A department of Natural Sciences. Study of biological structure, function, occurrence and development of the law. Under study, divided into zoology, botany, microbiology, etc.; Based on the content, divided into taxonomy, anatomy, physiology, genetics, ecology, etc..
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No. 2
Of organisms (including animals, plants and microorganisms) structure, function, occurrence and development of related laws.
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Text description
Biology: shēng wù xué English: biology
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About Discipline
Biology Definition: Biology is the study of biological phenomena and biological activities of the laws of science. Biology is a branch of natural science. Study of biological structure, function, occurrence and development of the law. According to the research subjects were divided into zoology, botany, microbiology, etc.; according to research, divided into taxonomy, anatomy, physiology, genetics, ecology, etc.; from a methodological system, divided into experimental biology and systems biology. Is the study of all levels of the type, structure, function, behavior, development and evolutionary origin and biological relationship with the surrounding environment, such as science.
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History
In the natural sciences had not yet developed in the ancient times, people are creatures colorful, colorful confused, they tend to put life and non life as a different, not linked to the two areas, that life is not subject to the non-living material law of motion. Various biological phenomena, many people will be reduced to a non-material force, that is "dynamic" role. These groundless speculation, with the development of biology gradually been abandoned in modern biology has no place in the. Modern biology is a huge number of branches of knowledge, this article highlights the object of biology, division, methods and significance. On the essence of life and the history of biology, will be held in "life", "History of Biology" and other items described.
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Study
Existing on Earth estimated 200 million to biological 4.5 million kinds; more extinct species, estimated at least 1,500 million. From the Arctic to the Antarctic, from the mountains to the sea, from the snow-covered tundra to the hot mineral springs, there are biological existence. They have a wide variety of morphological structures, changing their way of life. The basic structural units from biological ─ ─ cell level to study, and some biological does not have the cell morphology, cell shape that has a biological, some original nucleus of cells, some of the eukaryotic cells. The level of the organizational structure from the point of view, some single students or groups of single-cell organisms, some multi-cellular organisms, and multi-cellular organisms can be based on tissue and organ differentiation and development is divided into several types. Way from a nutritional point of view, some are photosynthetic autotrophs, some are absorbed or saprophagous heterotrophic heterotrophic, some swallowed heterotrophic. From the biological role in the ecosystem point of view, some organic food producers, some consumers, some decomposition, and so on. According to the history of biological development biologists, morphological structure, of nutrition and their role in the ecosystem, etc., will be divided into a number of biological community. Comparison of the prevailing current in the United States in 1969 RH Whittaker's five sector system. He bacteria classified as prokaryotes prokaryotic microorganisms in the blue sector, will be classified as single-cell eukaryotes native biological, multicellular eukaryotes the way into camp by nutritional photoautotrophic the plant kingdom, Camp absorption heterotrophic fungi heterotrophic community and business devour the animal kingdom. Shi-Xiang of China in 1979, biologists made six sector system. The system consists of the total non-cell sector, the total community of prokaryotic and eukaryotic total 3 sector composed of the total sector, representing 3 stages of evolution. Cell-only one sector of total industry, that the virus community. The total industry is divided into the prokaryotic bacteria and cyanobacteria community sector. The total community, including the plant kingdom of eukaryotic, fungal community and the animal world, they represent the three main eukaryotic evolutionary routes. Biological classification 1: Non-cellular life forms do not have the virus morphology, by a long chain of nucleic acid and protein coat composition (including long-chain nucleic acids RNA and DNA, viral DNA replication has a direct transcription, which contain RNA viruses need to reverse into After the DNA during replication). Under the terms of the number of nucleotide composition of nucleic acids, the genes of each virus particle at most 300. A virus parasitic on bacteria called bacteriophages. Institutions without their own metabolism of the virus, there is no enzyme system can not produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Therefore, the virus left the host cell, it becomes a no life activities and can not reproduce themselves independently of chemical substances. Only after entering the host cell, it can use the material in living cells and energy, as well as replication, transcription and translation of the full _set_ of equipment, in accordance with its own genetic information contained in DNA and its production as a new generation of viruses. Viral genes with other organisms, genes, mutation and recombination can occur, and therefore can be evolved. Because the virus is no independent metabolic body can not reproduce independently, and thus is considered an incomplete form of life. On the origin of the virus, some people think that the virus is due to parasitic life and a high degree of biological degradation; Some people think that the virus is eukaryotic cells from the down part of the nucleic acid and protein particles; more people think that the virus is cell morphogenesis lower level before life forms. In recent years, much simpler than a virus found in the class virus, which is the small RNA molecules, no protein shell. Also found that a class has not only nucleic acids of the prion protein particles, which can cause chronic diseases in mammals. These life forms are not complete without the presence of narrowing the distance between life and the life, no life and that there is no unbridgeable gap between the life. Thus, in prokaryotes under open up a community, that the virus is more reasonable world. 