① study various aspects of the national economy of the general subject. Including the political economy, department of economics, accounting, and statistics. ② called political economy.
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Introduction
Economics is the study of how a society of scarce resources to produce valuable goods and services, and will they be distributed among different people. "Father of economics" Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations" is the foundation of modern economics for. In the Aristotelian view of the times are: political science, ethics, political economy of the Trinity, the Nobel laureate Amartya Sen in "Ethics and Economics" that: "(Sic) in a very long time, the economic discipline was considered to be a branch of ethics. Adam Smith, best known for his thought is not new and many unique, but he first proposed a comprehensive system of economics , the field of development laid a good foundation. so they could say, "The Wealth of Nations" is the starting point of modern political economics. " "The Wealth of Nations" after 100 years, behind the liberal economic prosperity gradually reveal the inevitable cyclical economic crises and the uneven distribution of social wealth, the wealth gap defects. Karl Marx believed that the German economy of a country represented by its labor, and freedom in pursuit of the capitalist economy for the purpose of maximizing profits. Marx in his 1867 book "Das Kapital" that "primitive accumulation of capitalism" and "residual value" and so on, that the class of capitalist development in the conflict is irreconcilable. The 20th century, Adam Smith's laissez-faire capitalism advocated by many of morbidity and shown a crisis. 1936, British economist John Maynard Keynes published "Employment, Interest and Money." Keynesian breaking the "invisible hand" of the doctrine, after World War II to become the mainstream of Western economics. Keynes himself as the "father of postwar prosperity." And equilibrium in economics is winning or losing the concept of public space. Three considerations: 1. The scarcity of resources is a prerequisite for economic analysis. The so-called scarcity of resources relative to people in terms of endless desire. 2. Economic Analysis of choice behavior is the object. Choice behavior with the constraints of economics research center. 3. Effective allocation of resources is a central goal of economic analysis. This is efficient and effective, not effective, such as Pylos victory - a victory close to failure. Economic evaluation is to look at the validity of the standard income is greater than the opportunity cost.
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History
Economics as an independent science, capitalism and development in the process of formation. In all the history of capitalism before the period of time, many thinkers on a number of economic phenomena and economic issues of opinion, the formation of some kind of economic thought, but no system, and often with their political, legal, ethical, religious and other ideological hybrid together. Therefore, the development of ancient economic thought, may be called before the history of economics. In a capitalist society before the advent of a long history and civilization in the nation and the country known in the ancient China and ancient Greece, Rome and Medieval Europe the most abundant preservation of historical documents. They are two separate development of the cultural system, in terms of economic thought have an important contribution. Economics is economics, English Greek οἶκος [oikos] comes, means family, family, property rights (family, household, estate) and νόμος [nomos], or law (custom, law) component, from the literal point of view refers to the family management (household management) or the government administration. Economics is a variety of economic activities and human relations of various economic theories, applications, history, and related methods of the various disciplines in general. Economics may be called economic science (economic sciences). Economics, namely: to Benefit the People of the science. Is the study of human individuals and their society in various stages of their development needs and to meet the needs of a variety of activities and rules and disciplines. Economic those Benefiting the people also. The world who are also human society; people who are social subjects. The "people" and "the people" between the pull of a "needs and to meet the needs" of the line, to form a pair of "commodity supply and demand" relationship, which is "by"; and "the people" and "the people" two "social subjects "" demand "have been" satisfied "that is" economic. " Economics, namely: Benefiting the people of knowledge, or to Benefit the People of the science. Economics, is a "citizen" and "commodity" and "commodity elements" (such as "land", "labor," "technology", "Air", "water", etc.) as the main object of study. Therefore, the starting point of economic goods, commodity science is the basis of economics, finance, accounting, economics, science is a bridge. Ancient Greek, Roman and medieval economic thought in Western Europe In ancient Greece's main contribution to economic thought, the colored Nuofen "economic theory", Plato and Aristotle on the social division of labor and money on the commodity exchange theory. Xenophon's "economic theory", discusses the slave owners how to manage the family farm, how to use value of wealth can be increased. Xenophon attaches great importance to agriculture, that agriculture is the best Greek Freedmen career, which ancient Rome and later the French economic thought have an impact Physiocrats. Plato in "Utopia," a book of Human Nature, from the principle of national organizations, as well as the value of production from the use of three aspects need to examine social division of labor that the division of economic life out of human nature and a natural necessary phenomenon. The social division of labor theory, even though his vision of the slave is designed to provide theoretical utopia, but the prevailing socio-economic structure presents a