraw, but were pursued by Wei. The Shu forces began to withdraw; Sima Yi deduced Zhuge's demise and ordered an attack. Shu struck back almost immediately, causing Sima Yi to second guess and allow Shu to withdraw successfully.
Wu and the South
In the times of Zhuge Liang's great northern offensives, the state of Wu had always been on the defensive against invasions from the north. The area around Hefei was the scene of many bitter battles and under constant pressure from Wei after the Battle of Red Cliffs. Warfare had grown so intense that many of the residents chose to migrate and resettle south of the Yangzi. After Zhuge Liang's death, attacks on the Huainan region intensified but nonetheless, Wei could not break through the line of the river defenses erected by Wu, which included the Ruxu fortress.
Sun Quan's long reign is regarded as a time of plenty for his southern state. Migrations from the north and the settlement of the Shanyue increased manpower for agriculture, especially along the lower reaches of the Yangzi and in Kuaiji commandery. River transport blossomed, with the construction of the Zhedong and Jiangnan canals. Trade with Shu flourished, with a huge influx of Shu cotton and the development of celadon and metal industries. Ocean transport was improved to such an extent that sea journeys were made to Manchuria and the island of Taiwan. In the south, Wu merchants reached Linyi (northern Vietnam) and Fu'nan (southern Vietnam). As the economy prospered, so too did the arts and culture. In the Yangzi delta, the first Buddhist influences reached the south from Luoyang.
Decline and End of the Three Kingdom
From the late 230s tensions began to become visible between the imperial Cao clan and the Sima clan. Following the death of Cao Zhen, factionalism was evident between Cao Shuang and the Grand Commander Sima Yi. In deliberations, Cao Shuang placed his own supporters in important posts and excluded Sima, whom he regarded as a threat. The power of the Sima clan, one of the great landowning families of the Han, was bolstered by Sima Yi's military victories. Additionally, Sima Yi was an extremely capable strategist and politician. In 238 he crushed the rebellion of Gongsun Yuan and brought the Liaodong region directly under central control. Ultimately, he outmaneuvered Cao Shuang in power play. Taking advantage of an excursion by the imperial clansmen to the Gaoping tombs, Sima undertook a putsch in Luoyang, forcing Cao Shuang's faction from authority. Many protested against the overwhelming power of the Sima family; notable among these were the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove. One of the sages, Xi Kang, was executed as part of the purges after Cao Shuang's downfall.
Fall of Shu
The decreasing strength of the Cao clan was mirrored by the decline of Shu. After Zhuge Liang's death, his position as Lieutenant Chancellor fell to Jiang Wan, Fei Yi and Dong Yun, in that order. But after 258, Shu politics became increasingly controlled by the eunuch faction and corruption rose. Despite the energetic efforts of Jiang Wei, Zhuge's protege, Shu was unable to secure any decisive achievement. In 263, Wei launched a three-pronged attack and the Shu army was forced into general retreat from Hanzhong. Jiang Wei hurriedly held a position at Jian'ge but he was outflanked by the Wei commander Deng Ai, who force-marched his army from Yinping through territory formerly considered impassable. By the winter of the year, the capital Chengdu fell due to the strategic invasion of Wei by Deng Ai who invaded Chengdu personally. The emperor Liu Shan thus surrendered. The state of Shu had come to an end after forty-three years.
Fall of Wei
Cao Huan succeeded to the throne in 260 after Cao Mao was killed by Sima Zhao. Soon after, Sima Zhao died and his title as Lord of Jin was inherited by his son Sima Yan. Sima Yan immediately began plotting to become Emperor but faced stiff opposition. However, due to advice from his advisors, Cao Huan decided the best course of action would be to abdicate, unlike his predecessor Cao Mao. Sima Yan seized the throne in 264 after forcing Cao Huan's abdication, effectively overthrowing the Wei Dynasty and establishing the successor Jin Dynasty. This situation was similar to the deposal of Emperor Xian of the Han Dynasty by Cao Pi, the founder of the Wei Dynasty.