2: prokaryote prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are two basic types of cells, they reflect two stages of cell evolution. The form of a biological cell is divided into prokaryotes and eukaryotes, is a major advance in modern biology. The main features of prokaryotic cells is not the mitochondrial, plastid and other membrane organelles, chromosome is a circular DNA molecule, and other non-histone proteins, no nuclear membrane. Prokaryotes, including bacteria and cyanobacteria, which are solitary or groups of single-cell organisms. Mycoplasma, Rickettsia and Chlamydia are bacteria. Support the body without the original cell wall, cell very small, even more than some of the big virus particles is still small, through bacterial filters, is capable of independent growth and metabolic activities carried smallest life forms. Rickettsia of the enzyme system is not complete, it can only be oxidized glutamate, but not oxidation of glucose or organic acids to produce ATP. Chlamydia is not energy metabolism system, can not make ATP. Most of Rickettsia and Chlamydia can not be independent of metabolic activity, is considered among the range of bacterial and viral organisms. The earliest life is no free oxygen in the reducing atmosphere occur (see the origin of life), so they should be anaerobic, but also heterotrophic. From anaerobic to aerobic, autotrophic from heterotrophic to, is the evolutionary history of the two major breakthrough. Cyanobacteria photosynthesis to make oxygen into Earth's atmosphere from oxygen, thus changing the whole environment for the occurrence of aerobic organisms created the conditions for biological evolution to start a new future. In modern terrestrial ecosystems, cyanobacteria are still producers. In recent years, green algae found in the original, containing chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids. From the composition of their photosynthetic pigments and their cell structure, much like the green algae and higher plant chloroplast, therefore attention by biologists. 3: comparison of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells are of more complicated cells. It has a variety of membrane organelles such as mitochondria, there is enclosed by a double membrane of the nucleus, the genetic material in the nucleus and cytoplasm separately. DNA for the long-chain molecules, as well as other proteins and histone combination of chromosomes. Eukaryotic cell division is mitosis and meiosis, resulting in splitting of the equal distribution of replicated chromosomes into daughter cells go. Plants are photoautotrophic eukaryotes as the main mode of nutrition. Typical plant cells contain vacuoles and the cell walls of cellulose. Cytoplasmic organelles are photosynthetic photosynthetic pigments that contain plasmid ─ ─ chloroplasts. Chloroplasts of green algae and higher plants, in addition to chlorophyll a, there is chlorophyll b. A variety of aquatic algae, due to the different auxiliary photosynthetic pigment composition, and showing a different color. Photosynthesis are water as the electron donor and, therefore, been put on oxygen. Photoautotrophic nutrition is a major way to the plant kingdom, only some of the low single-cell algae, mixed nutrition. A small number of higher plants are parasitic, heterotrophic uptake of secondary lines, there is still a small number of higher plants to capture insects, the absorption of heterotrophic. Flora from a single cell green algae to angiosperms, along the direction of adaptation of photosynthesis. Occur in higher plants photosynthetic plant organs (leaf), support organ (stem) and for fixed and absorption of organs (roots) of differentiation. Petiole and stem support for many branches to the four leaf flakes start to get the maximum area of light and CO2 absorption. Cells and gradually differentiate to form specialized for photosynthesis, transporting and coverage, and other organizations. Sexual reproduction of most plants is to form a gametophyte and sporophyte life cycle of generational change. In higher plants, the continuous development of sporophyte differentiation, while the gametophyte is become simplified. Plants are the main producers of the ecosystem, but also a major source of oxygen on Earth. Myxomycetes is a special fungus. It has a life cycle of the fungus, while another section is the animal, its structure, behavior and feeding methods and amoeba similar. Slime molds, fungi and is considered to be between the biological animals. Animal nutrition is swallowed as a way of eukaryotes. Heterotrophic ingestion, including capture, ingestion, digestion and absorption of such a complex process. The structure of animals to adapt to swallow along the direction of the development of heterotrophic. Single-cell animal food vacuole formed after ingestion of food. Food is digested in the food vacuole, and then through the membrane and into the cytoplasm, the cytoplasm lysosome fusion with it, is intracellular digestion. The evolution of multicellular animals, the cells digest the extracellular digestion gradually replaced by the food in the digestive tract after being captured by the secretion of digestive gland enzyme was digested molecules after digestion of nutrients absorbed by the digestive tract, and through the loop system is transferred to the parts of the body's cells. Correspondingly, the gradual formation of multicellular animals, a complex drainage system, the respiratory gas exchange and complex external sensory organs, nervous system, endocrine system and motor system. Nervous system and endocrine system and other components of the complex self-regulation and self-control institutions, regulation and control of all physiological processes. In all species, the only animal's body structure developed to such a high level of complexity. In the