theoretical analysis. This analysis of ancient Chinese Guan Zhong, "Simin sub-industry" and Mencius of hundred farming and industry, labor and labor of the heart "through work easy to envy fill the gap" theory, is basically the same. Aristotle in "Politics" and "Ethics" thinking of two books on economic contribution, not only because he pointed out that each item has two purposes, one for direct use, one for and other items phase exchange, and describes the historical development of commodity exchange and the functions of money as a medium of exchange that plays a monetary equivalent of all commodities between the role of the equivalence relation, thus becoming the first form of value of goods and the monetary nature of the scholars. But his pursuit of monetary wealth to the commercial capital and usury capital are starting from the principles of justice held a negative attitude. Economic thought of ancient Rome, some found in several well-known thinkers such as large Cato (BC 234 ~ 149 before), Cannavaro (BC 116 ~ before the 27) and others works. They discussed slavery, farm management and crop cultivation technology to agriculture in the first economy, appreciation of self-sufficient economy. But the Roman contribution to economic thought, mainly Roman law of property, contracts, and natural law thinking. Early days of the Roman Twelve Tables, after members of the public law in the Empire (the Roman citizens for the civil law) and the law of nations (for people of all nationalities within the empire's law). In these laws, the Roman jurists for property rights, contractual relations, and associated with this sale, loan, debt and other relations have a clear explanation of these ideas to the Middle Ages "fair value" concept and later on in capitalist society All economic activities are based on economic ideas of private property, and have a significant impact. Law of nations is based on the principle of universality and natural rationality, natural law thinking gradually formed as early capitalism, natural law, natural order, an important source of ideas. Although the Middle Ages in Western Europe experienced a thousand years, but from the 11th century the feudal system was really established. Medieval church monopoly of academic thinking, the formation of the so-called by the hospital school. The main hospital school of philosophical theology as a form of religious argument, but also contains some economic ideas, to demonstrate some of the economic relations or the conduct is legal or fair. Later, the development of commodity economy and the rise of urban society at that time the church had to answer two important questions arise: First, the legitimacy of loan interest issues, one question the fairness of the exchange price. Loans and charge interest conflict with the teachings of the Church repeatedly prohibited. But then forced to take a lot of popular interest in the reality of the loan, the hospital had to be taken to reconcile school attitude. Such as the 13th century theologian Thomas Aquinas, in principle, opposed to loans and charge interest, but those who think that credit losses for the loans, or overdue by the Lord, or way of loans under occupation, you can earn interest. On the concept of a fair price, in the writings of Roman jurists put forward. In the earlier medieval theologians discussed at a fair price is the big Albert (about 1200 ~ 1280), he considers a fair price is equal to the price and costs, market prices can not be less than the cost of long-term. Thomas Aquinas largely accepted this view, but with a lot of subjective factors. These two issues in the Middle Ages did not form a convincing point, but economists put forward for future study. Economic Thought in Ancient China "Nature" idea Rich thinking Ancient Chinese thinkers to make the centralized feudal system of prosperity of the country, a variety of opinion or policy. Confucius proposed to "Zusizubing" Confucian there if (BC 518?) That "the people enough, what with the lack of king", which is rich early Confucian thought. Shang Yang in Qin Reform after the proposed Fuguoqiangbing and "handcraft" policy, he is the author of legalism and the rich theory of the earliest practitioners. Shang Yang and Han Fei after that agriculture is the food and clothing, but also a source of soldiers, the development of agricultural production is the only way to prosperity of the country, so rich countries must "re-present." At the same time, they think business is the last industry, easy-to-profit-making, such as no restrictions, people would be farmers who avoid harm agricultural production, which stands for "cut-off at the end." Not only that, they also advocated "power" to be "weak people", that means taking punishment tours, allowing producers to live and reproduce in addition to students outside of the required products, turned over to the monarch, not to keep large amounts of private wealth. "Tube" of the rich ideas in the "weight of the" point, and Shang Yang, Han Fei same, but the "end" have a different understanding, that want to restrict only "engraved engrave," "article" fortifications. It is the business, workers and farmers, who the same as the Si-min, Si-min with the column, which focuses on the division of labor. In addition, the "tube" main Zhang Fuguo must be rich people, that "the people must its pace, and then listen on." Later, on the basis of Confucian Xun Kuang absorbed in the rich countries each thought, with a "rich" special articles, the rich countries put forward a more complete theory. He "re-present", but also industrial and commercial sectors must play a role in the socio-economic, but said the number of merchants to be limited; and to enrich the rich countries must clearly based on claims "up and down all the rich." Policy for the rich, by the Han dynasties later thinkers attention. To the Song Dynasty, Li Gou with a "policy rich" ten. Rich ideas in the history of China's political and economic ideas in a unique position, which is a centralized China's long feudal autocracy that characterized the State has a close relationship. Tax Thoughts Thought parity Thoughts on