Fall of Wu
Following Sun Quan's death and the ascension of the young Sun Liang as emperor in 252, the kingdom of Wu went into a period of steady decline. Successful Wei suppression of rebellions in the Huainan region by Sima Zhao and Sima Shi reduced any opportunity of Wu influence. The fall of Shu signalled a change in Wei politics. After Liu Shan surrendered to Wei, Sima Yan (grandson of Sima Yi), overthrew the Wei emperor and proclaimed his own dynasty of Jin in 264, ending forty-six years of Cao dominion in the north. After Jin's rise, Emperor Sun Xiu of Wu died, and his ministers gave the throne to Sun Hao. Sun Hao was a promising young man, but upon ascension he became a tyrant, killing or exiling all who dared oppose him in the court. In 269 Yang Hu, Jin commander in the south, started preparing for the invasion of Wu by ordering the construction of a fleet and the training of marines in Sichuan under Wang Jun. Four years later, Lu Kang, the last great general of Wu, died leaving no competent successor. The planned Jin offensive finally came in the winter of 279. Sima Yan launched five simultaneous offensives along the Yangzi River from Jianye to Jiangling whilst the Sichuan fleet sailed downriver to Jing province. Under the strain of such an enormous attack, the Wu forces collapsed and Jianye fell in the third month of 280. Emperor Sun Hao surrendered and was given a fiefdom on which to live out his days. This marked the end of the Three Kingdoms era, and the beginning of a break in the forthcoming 300 years of chaos.
Population
The Sanguo Zhi contains population figures for the three kingdoms. As with many Chinese historical population figures, these numbers are likely to be less than the actual populations, since census and tax records went hand in hand, and tax evaders were often not on records.
Three Kingdoms Period Populations Year Households Population Note
Eastern Han Dynasty, AD 156 10,679,600 56,486,856
Shu Han, AD 221 200,000 900,000
Shu Han, AD 263 280,000 1,082,000 At Shu's demise, the population contained 102,000 armed soldiers and 40,000 various officials.
Wu, AD 238 520,000 2,567,000
Wu, AD 280 530,000 2,535,000 At Wu's demise, the population had 32,000 officials, 230,000 soldiers, and 5,000 imperial concubines.
Cao Wei, AD 260 663,423 4,432,881
Western Jin, AD 280 2,495,804 16,163,863 After reuniting China, the Jin Dynasty's population was greatest around this time.
From Zou Jiwan (Chinese: 鄒紀萬), Zhong Guo Tong Shi - Wei Jin Nan Bei Chao Shi 中國通史·魏晉南北朝史, (1992).
While it is clear that warfare undoubtedly took many lives during this period, the census figures do not support the idea that millions were wiped out solely from warfare. Other factors such as mass migration out of China must be taken into account.
Economy
In economic terms the division of the Three Kingdoms reflected a reality that long endured. Even in the Northern Song, seven hundred years after the Three Kingdoms, it was possible to think of China as being composed of three great regional markets. (The status of the northwest was slightly ambivalent, as it had links with the northern region and Sichuan). These geographical divisions are underscored by the fact that the main communication routes between the three main regions were all man-made: the Grand Canal linking north and south, the hauling-way through the Three Gorges of the Yangzi linking southern China with Sichuan and the gallery roads joining Sichuan with the northwest. The break into three separate entities was quite natural and even anticipated by such political foresight as that of Zhuge Liang .
The Three Kingdoms in popular culture
Numerous people and affairs from the period later became Chinese legends. The most complete and influential example is the historical fiction Romance of the Three Kingdoms, written by Luo Guanzhong during the Ming dynasty. Fictional accounts of the Three Kingdoms, mostly based on the Romance, play a significant role in East Asian popular culture. Books, TV serials, movies, cartoons/anime, games, and music on the topic are still regularly produced in China, Taiwan, South Korea and Japan.