ecosystem, the animals are organic food consumers. In the early days of life, that the earth is only blue and bacteria, the ecological system is composed of producers and decomposers of the two ring system. Eukaryotes, especially animals with the emergence and development of the ecosystem into two rings by the producers, decomposers and consumers loop system composed of. Appeared in a variety of biological world today. From the class of virus, the virus to the plants, animals, biology has many distinctive features of the type. By a series of intermediate links between the various types to form a continuous spectrum. At the same time determined by the nutritional evolution of the three directions shown in the ecosystem interactions of spatial relations. Thus, the evolution of both the time course, but also the spatial development process. Bio From the time of the life history and spatial relations is concerned, is a whole. Biological characteristics Not only has the biological diversity, but also has some common characteristics and attributes. One of these common characteristics, properties, and understanding of the law, so that a very rich and biology into a unified body of knowledge. In addition to cells, there are other structures of biological units. Beneath the cell organelles, molecules and atoms, organized in the cell above, organs, organ systems, individual, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere, and other units. The various structural units of biological, step by step in accordance with the complexity of the relationship and arranged in a series of levels, called the structural level. At every level of life events on the show depends not only on the interaction of its components, and depends on the particular ordered structure, it may appear at higher levels not seen in the lower level of the nature and laws. The continuity of life, 1855 RC Feier Xiao suggested that all cells come from pre-existing cells. The concept for existing is right for all creatures. In addition to life is never the first living matter at the time the Earth took place outside environmental conditions, can only come from existing biological organisms. Can only be achieved by breeding the offspring from the parent to continue. Thus, genetic basic properties of life. Usually refers to the individual development of multicellular organisms from a single germ cells to mature individual growth process. Organisms in life, every cell, every tissue, organ development and changes over time, it is at any given time the state is itself the result of development. Individual organisms and development is carried out by a certain stability in the growth mode of the process. The concept of individual development of single cell organisms and viruses are also applicable in principle. Single-cell organisms from one generation to experience some of the cell cycle, but also through the development of virus replication of genetic material, structural protein synthesis and virus particle assembly process. Therefore, all creatures have their own life histories conducted according to certain rules. According to those described above, it is easy to see, even though there is amazing diversity of the living world, but all share a common biological material basis, follow the common law. Biology is such a unified and diverse material world. Thus, biology is a unified field of knowledge and very rich.
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Research Methods
Some of the basic biology research methods - the method described in observation, comparison of the methods and experimental methods in biology is the evolving process of development. In the history of biology, these methods were and became the main means for a certain period. Now, these methods are integrated from modern biological research methodology. Observation method described in the 17th century, the early development of modern natural science, biological research methods with different methods of physics. Physics is the study of measurable properties of objects, namely, time, movement and quality. Mathematics used in physics to study physical phenomena, found that the relationship that exists between the amount and use deductive calculate the consequences of these relationships. Biology is the study that will distinguish between different organisms, often can not be measured in nature. Biological method described to record with these properties, and then induction will merge these different biological properties into different groups. The 18th century, due to the New World to explore and the activities of many explorers, biological species recorded several times, several times to grow, so the first taxonomy developed. Taxonomic identification of species and scholars gather, organize, describe the way a great development. To clearly identify the different species to be a unified, standardized terminology for the species name, which in turn requires a variety of forms of organs for detailed classification, and to develop standardized terminology for the organs named. Term development of the heavy work was done C.von Linnaeus. People use these methods to collect more precise description of a large number of animal and plant taxonomy and morphological and anatomical materials materials. Method of comparing the second half of the 18th century, biological taxonomy not only accumulated a great deal of material, and accumulated a lot of morphology, anatomy and physiology of the material. In this case, simply no longer enough for classification, requires a comprehensive study of various characteristics of species, analysis of different points and the differences between species in common, merge them into natural groups. Comparative method has been applied to biology. By the 19th century, physics, chemistry more mature, and biological experiments have a solid foundation, so first of physiology, bacteriology and biochemistry and then have a clear experimental subjects. 80 19th century, experimental method is further applied to the embryology, cytology and genetics and other disciplines. By the 20th century, 30 years, in addition to paleontology and a few other disciplines, most of all because of the application of biology experiments and made new progress.