Luxury and Frugality The luxury of ancient nobles or frugal living, related to the lack of wealth or the wealth with the tax convergence of the harsh and thin fan Jane, therefore, to treat consumption should be promoted "thrifty" or "luxury", which is often discussed in ancient Chinese thinkers as a problem. Generally speaking, the Elimination of the feudal period of extravagance Honors Thrifty is the dominant economic thinking. Confucianism, the "gift" as the difference between the standard on Luxury and Frugality, against all levels of people over ritual of a standard consumer, more than Jibei accused of extravagance, its purpose is to maintain the level of consumption of the system. Mo Zi and Taoism also claim Abolishing Luxury Honors Thrifty, only difference is different from the Confucian standard on Luxury and Frugality. Mohist advocates non-hierarchical, in order to maintain the standard of life for the consumer health needs; Taoist Zeyi primitive living conditions of the primitive as an ideal. Qin and Han dynasties, Abolishing Luxury Honors Thrifty become orthodox treatment of the feudal doctrine of consumer issues. But in China's long feudal society, there have been some contrary views. Such as "pipe" the book "text extravagance" chapter to discuss the rich had food, clothing, palaces, tombs and other aspects of text extravagance in expenditure, can make women workers, carpenters, tilers, farmers have work to do, that is conducive to employment and poor life opportunities, but also make business active. This was indeed a rather unusual point of view. It from all aspects of economic activities linked to examine spending issues, proposed the reaction of consumption to production of the excellent view. On this idea, Northern Zhongyan (989 ~ 1052) and Ming Lu Ji have the exposition. Lu Ji unequivocally opposed to sumptuary that the expansion of consumption is an important way to increase the livelihood of the poor; Jian only from a person with a poor, but extravagance is to "all the world and the rich." This doctrine is a feudal society, the development of commodity economy has been considerable reflection. In addition to the several major economic thought, the ancient Chinese thinkers view other aspects of the economy, such as the desire for ideological, utilitarian thinking, financial management thinking, systems thinking field, enriching ideas, people thought, and to make their profits, the people do their force Thought so. In general, economic thought in ancient China, mostly for the maintenance of the centralized feudal autocratic rule services, but some idea is to expand commodity production and exchange, the development of social productive forces, opening the way of their argument. Development and evolution of bourgeois economics As the capitalist mode of production and development, with a corresponding emergence and formation of bourgeois economics. Mercantilism Classical Economics 50 appeared in the 18th century to the early 70s F. Quesnay and Turgot A.-R.-J. as the main representative of the French Physiocrats theory of capitalist production is the first system of understanding. They proposed the concept of natural order, operated by the capitalist press to general agricultural capitalism, with the farmer's production and business activities to analyze the flow of capital and the reproduction. It is in this sense, Marx weighing agricultural school as "the real originator of modern political economy." Adam Smith is an outstanding representative of the British classical economics and the founder of the theoretical system. His book "Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations study," a book to the development of bourgeois economics into a complete system. He criticized the mercantilist foreign trade as the only source of wealth to a mistaken view, and to the field of economic research to production areas from the circulation. He overcame the Physiocrats believed that only agriculture was one-sided view of wealth creation, all the material production sectors that create wealth. He analyzed the conditions for growth of national wealth and national wealth to promote or hinder the growth of reason, analysis of the market mechanism of free competition, see it as an "invisible hand" dominated the social and economic activities, he was opposed to state intervention in the economy life, put forward the principle of laissez-faire. He was the first systematic exposition of the basic principles of labor theory of value, and that profit and rent are the value created by labor deduction. However, Smith's position and approach by the limitations of the bourgeoisie, he mistakenly regarded as the eternal capitalist system, that through the human self-interest and the "invisible hand" to achieve social harmony, and theory of value and distribution on the performance of many conflicting and confusing views. Therefore, both in his theory of scientific opinion, there are vulgar ingredients. D · Ricardo was completed by British classical economics. In 1817 he published "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation," a book established a labor theory of value-based, centered on the allocation of rigorous theoretical system. He inherited Smith's theory of scientific factors and made a significant development. He insisted on the value of goods produced in the cost of labor by the principle of the decision, criticized Smith in the value of a binary point of view. He stressed that the main task is to clarify the economics of wealth distribution among various social classes in the law, that all values are produced by labor, wages of workers must live by the value of the information the decision, the balance of the profit is more than wages, rent wages and the balance of profits above, which, he explained the opposition of wages and profits, wages, profits and rent the other. In addition, Ricardo also discusses the laws of money in circulation, foreign trade theory of comparative costs and so on. Ricardo's theory of the British Industrial Revolution reflected the interests and demands of the industrial bourgeoisie. Ricardo is the fundamental