Sanguo-liangjin-Nanbeichao gongyi meishu
三国-两晋-南北朝工艺美术
arts and crafts of Three Kingdoms,Jin,Southern and Northern Dynasties
中国三国、两晋、南北朝,从3世纪初至6世纪末,长达 4个世纪。由于这一时期政治上处于分裂、动乱局面,工艺美术处于发展的低潮阶段,但全国各地区情况不平衡。北方地区遭受战乱破坏比较严重;南方,特别是江南广大地区,战乱较少,社会相对安定,加上这一时期的手工业者已经可以允许在一定范围内独自经营,能够比较自由地进行生产技术的改造,所以,某些手工业,如制瓷业等,在南方得到了很大的发展。同时,北方边境地区少数民族的崛起及其内迁,促进了各民族之间在经济、文化方面的相互交融,对工艺美术的发展也是有利的。这时期广为流行的佛教和佛教艺术,使一部分工艺美术的制作宗教化,并对工艺美术题材、艺术风格产生了重要的影响。作为佛教象征的莲花纹的广泛应用,漆器中夹□造像的发展,金属、玉石工艺中的大量佛像的产生,成为这一时期工艺美术的时代特征之一。成就最突出的是陶瓷工艺,其他如织绣、金属、漆器、玻璃等工艺也都有不同程度的发展。
陶瓷工艺 成就突出的是青瓷生产。这时期南方青瓷的主要产地是浙江、江苏和江西等地。其中尤以浙江的青瓷最著名。浙江北部、中部和东南部的广大地区均建有窑场。它们分别属于越窑、瓯窑、婺州窑和德清窑4个系统。越窑系统的主要窑场分布在今浙江余姚、上虞一带,瓯窑系统的主要窑场分布在今浙江南部的温州一带,婺州窑系统的主要窑场分布在今浙江中部的金华地区,德清窑系统的主要窑场分布在杭嘉湖平原西端。其中,发展最快、窑场分布最广、瓷器质量最高的是越窑系统。这一系统的瓷器,在成型方法上,除轮制技术有所提高外,还采用了拍、印、镂、雕、堆和模制等方法,因而器物品种繁多,式样新颖,达到了实用与美观的完满结合。瓷器胎质坚硬细腻,呈清灰色,釉色纯净,是这一时期青瓷产品中的佼佼者。江苏的青瓷产地主要在宜兴县丁蜀镇汤渡附近,因该地离均山不远,故称均山窑,其时代在东吴后期到西晋。它所生产的青瓷在造型和装饰上与越窑的风格相同,只是品种、质量逊于越窑。江西的青瓷生产,约始于三国时期,西晋时已有较大发展,主要产地在江西丰城罗湖一带。所产青瓷的造型与装饰均很简朴,不如同期的越窑产品优美。其他如长江中、上游的四川、湖南、湖北等地区,约从晋代起也开始设窑烧制青瓷。
在南方青瓷发达的基础上,北方青瓷生产也发展起来。考古发掘表明,北方青瓷约始于北魏晚期。至今除山东淄博发现有北朝青瓷窑址外,其他地区还很少发现青瓷窑址。但是,墓葬出土的北朝青瓷器很多。其中以河北省出土的数量最多,质量也最高,1948年在景县封氏墓群出土的一批青瓷,是中国最早发现的北方青瓷,它的年代约自北魏至隋初。这批青瓷主要是日用器皿,如壶、缸、杯、碗、托杯、大盘等。最有特色的是封子绘和祖氏墓出土的4件仰覆莲花尊,不仅体积高大(最高达60多厘米),造型雄浑,而且装饰华丽,集中运用了印贴、刻画和堆塑等艺术手法,是北方青瓷最有代表性的作品。但从总体上看北方青瓷胎质比较粗糙,胎一般呈灰色,釉层较薄,多细纹片,呈灰绿或黄绿色,有些仅施半釉,且不很均匀,工艺技术不够成熟。由于北方青瓷的窑址现在发现的还很少,对北方青瓷的研究还有待于进一步深入。
这时期青瓷的造型和纹饰均富有特色,品种和造型日益丰富。主要品种有盘口壶、唾壶、罐、盆、钵、碗、□(多子盒)、水盂、砚、香薰、鸡头壶、灯虎子等,反映了瓷器
百科辞典 Encyclopedia
Sanguo-Liangjin-Nanbeichao huihua
三国-两晋-南北朝绘画
paintings of Three Kingdoms, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties
中国从三国鼎峙开始至隋王朝建国为止的绘画艺术。这一时期,上起三国曹魏,中历西晋、东晋、十六国,下迄南北朝至隋统一,历时369年。此间的绘画,在整个中国绘画发展历程中占有特殊重要的地位。
这一时期大部时间陷于战乱,国土长期分裂,朝代频繁更迭,世族地主的统治极端腐朽,生产力不断遭受战争的严重破坏,人民生活陷于深重苦难之中,阶级矛盾与民族矛盾十分尖锐。但另一方面,儒家名教失去它原有的维系人心的力量,玄学思想风靡一时,外来的佛教在中国土地上获得广泛传播和狂热信仰,因此又成为中国历史上一个少有的思想活跃的时代。处在纷争不息、动荡不安的社会之中的士人阶层,不论他们出身于世族或寒门,由于普遍对现实世界感到绝望,而竞相崇尚放达,追求享乐。他们寻求各种精神寄托,或则清谈玄学,或则寄情山水,或则企慕神仙,或则恣意声色。还有一部分人则喜欢染指于艺术的创作、鉴赏和品评等活动。多种多样的精神享乐,无拘无束的个性发展,无疑会给这一时期绘画艺术的空前发展造成有利条件。
绘画的发展及其社会背景 这一时期绘画的主流,仍沿着两汉时期强调绘画的“鉴戒”作用,三国时曹植认为:“是知存乎鉴戒者,图画也”(《历代名画记》);何晏说:“图像古昔,以当箴规”(《景福殿赋》)。齐梁时谢赫主张“图绘者,莫不明劝戒,著升沉”(《画品》)。这些关于绘画社会功能的论断,与东汉时“图像之设,以昭劝戒”,“图像百城,以励风俗”(均见《后汉书》)的主张完全一脉相承。当时的壁画和卷轴画,以古圣先贤、忠臣烈女为题材者不胜枚举。例如三国时魏国的几处宫殿之内,或则画“历象贤圣”的壁画(《魏都赋》),或则画姜后、孟母、樊姬、钟离春、班婕妤等列女故事的壁画(《景福殿赋》)。两晋及南北朝时,西凉李□于敦煌靖恭堂画“圣帝明王、忠臣孝子、烈士贞女”(《晋书》);北魏太和(477~499)年间于平城皇信堂画“古圣、忠臣、烈士之容”(《水经注》)。此外像《列女图》、《孝经图》、《孔子十弟子图》之类,一直是当时极其流行的题材。另一方面,由于当时佛教在中国北方和南方,得到了一批统治者的大力支持和提倡,起到了巩固封建统治的强大精神支柱的作用,佛教为充分发挥它那“为形象以教人”的作用,便不遗余力地借助绘画直观具体的感人形象,以作为它有力的宣传手段。这一时期大规模出现的佛教寺塔、石窟壁画和为数更多的佛教行像、卷轴画,其所画佛、菩萨像以及佛传图、佛本生故事图之类,莫不是为了宣扬佛陀的普渡众生、佛法无边广大。通过图画形象,使人们相信佛教教义,以期最终达到有如南朝宋文帝所说的“若使率土之滨,皆纯此化(指佛教化),则吾坐致太平,夫复何事”的目的。道教绘画虽不如佛教绘画兴盛,但其地位也不容忽视。从姚最《续画品》有“画有六法,真仙(即道像)为难”之说,和这一时期道教题材的绘画作品有卫协《神仙画》、史敬文《黄帝升仙图》、谢赫《安期先生图》、梁元帝萧绎《芙蓉湖醮鼎图》之类作品来看,可知当时道像画已成为一个独立的画科。
随着这一时期文人士大夫们对精神生活愈来愈高的追求和各个文化种类之间的互相影响,绘画题材种类在原有的基础上日益扩大,并开始向分科发展。人物画方面,出现了后人所谓的“晋尚故实”的情况。故实画,除了描写“鉴戒”作用的两汉以来的传统题材外,还有的取材于文学作品,如卫协画《诗·北风图》,顾恺之画《木雁图》
英文解释
n.: the Three Kingdoms-Wei, Shu Han and Wu, Three Kingdoms, three kingdoms: Wei, Shu, Wu (A.D. 222-265)
v.: the Three Kingdoms--Wei, Shu and Wu--which existed in China proper simultaneously, from A. D. 222 to 265