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Subject Categories
Branch of biology research but have a certain interdependence, cross each other. In addition, the motion of matter as a form of life, has its own laws of biology, while contain and follow the laws of physics and chemistry. Therefore, biology with physics, chemistry has a close relationship. Biodistribution in the Earth's surface, constitutes an important factor in the earth landscape. Therefore, the biology and geology are also mutual penetration, cross-cutting. Biological groups divided by subjects, from all sides is conducive to a natural understanding of certain biological characteristics and regularity of taxa. But no matter what the specific object is to study the subject is not outside the classification, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, ecology, genetics, evolution and so on. To emphasize the subject has been divided by type, including not only the morphology, classification and other more classic content, but also various other processes and the contents of all levels, people tend to botany as plant biology, animal biology to zoology as Science. Organisms in Earth's history with 40 billion years in the development of evolution. About 1,500 million known species extinct, some of their remains stored in the form of fossil formation. Paleontology exclusively through the study of fossils in the geological history of biology, paleontology, and more emphasis on the early fossil classification and description of the field of biology in recent years been introduced in various branches of paleontology, have produced paleoecology, paleontology, geography, and other branches of disciplines. Now, some people suggested to replace the original biological paleontology broad limited to the classification described fossil paleontology. There are many branches of biology is based on life movement has the attributes or characteristics to divide the life course. Physiology is the study of functional disciplines, physiology is based on laboratory-based research methods. By study is divided into plant physiology, animal physiology and bacterial physiology. Plant Physiology is the process of development in agricultural production _set_ up. Physiological levels of biological structure can also be divided into cell physiology, organ physiology, individual physiology. Early on, plant physiology and more to study seed plants; animal physiology and medicine were mostly linked to the people, dogs, rabbits, and frogs as the research object; later gradually extended to the physiology of lower organisms, so that the development of a relatively physiology. Genetics is the study of heredity and variation of biological traits, to clarify its rules and disciplines. Genetics is driven in breeding to develop. Mendel's laws of inheritance in 1900 was rediscovered, genetics began to be established. , Due to the work of TH Morgan and others, and built a complete cytogenetic system. In 1953, the structure of DNA, genetic material was revealed deep into the molecular genetics level. Genome project's progress from genome, proteome to the metabolome of genetic information transfer, and cell signal transduction, gene expression and regulation of the network in 1994, the concept of genetics system, vocabulary and principles presented and published at the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Now, the transmission of genetic information, gene regulation mechanism has gradually been understood, genetics, theory and technology in agriculture, industry and clinical practice are at work, while the various branches of biology occupies an important position. Many problems of biology, such as individual development and biological mechanisms of biological evolution, the formation of species and population genetics concept of success and so must be applied to obtain more in-depth understanding. Embryology is the study of individual development of disciplines, originally morphological range. The publication of Darwin's theory of evolution in 1859, greatly promoted the study of embryology. Half of the 19th century, the process of embryonic development and morphology of fertilization are described in precise detail. Since then, the animal embryo development to learn from observation describes the experimental method developed by the mechanism, so as to establish the experimental embryology. Now, the individual development of the study, biochemical methods, the absorption of molecular biology achievements, and further analysis of the molecular mechanisms of growth and differentiation characteristics, and to research on the development of organisms from embryonic extended to the entire life cycle, the formation of developmental biology. Life activities, nothing more than material transformation and transmission of energy conversion and transfer, and three aspects of information transfer. Therefore, the use of physical, chemical and mathematical means of life is necessary and very effective. Cross-disciplines such as biochemistry, biophysics, mathematical biology is produced. Bio-mathematics is a product of combining mathematics and biology. Its mission is to use mathematics to study biological problems, mathematical laws of life processes. Early, people just use statistics, geometry, and some elementary analytical methods of biological phenomena at rest and quantitative analysis. After 20 years of the 20th century, people began to build mathematical models to simulate a variety of life processes. Now all areas of biological mathematics in biology such as physiology, genetics, ecology, taxonomy and other areas play an important role in making these areas research has improved rapidly, on the other hand, bio-mathematics itself is to solve biological problem into an independent discipline. A small number of subjects is based on methods of biological classification, such as the description of embryology, comparative anatomy, experimental morphology and so on. Classified by method of discipline, often as a branch of a lower level, was included in the above type according to the properties and disciplines. Biosphere is a multi-level complex systems. In order to reveal the laws of a particular level and other levels as well as the relationship between the emergence of a hierarchical classification by subject and more attention. Molecular biology is the study of life processes of molecular-level subjects. It's mission is the molecular structure and function and to reveal the molecular interactions between the material basis for all life processes. Modern molecular biology is a major Division molecular genetics, which studies the replication of genetic material, the transmission of genetic information, expression and regulation and control problems. Cell biology is the study of life processes at the cellular level of discipline, said the early morphological description is based cytology. After cellular uptake of the achievements of molecular biology, deep into the ultrastructural level, the main study cell growth, metabolism and genetic and other biological processes, cytology has also developed into cell biology. Biology is the study of individual life processes of individual-level subjects. Before the invention of the compound microscope, biology, mostly based on the individual and for the study of organ systems. The process of the individual components of this process is necessary to analyze the process of organ systems, cellular processes and molecular processes. But the process is different from the individual organ systems, processes, cellular processes or molecular process simple addition. The existence of individual self-regulation process control mechanism, through this mechanism, integration of highly complex organic unity for the highly coordinated, coherent behavioral responses to external factors in the stimulus. Very early establishment of individual biology, until now, is still very important. Population biology is the study of population structure, population in the relationship between the individual, population and environment relationship and population genetic mechanisms of self-regulation and so on. Population biology and ecology is a big overlap, in fact, ecology, population biology can be said to be an essential part. Above, is just the main branch of the current pattern of biology, the actual subject even more than the above. For example, as human beings into space, the universe has been evolving biology. Again With the increasing accuracy of experiments on laboratory animals requires more and more strict, of sterile biological and ecological gnotobiotic biology note also built up because of the need. In short, the number of new disciplines continue to divide out a number of disciplines and in moving toward integration. Biology Division of the situation, reflecting the extremely rich content of biology, but also reflects the vigorous development of the biological picture.