flaws of the theoretical system does not know the historical capitalist mode of production, and Smith is as eternal as the capitalist nature of the system, resulting in a theoretically insurmountable contradiction. For example, he can not resolve how the law of value based on the description of the exchange of capital and labor, and the same amount of capital to obtain equal profits and other issues. Overall, however, Ricardo classical economics to reach a peak on the subsequent development of economics has a profound impact. Vulgarization of classical economics Half of the 19th century to early 20th century bourgeois economics The late 19th century, with the further development of the capitalist economy, intensified the contradictions of capitalism. The upsurge of the labor movement and the spread of Marxist economics, to the rule of the bourgeoisie with great impact. In this situation, the bourgeois economics or abandoned the cloak of classical economics classical economics, critics of the attitude, establishment of a new school of the vulgar. Historical school Marginal utility school Neoclassical economics Is the main representative of the Marshall University of Cambridge, in 1890 he published "Principles of Economics", a book in England since the 19th century inherited the tradition of vulgar economics, eclectic, eclectic approach to the supply and demand theory, production cost theory, marginal utility theory, marginal productivity theory and so together, built a premise of perfect competition, "the equilibrium price theory" as the core of the fairly complete economic system, which is vulgar, following JS Mill, after the first point of view of economics second major and large integrated. He progressive point of view of economic phenomena; mechanical equilibrium with the concept of incremental concept analysis and mathematical elements of production of goods and supply and demand balance and price decisions; subjective psychological motivations to explain human economic behavior; in a static, partial equilibrium analysis within the confines of the introduction of time factors. He replaced the value of the equilibrium price theory, and based on the core of the equilibrium price of production factors to determine their share in the distribution of national income on. His praise of free competition, advocating laissez-faire, capitalist system that can automatically adjust through market mechanisms to achieve full employment equilibrium. This system is the essence of capitalist exploitation in the cover up, ignore the anarchy of capitalism, and many other contradictions. Neoclassical economics until the late 19th century from the 20th century, 30 years, has been regarded as a model of Western economic circles. School system This is the 19th century early 20th century historical school in the United States appears variants. Its main representatives of T. Veblen, JR Kangmeng Si, WC Mitchell and so on. They approach the historical school of specific research into the evolution of the system, denying the significance of economic theory to critique capitalism popping up, promotion of reformist policies. In addition, the Nordic appeared to K · Victor Serge (1851 ~ 1926) as the representative of the Swedish School, and Marshall proposed a different theoretical system, emphasizing the balance of investment and savings put forward his own theory of interest, in this period bourgeois economics, it occupies a special place.
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Categories
JEL classification JEL classification system, is the American Economic Association, "Journal of Economic Literature" (Journal of Economic Literature) founded by the theme of economic literature classification system, and is widely used in modern Western economic circles. This classification method is mainly used at the beginning of a letter and then the two digits together ministries of economics class, "dictionary-style" code classification. For example, C71 is "C: Mathematical and quantitative methods" class, "C7 Game Theory and Bargaining Theory" on "C71: Cooperative Game" content. A: General introduction and teaching of economics (General Economics and Teaching) B: Schools of Economic Thought and Methodology (Schools of Economic Thought and Methodology) C: Mathematical and Quantitative Methods (Mathematical and Quantitative Methods) D: Microeconomics (Microeconomics) E: Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics (Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics) F: International Economics (International Economics) G: Financial Economics (Financial Economics) H: Public Economics (Public Economics) I: Health economics, education, economics and welfare economics (Health, Education and Welfare) J: Labor Economics and Population Economics (Labour and Demographic Economics) K: Law and Economics (Law and Economics) L: Industrial Organization (Industrial Organization) M: Business Administration and Business Economics; Marketing; Accounting (Business Administration and Business Economics; Marketing; Accounting) N: Economic History (Economic History) O: Economic Development, Technological Change and Growth (Economic Development, Technological Change, and Growth) P: Economic Systems (Economic Systems) Q: Agricultural Economics and Natural Resource Economics (Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics) R: urban economics, rural economics and regional economics (Urban, Rural and Regional Economics) Z: Other topics (Other Special Topics) Subject branches With the development of the capitalist commodity economy and the deepening social division of labor, human economic activities, the contents of the more complex, rich, dense growing degree of specialization; the same time, between the various economic activities, economic activities and other social activities interdependence, mutual penetration of the contact, but also more closely. To adapt to this situation, the scope of study of economics is getting expanded. On the one hand, from the general theory of economics, with a highly differentiated with the application of continuous and independent of the department of economics, expertise and other branches of economics; the other hand, there have been various branches of the economy within the cross-cutting disciplines subjects as well as economic and other social science disciplines as well as natural sciences disciplines between the edge of each link. At the same time, with the deepening of economic studies, the accuracy of the analysis to do more, there have been studies of economic analysis and measurement of the number of subjects; to sum up historical experience and theoretical research and policy development for the delivery systems historical basis, there has been the subject of economic history; to record and summarize the evolution of economic theory itself, there has been disciplinary history of economic thought. Thus, in the social sciences and gradually formed a huge, wide range of economic discipline system branch. 17 to the 19th century, gradually being used as a political economy of economic activity and economic relations the name of theoretical science. K. Marx and F. Engels usually also adopt this term. However, they are not only the content of political economy had a profound fundamental changes, but also on the basis of historical materialism, the study of political economy throughout the developmental stages of human history, from the limited to the capitalist mode of production , extended to the whole human society's production. Only study the occurrence of the capitalist mode of production and development of political economy, political economy called the narrow sense; the study of human variety of modes of production and the occurrence and development of political economy, called the generalized political economy. Classification on the subject of modern economics, capitalist and socialist countries, economic development, according to their characteristics and the development of economic disciplines have their own classification categories. Comprehensive two country's economic subject development, in general, can be divided into the following categories: Theoretical Economics discusses the basic concepts of economics, basic principles, and economic operation and development of the general law, provide the basis for the theory of various economic disciplines. Number of economic analysis, quantitative methods, including mathematical economics, mathematics, economic statistics, econometrics and other disciplines. Bourgeois economists maintain the capitalist system for the needs of various economic phenomena pay more attention to analysis of the relationship between the quantity. 70 years since the 19th century, some economists have applied mathematical derivation of economic theory, mathematical economics. After World War II, further development of mathematical economics, extensive application of modern mathematical methods to establish a variety of static, dynamic, micro, macro-economic model. Associated with it is a branch of mathematics, it focused more on the use of modern economic analysis of various mathematical methods, which in fact belong to the scope of applied mathematics. Economic Statistics is an established older subjects, is the economic value of statistical methods in the processing and analysis. Early 30s, some economists to further the economic theory, mathematical methods and statistical methods combine all three, the establishment of econometrics, econometric model used to establish the estimated parameters, to analyze the number of complex economic relationships between the variables to verify economic theory, economic forecasting, planning-related policies. Combined with qualitative analysis, appropriate use of mathematical methods and statistical methods used for the relationship between economic activity and the amount of economic analysis, can enhance the accuracy of various economic disciplines, and enhance policies and programs of scientific. Now, the number of such relevant economic analysis, quantitative methods of discipline in the socialist countries has been attached and have different levels of development. Applied Economics, Applied Theory economics primarily refers to the basic principles of the national economy in all sectors of economic activities in various fields of economic relations and the laws, or for non-economic activities in the field of economic, social analysis and the establishment of various economic disciplines. It can be divided into several branches as follows: ① The economic activities of individual departments, the national economy for the study of subjects, such as agricultural economics, industrial economics, construction economics, transport economics, business economics and so on. ② to involve all sectors of national economy and comprehensive professional with a certain economic activities for the study of subjects such as planning economics, labor economics, public finance, monetary science, banking and so on. ③ to regional economic activity for the study of subjects, such as urban economics, rural economics, regional economics (economic regional planning, distribution of productive forces) and so on. ④ to international economic activity for the study of subjects such as international economics and its branches: International Trade, International Finance, international investment and so forth. ⑤ enterprise operation and management activities for the study of subjects such as business management, corporate finance, accounting, marketing (sales) and so forth. ⑥ cross-linked and non-economic subjects the edge of economic disciplines, such as intersecting with the population demographic economics; and Education Economics Education intersect; and law intersect Economic Law; and medicine intersect Health Health Economics Science; and ecology ecological economics intersect or environmental economics; intersect with socio-economic sociology; intersect with the physical geography of economic geography, land economics, resource economics; and Technology intersect technical economics and so on. The edge of the Economics major developments in the field of non-economic changes in these economic implications, economic, social, to find out their laws. Branch of applied economics, both in the capitalist countries and in socialist countries are to adapt to the needs of social and economic development continues to expand, constantly enriching. The development of applied economics, is inseparable from social and economic practice, can not do without the guidance of theoretical economics, but their development, in turn, enriches the content of theoretical economics plays a role in guiding practice. Western Economics Micro Economics (Microeconomics) Macroeconomics (Macroeconomics) Econometrics Economic methods Economic History Marxist Economics Political Economy: Marxist economics. Part of capitalism World Economics Part of socialism