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Research Significance
Biology and many aspects of human life has a very close relationship. As one of the basic biological sciences, has traditionally been the basis of agriculture, medicine, covering farming, animal husbandry, fishery, medical, pharmaceutical, health and so on. Biological theories and methods as the continuous development of its applications continue to expand. Now, the biology of these traditional areas have been exceeded, but extended to the food, chemical, environmental protection, energy and metallurgical industries, and so on. If we consider bionics, it also affects the electronic technology and information technology. Population, food, environment, energy issues is the current global issues of world interest. Currently, the annual world population growth rate of about 20% over about every 35 years, the population will double. People on the planet at an unprecedented surge in the rate. Population is a social issue, but also an ecological problem. It must be the complex of human relationships and the environment carry out a detailed quantitative study, to the earth, the fate of mankind have a clear knowledge, so learn to control themselves, so that the population maintained at a reasonable figures. Biology in this regard should and could make its own contribution. Endocrinology and reproductive biology of success led to the invention of oral contraceptives, family planning has contributed to the promotion in the world. In the population, in addition to surge in the number of other genetic diseases are a serious threat to quality of the population. Some data indicate that a variety of genetic diseases in newborns percentage of 3% to 10.5%, respectively. In China, part of the mountain, mental dysfunction, accounting for 2% to 3% in some areas more than 10%. Reveal the cause of the genetic disease, genetic disease found to control and conquer approach is undoubtedly another important task in biology. Currently, the family analysis to determine whether patients suffering from genetic diseases, the patient's genetic make useful guidance and advice; scaling fetal cells by chromosome analysis and biochemical analysis of enzymes to diagnose congenital future baby whether of genetic disease. These methods can prevent or reduce the baby's born with genetic diseases, to alleviate the heavy burden of family and society. Genetic engineering for the treatment of genetic diseases known as gene therapy in experimental animals of several gene therapy for genetic diseases has been some progress. With the development of genetic engineering, gene therapy for treatment of human genetic diseases control and opened up broad prospects. And population issues are closely related to the food problem. Food shortages in developing countries has long been a serious problem not resolved, the current population of the world hundreds of millions of undernourished. From now until the beginning of the 21st century, food production for at least a year increased by 3% to 8% to make the food shortage situation has improved. The ultimate source of human food plant photosynthesis, but in the land to expand agricultural production, land area is limited, to increase food production to improve the main road is the plant itself. In the past, in the development of scientific agriculture and the "green revolution", the biology has made enormous contributions. Today, within the limits of human orientation in the transformation of certain plants, using genetic engineering, cell engineering cultivate high-quality, high yield, drought, cold, waterlogging, saline-alkali, anti-pest varieties is not unrealistic daydream. In recent years, some of the key plant genetic engineering technology is a breakthrough, and obtained some transgenic plants. In addition, the use of protein-rich algae, bacteria or fungi, large-scale cultivation, and to obtain single-cell protein. The successful use of genetic engineering and has made large-scale continuous fermentation engineering technology experience, single-cell protein technology has made a major breakthrough. Amino acids are the monomeric protein, vegetable protein often lack certain kinds of essential amino acids, if added to some amino acids in the food will significantly improve the biological value of plant protein. Currently, the use of microbial fermentation, immobilized cells or immobilized enzyme technology to produce amino acids, has gradually formed a relatively complete system, can be expected, amino acid production will play on malnutrition and an increasingly important role. Achievements of modern biology and the combination of the food industry, has made the food industry into a new industry, and vigorously developed. Ecology of the 20th century on the relationship between man and nature, awakening attention to the survival of the human environment. Industrial waste water, waste gas and solid waste a lot of emissions, agricultural pesticides, herbicides widely used, so that large areas of land and waters, threatening human production and life. This requires that people are more in-depth study of substances in the biosphere and to the ecological cycle of law and economic life in the human and other