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Economic concepts
Labor value Residual value Game Theory Marginal utility On the equilibrium price Effective demand Rational expectations Monetarism Marxism Keynesian Neo-liberalism Classical Economics Institutional Economics External effects St. Petersburg conflict
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Study
In a class society, economics is a science with a class nature. In general, economists hold different class positions, on the same socio-economic phenomena, often hold different views, the study has a different purpose and focus. For the study of economics, bourgeois economists and between Marxist economists, have a different definition. For example, for the economy as the basis of theoretical economics discipline, in the bourgeois economists, a more popular definition of it given that it has a different purpose and use of alternative means for the relationship between that think that people want to meet desires are many, and a certain period as a means to satisfy the desire is always limited, for one purpose can not be used for other purposes, economics is the study of people with limited resources, how when you meet the desire of many to reasonable choice. Here, relations between people of exploitation, labor exploitation, the nature of capital, it was covered up. Of course, the bourgeois economists, the object of theoretical economics, there are other kinds of claims, but they have a common feature, is to emphasize that economics is the "super-historical", "super class", "ultra-political", thus, it applicable to any society and any historical period. Such a definition of the subject, obviously is to say that the capitalist economic system is the eternal and universal. Although bourgeois economics, sometimes even condemned to expose the exploitative nature of capitalism and its contradictions, its purpose was an attempt by a variety of improvements, the patchwork approach, it continue forever. Marxist theory of economics, commonly known as political economy. On its object, in the middle of the Marxist economists, although there are some different views, but most think it is the study of human society on the various stages of development of production relations system, that is, the means of production in a certain context, including the production, exchange, distribution and consumption of various relations, including economic relations and the development of the laws of science, in a class society, the political economy of the task is to expose the exploitation of social class in all classes. Others think it at all stages of human society on the occurrence mode of production, development and demise of the law, therefore, both to study the relations of production, but also of the social productive forces was coupled with the nature, condition and development law. In fact, advocates of political economics is the relations of production economists, nor the relations of production as the object of study in isolation, but combined with the study of social productive forces. Meanwhile, Marxist economists, political economy since the various stages of development of human society is based on the relations of production (or production) as the object of study, then, is both a theoretical science, but also a history of science. It is not only to study the relations of capitalist production (or production), reveals capitalism, development, and must be replaced by socialist law; and to study the pre-capitalist relations of production (or production), especially of the socialist relations of production (or production), reveal the nature of the socialist economic relations and the operation of the law, and the socialist relations of production (or production) of the occurrence, development and the necessity to communism, to promote the development of socialist economy services. As for the application of theoretical economics-based economics, it is the object of study is the national economy in various sectors of economic activity (such as agriculture, industry, commerce, etc.), or involving various departments and comprehensive professional with a certain economic activities (such as economic planning, fiscal, monetary, banking, etc.), or a single economic unit of economic activity (such as business management) and its corresponding economic relations. Applied Economics is the study of these economic activities and economic relations between the special regularity. Due to various economic activities in certain economic relations are conducted in a capitalist society, the application of capitalist economics, a socialist in a socialist society, the application of economics. All applications are due to theoretical economics based on economics, economists more or less subject to the constraints of class position and views, so there is the application of the bourgeois and Marxist economics, applied economics distinction. However, because the bourgeoisie Jingji Xue major research in the social mass production and the commodity economy under the domination of economic activities, thus some of their analytical content and analysis, put aside its capitalist exploitation of content, there can absorb and learn information place. Economics as a general term for a variety of economic subjects, in addition to theoretical economics and applied economics, but also includes many other categories and branches, they all have their own study.
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Research Methods
Methods of economics, there are two levels of meaning. First, the methodological basis of economics, or philosophical foundation. To this interpretation, Marxist economics, economics and the bourgeoisie has a different methodology. In general, the methodological basis of bourgeois economics is anti-historicism, metaphysical, idealist or mechanical materialism. Of course, this does not exclude that some bourgeois economists and some elements of bourgeois economics, respect for facts and the essential relationship of economic phenomena, will unconsciously comply with the methodology of dialectical materialism and historical materialism. Marxist economics is based on the methodology of dialectical materialism and historical materialism. This methodology requires a realistic manner, from the contradiction between the development and changes, from the things studied in a variety of interrelated economic activities and a variety of economic relations. Again, this does not exclude certain Marxist economist or that some works of Marxist economics, because of the actual situation does not in-depth investigation and study, or one-sided understanding of the subjective, and sometimes away from dialectical materialism and in some respects the scientific methodology of historical materialism. Economics methods in the study all subjects appear on a new trend is the extensive use of modern mathematical methods and modern computer technology to analyze the relationship between economic quantities. This is due to the increasing complexity of modern economic development, in the process of the new situation and new problems need to use these new methods for accurate description and explanation. The emergence of modern computer technology, making use of mathematical methods of increasing the number of complex economic relations and handle a large number of economic statistics possible. All subjects according to their economic characteristics, appropriate use of modern mathematics and computer technology, new methods and new results, for enhancing the accuracy of economic science, is of great significance.
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The nature of economics
Using the scientific method of economics Methods that economists use in many places and natural scientists use the same. Both are trying to establish the theory used to explain and predict or model.. For example, a motion model of the stars astronomers to establish why the stars to explain its location and forecast its future position. Similarly, economists have also established economic models. In order to explain and predict, economists established a number of economic models to represent various economic phenomena underlying economic relations. For example, the market supply and demand model shows that demand, supply and price relationships. While most models can also be described in words, but in economics generally in the form of a graphical or mathematical description is more intuitive. Economic models of economic phenomena by making a number of related reasons after the established assumptions. For example, economists typically assume that consumer income increases, demand will increase. These assumptions are generally based on observations of real economic life, based on observation of special phenomena discussed in the course of doing ordinary called induction. In making assumptions based on economics, charts or mathematical functions to the corresponding relationship that out, this is the economic model. The purpose is to create models to explain economic phenomena. People can use the model to explain the causes of economic phenomena. For example, the model, economists can explain the causes of inflation, rising wages that are too fast or raw material prices due to imports. Another effect of the economic model is the prediction. For example, if the increased demand of a commodity, its price will rise; people's incomes increase, demand for certain products will increase in the number and so on. Prediction process is in fact an inference process. In the reasoning process, the economists had to devise other factors constant, for example, increased demand for a commodity will lead to higher commodity prices, which is based on the cost of production of the goods did not decline to make the assumption that reasoning. Economics, social science Although economics and natural science model used is similar to the economic model of bile is not as natural science model that can make accurate forecasts, mainly in the following two reasons. Economics can not do controlled experimental conditions. After the physicists to model the conditions can be strictly controlled laboratory experiments to verify, but economists often changing environment in the study and the individuals, groups, institutions, complex relationship between, in order to simplify the development of a reasonable model they have to do simplified assumptions, such as a common assumption is that "other conditions remain unchanged." However, with the physicists of different economists in fact can not be assumed to be constant so that the relevant conditions remain unchanged. In this sense, a bit like meteorology, economics, and some natural sciences. Because many factors affect the process and development of weather systems, meteorologists had to make a variety of simplified, in order to derive a relatively simple prediction. However, with satellite and computer use in recent years, atmospheric forecasting more accurate. In economics too, the assistance of the computer, economists have developed more complex models, thus increasing the predictive power of economics. The difference between the behavior of people is facing another economic model serious difficulties. Although people in similar situations to make a similar response, but these acts are often there will be some differences. For example, when companies make investment decisions to respond to the expansion will happen? This depends on the company's business credit status unpredictable factors. In the economic model, people's behavior are often assumed to be the same, which led to the prediction model is not possible to draw accurate. For these reasons, regular school in the significant differences between different models, each made different assumptions, the conclusion is different. Result, there is often much debate economics. In reality, different parties and different economic ideas may be combined with the model leftist parties that the loan to reduce unemployment, the government must intervene; right-wing parties held by the model is that if the Government reduces interference, greater reliance on free market economy to reduce unemployment. Economics and Policy Economists in assisting the Government in formulating economic policies play a significant role, in order to study this effect, there is need to distinguish between positive and normative point of view. Empirical point of view of the facts described, it should be noted that the phenomenon is related to what the proposition. Empirical proposition may also be wrong, but can be tested by facts. "Unemployment is growing," "inflation rate of over 6% next year", "the Government to reduce taxes, increase imports", these are empirical propositions. Standard view is a description of value judgments, it is to explain the what should be the proposition, such as what to do and should not do, on what is good or bad, commendable or not praiseworthy point of view. "The rich more tax income than the poor", "Government should reduce inflation," "aged pension rate should be increased with inflation," These are examples of propositions norms. They can not simply be confirmed or proved by the fact that right or wrong. Economists usually positive way to policy work. They can analyze the impact of specific policies that the two policies which are more likely to achieve the goal, but they do not speak as an economist, a policy goal which is more preferable. For example, economists might argue whether to increase government spending to reduce unemployment and increase inflation, but they can not say whether the policy is commendable. That is, economists do not determine the norms, like others, economists do not have more than others spiritual power.