social life, the right to apply these laws to make human biology to better service. Proof of modern biology, microbiology possess biological activity is extremely wide, the use of enrichment culture method can find almost any kind of degradation of toxic organic compounds, microorganisms, the use of genetic engineering techniques can also improve their degradation. Therefore, microbial degradation and the enzyme preparation to become a powerful means of eliminating pollution. Use of microbial pest control to partially replace the polluting organic pesticides are also promising. As soon as possible biological control in agriculture, biological nitrogen fixation and other new technologies, changing agricultural situation of over-reliance on petrochemicals, which is related to a major event to restore the natural ecological balance, but also the general trend of agricultural development. Consume a lot of resources, traditional agriculture is bound to the biological sciences and technology-based change in ecological agriculture The world of chemical energy (oil, coal, etc.) is always limited reserve, will one day be depleted. Therefore, the biological nature of renewable resources (biomass) was paying attention again. Most of the biomass in nature is cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The chemical, physical and biological process are combined to the conversion of cellulose to ethanol can be used as energy. It is estimated that the late 20th century about 35% of the world's cars will use biomass (ethanol). Biogas biomass energy development is the use of another product. China and India for the use of rural waste anaerobic digestion to produce biogas has made remarkable achievements. The world, there have been using immobilized cell technology industrial biogas anaerobic reactor. Some single-celled algae containing a similar structure with the crude oil, and the total weight of up to 70%, which is another attractive renewable bio-energy. Solar energy is the most powerful human beings can use energy, solar energy and biological photosynthesis sucked down the most important way of fixed, predictable, the use of biological theories and methods to solve the energy problem is promising. In addition, population, food, environment, energy issues such as comprehensive research, and create a variety of integrated solutions to these problems the rise of agro-ecological projects will eventually develop new, large-scale modernization of agriculture. Described above, only in respect of population, food, environment, energy issues and the relationship between biological terms, it is still far from adequate. But it can be seen, Biology and the future of mankind are closely related.
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Main branches of biology
The field of zoology Zoology - Animal Physiology - Anatomy - Embryology - Neural Biology - Developmental Biology - Entomology - Behavior - Organization Studies The field of botany Botany - Plant Pathology - Phycology - Physiology Microbiology / immunology Microbiology - Immunology - Virology Biochemistry Biochemistry - Protein Mechanics - sugar biochemistry - Lipid Biochemistry - Metabolic Biochemistry Evolution and ecology Ecology - Study of biological distribution - systematics - the ancient biology - evolution - taxonomy - Evolutionary Biology The field of modern biotechnology Biotechnology - Genetic Engineering - Enzyme Engineering - Biological Engineering - metabolic engineering - genomics Cell and molecular biology Molecular Biology - Cytology - Genetics Biological physics Biological physics - Structural Biology - Biomedical Photonics - Medical Engineering In the biomedical field Infectious Diseases - Toxicology - Radiation Biology - Cancer Biology Bioinformatics MATHEMATICS - bionics - System Biology Environmental biology Aerobiology - biogeography - Marine Biology - Freshwater Biology Subject classification of China National Standard / 180 180.11 mathematical biology, including biological and statistics 180.14 Biophysics 180.1410 Biological Information Theory and Biological Cybernetics 180.1415 biomechanics, including biological and bio-rheological fluid, etc. 180.1420 Theoretical Biophysics 180.1425 Bio Acoustics and sound Biophysics 180.1430 bio-optical and optical biophysics 180.1435 Bioelectromagnetics 180.1440 bioenergetics 180.1445 low Biophysics 180.1450 Molecular Biophysics 180.1455 Space Biophysics 180.1460 bionics 180.1465 Systems Biophysics 180.1499 Biophysics other disciplines 180.17 Biochemistry 180.1710 peptide and protein biochemistry 180.1715 nucleic acid biochemistry 180.1720 polysaccharide biochemistry 180.1725 lipid biochemistry 180.1730 enzymology 180.1735 Membrane Biochemistry 180.1740 hormone biochemistry 180.1745 reproductive biochemistry 180.1750 immune Biochemistry 180.1755 Biochemical Toxicology 180.1760 Comparative Biochemistry Biochemical engineering, see 530.67 180.1765 Application of the specific application to the relevant disciplines of Biochemistry 180.1799 other disciplines of Biochemistry 180.21 Cell Biology 180.2110 Cell Biophysics 180.2120 cell structure and morphology 180.2130 cell physiology 180.2140 cell into the chemical 180.2150 Cellular Immunology 180.2160 Cytopathology 180.2199 cell biology in other disciplines 180.24 physiology 180.2411 Form Physiology 180.2414 Metabolism and Nutrition Physiology 180.2417 Cardiovascular Physiology 180.2421 respiratory physiology 180.2424 digestive physiology 180.2427 Blood Physiology 180.2431 Urinary Physiology 180.2434 endocrine physiology 180.2437 sensory physiology 180.2441 Reproductive Physiology 180.2444 bone physiology 180.2447 muscle physiology 180.2451 skin physiology 180.2454 circulation physiology 180.2457 Comparative Physiology 180.2461 Physiology Age 180.2464 Special environmental physiology 180.2467 language Physiology 180.2499 physiology other disciplines 180.27 Developmental Biology See 170.5041 Paleontology 180.31 genetics 180.3110 quantitative genetics 180.3115 Biochemical Genetics 180.3120 Cytogenetics 180.3125 somatic cell genetics 180.3130 genetics developmental genetics also known as the place 180.3135 Molecular Genetics 180.3140 Radiation Genetics 180.3145 evolutionary genetics 180.3150 ecological genetics 180.3155 immunogenetics 180.3160 Genetic Toxicology 180.3165 behavioral genetics 180.3170 Population Genetics 180.3199 genetics of other disciplines 180.34 radiobiology 180.3410 Radiation Biophysics 180.3420 cell radiobiology 180.3430 Radiation Physiology 180.3440 Molecular Radiation Biology 180.3450 radioimmunoassay 180.3460 Radiation Toxicology 180.3499 radiobiology other disciplines 180.37 Molecular Biology 180.41 of biological evolution 180.44 ecology 180.4410 mathematical ecology 180.4415 Chemical Ecology 180.4420 physiological ecology 180.4425 Ecotoxicology 180.4430 Regional Ecology 180.4435 Population Ecology 180.4440 community ecology 180.4445 Ecosystem Ecology 180.4450 ecological engineering 180.4499 ecology, other disciplines 180.47 Neurobiology 180.4710 nerve biophysics 180.4715 nerve biochemistry 180.4720 nerve morphology 180.4725 Cellular Neurobiology 180.4730 neurophysiology 180.4735 Developmental Neurobiology 180.4740 Molecular Neurobiology Comparative Neurobiology 180.4745 180.4750 Systems Neurobiology 180.4799 Neurobiology other disciplines 180.51 Botany 180.5110 Chemical Plant 180.5115 Physical Plant Biotechnology 180.5120 Plant Biochemistry 180.5125 Plant Morphology 180.5130 Plant Anatomy 180.5135 plant cytology 180.5140 Physiology 180.5145 Plant Embryology 180.5150 Developmental Plant 180.5155 Plant Genetics 180.5160 Plant Ecology See 210.6020 Plant Pathology 180.5165 phytogeography 180.5170 phytocoenology 180.5175 Plant Taxonomy 180.5180 Experimental Botany 180.5185 Plant Parasitology 180.5199 Botanical other disciplines 180.54 Entomology 180.5410 Insect Biochemistry 180.5415 insect morphology 180.5420 insect histology 180.5425 Insect Physiology 180.5430 insect ecology 180.5435 Insect Pathology 180.5440 insect toxicology 180.5445 Insect Behavior 180.5450 insect taxonomy 180.5455 Experimental Entomology 180.5460 insect virology 180.5499 entomology other disciplines 180.57 Zoology 180.5711 Animal Biophysics 180.5714 Animal Biochemistry 180.5717 Animal Morphology 180.5721 Animal Anatomy 180.5724 Animal Histology 180.5727 Animal cytology 180.5731 Animal Physiology 180.5734 Animal Reproductive Biology 180.5737 animal growth and development study 180.5741 Animal Genetics 180.5744 Animal Ecology 180.5747 Animal Pathology 180.5751 Animal Behavior 180.5754 zoogeographical 180.5757 animal taxonomy 180.5761 Experimental Zoology 180.5764 Animal Parasitology 180.5767 Animal Virology 180.5799 Zoology other disciplines 180.61 microbiology 180.6110 Microbial Biochemistry 180.6115 Microbial Physiology 180.6120 Microbial Genetics 180.6125 microbial ecology 180.6130 Microbiology and Immunology 180.6135 microbial taxonomy 180.6140 Mycology 180.6145 Bacteriology 180.6150 Applied Microbiology specific application to the relevant disciplines 180.6199 other disciplines of Microbiology 180.64 virology 180.6410 virus Biochemistry 180.6420 Molecular Virology 180.6430 virus ecology 180.6440 virus taxonomy 180.6499 Virology other disciplines 180.67 Anthropology 180.6710 Human Origin and Evolution of Chemical 180.6715 human morphology 180.6720 Human Genetics 180.6725 Molecular Anthropology 180.6730 Human Ecology 180.6735 Psychological Anthropology 180.6740 paleoanthropology 180.6745 ethnographic 180.6750 anthropometry 180.6799 other disciplines of Anthropology 180.71 also known as biotechnology, bio-engineering 180.7110 also known as genetic engineering genetic engineering 180.7120 cell engineering 180.7130 protein engineering 180.7140 Enzyme Engineering 180.7150 also known as microbial fermentation engineering works 180.7199 biological engineering other disciplines 180.74 Psychology 180.7410 History of Psychology 180.7415 General Psychology 180.7420 Physiological Psychology 180.7425 Cognitive Psychology 180.7430 Developmental Psychology 180.7435 personality psychology 180.7440 defect of Psychology 180.7445 Comparative Psychology 180.7450 Experimental Psychology 180.7455 Applied Psychology specific application to the relevant disciplines 180.7499 psychology, other disciplines 180.99 other biological disciplines
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Encyclopedia
Biology biology Of life and the essence of life and to explore biological phenomena during the development of a science.