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Economic status in the social sciences
Any class or school of economics, consciously or unconsciously, to a certain philosophy as the basis of their methodology or guidelines. As mentioned above, is based on Marxist economics, Marxist philosophy, that is, dialectical materialism and historical materialism as the basis of their methodology. Of course, for the various disciplines of economics Marxist philosophy to provide vivid, concrete materials, various economic activities and economic relations between the dialectical relationship between the research, but also enrich the content of the latter to promote the development of the latter. Economy is the foundation of society, political and legal superstructure of society. A society's political, legal, etc. In the final analysis is determined by the economic base, is to protect their own economic base. Bourgeois state system and law, is based on the requirements of capitalist economic development and determined, based on maintenance of the entire bourgeois private ownership of property and economic interests as the task. The socialist state system and laws, it is based on the requirements of the socialist economic development determined. Is to safeguard the overall interests of the people, safeguard the socialist public ownership of production and the promotion of the dominance of the development of socialist construction as a task. The economic base and superstructure as a national system, legal action and reaction between, so the study of human society, economics and the economic base of national institutional, legal and other political science and law closer together. To contact the national system of economics and law to study the superstructure of economic activities and economic relations; political science and law to be maintained to link economic activity and economic relations to study the various national systems, various laws and so on. Such interaction, the interaction between economics and also applies to other social superstructure as the study of social science disciplines. Economics and sociology, psychology, also have close ties. People's economic activities and economic relations are the basis for determining a social structure; the form of economic activity Youyi certain economic relations among individuals as the basic members of the production, consumption and life of the family as the basic unit, which form a complex social activity network. Human activities, and consumer behavior have some psychological motivation, and subject to influence behavior. But people's mental state and behavior of the state, often based on certain economic interests based. Business Training Objectives: Business training objectives: the professional training with the more solid foundation of Marxist economic theory, familiar with modern Western economic theory, more proficient in modern economic analysis, a wide range of knowledge, has to penetrate the field of economics related to the ability of in overall economic management, policy research departments, financial institutions and enterprises engaged in economic analysis, forecasting, planning and economic management of high-level expertise. Business training requirements: the system requires students to master the economics profession the basic theory and associated infrastructure expertise to understand the operational mechanism of market economy, are familiar with the party and the country's economic policies and regulations, understanding of Chinese and foreign history and current situation of economic development; understanding dynamic academic economics; with the use of quantitative analysis methods and modern means of socio-economic surveys, economic analysis and practical skills; have strong written and oral skills of specialized personnel, able to master a foreign language. Graduates should be given the following knowledge and abilities: l. grasp of Marxist economics, the basic theory of modern Western economics and analysis methods; 2. To master modern methods of economic analysis and computer application skills; 3. To understand the academic and foreign economic developments and prospects; 4. To understand China's economic reform and economic development; 5. Familiar with the party and the country's economic policies and regulations; 6. Grasp of economics and foreign literature search, data query of the basic method, with a certain degree of economic research and practical work. Main courses: Major Disciplines: Economics Main Courses: Political Economics, "Capital", Western economics, statistics, international economics, money and banking, finance, history of economics, development economics, business management, marketing, international finance, international trade . Main practice teaching links include: social survey, graduation practice - as arranged for 12 weeks. Duration: four years Degrees: Bachelor of Economics Similar professional: Economics Finance International Economics and Trade Management of National Economy Finance Financial Engineering Credit Insurance Trade and Economic Management Network Investment Economics of Sports Economics Environment Resources and Development Economics estimated the real estate business and international cultural trade tax revenue statistics
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Economic Wikipedia
Study how humans try to use limited resources to meet the desires of the theory of infinite
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English Expression
: Economics
n.: econ, economic, science or principles of the production, distribution and consumption of goods esp with reference to cost, economics (as a field of study)
commodity