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Physics Encyclopedia
Biology Biology is the study of all levels of the type, structure, function, behavior, development and evolutionary origin and biological relationship with the surrounding environment, such as science. Man is a kind of study is biology. In the natural sciences had not yet developed in the ancient times, people are creatures colorful, colorful confused, they tend to put life and non life as a different, not linked to the two areas, that life is not subject to the non-living material law of motion. Various biological phenomena, many people will be reduced to a non-material force, that is "dynamic" role. These groundless speculation, with the development of biology gradually been abandoned in modern biology has no place in the. Modern biology is a huge number of branches of knowledge, this article highlights the object of biology, division, methods and significance. On the essence of life and the history of biology, will be held in life, "" History of Biology "and other items described. Study Existing on Earth estimated 200 million to biological 4.5 million kinds; more extinct species, estimated at least 1,500 million. From the Arctic to the Antarctic, from the mountains to the sea, from the snow-covered tundra to the hot mineral springs, there are biological existence. They have a wide variety of morphological structures, changing their way of life. The basic structural units from biological ─ ─ cell level to study, and some biological does not have the cell morphology, cell shape that has a biological, some original nucleus of cells, some of the eukaryotic cells. The level of the organizational structure from the point of view, some single students or groups of single-cell organisms, some multi-cellular organisms, and multi-cellular organisms can be based on tissue and organ differentiation and development is divided into several types. Way from a nutritional point of view, some are photosynthetic autotrophs, some are absorbed or saprophagous heterotrophic heterotrophic, some swallowed heterotrophic. From the biological role in the ecosystem point of view, some organic food producers, some consumers, some decomposition, and so on. According to the history of biological development biologists, morphological structure, of nutrition and their role in the ecosystem, etc., will be divided into a number of biological community. Comparison of the prevailing current in the United States in 1969 RH Whittaker's five sector system. He bacteria classified as prokaryotes prokaryotic microorganisms in the blue sector, will be classified as single-cell eukaryotes native biological, multicellular eukaryotes the way into camp by nutritional photoautotrophic the plant kingdom, Camp absorption heterotrophic fungi heterotrophic community and business devour the animal kingdom. Shi-Xiang of China in 1979, biologists made six sector system. The system consists of the total non-cell sector, the total community of prokaryotic and eukaryotic total 3 sector composed of the total sector, representing 3 stages of evolution. The total non-cells, only one industry sector, the virus community. The total industry is divided into the prokaryotic bacteria and cyanobacteria community sector. The total community, including the plant kingdom of eukaryotic, fungal community and the animal world, they represent the three main eukaryotic evolutionary routes. Non-cell life forms do not have the virus morphology, by a long chain of nucleic acid and protein shell composition. Under the terms of the number of nucleotide composition of nucleic acids, the genes of each virus particle at most 300. A virus parasitic on bacteria called bacteriophages. Institutions without their own metabolism of the virus, there is no enzyme system can not produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Therefore, the virus left the host cell, it becomes a no life activities and can not reproduce themselves independently of chemical substances. Only after entering the host cell, it can use the material in living cells and energy, as well as replication, transcription and translation of the full _set_ of equipment, in accordance with its own genetic information contained in DNA and its production as a new generation of viruses. Viral genes with other organisms, genes, mutation and recombination can occur, and therefore can be evolved. Because the virus is no independent metabolic body can not reproduce independently, and thus is considered an incomplete form of life. On the origin of the virus, some people think that the virus is due to parasitic life and a high degree of biological degradation; Some people think that the virus is eukaryotic cells from the down part of the nucleic acid and protein particles; more people think that the virus is cell morphogenesis lower level before life forms. In recent years, much simpler than a virus found in the class virus, which is the small RNA molecules, no protein shell. Also found that a class has not only nucleic acids of the prion protein particles, which can cause chronic diseases in mammals. These life forms are not complete without the presence of narrowing the distance between life and the life, no life and that there is no unbridgeable gap between the life. Thus, in prokaryotes under open up a community, that the virus is more reasonable world. Prokaryotes prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are two basic types of cells, they reflect two stages of cell evolution. The form of a biological cell is divided into prokaryotes and eukaryotes, is a major advance in modern biology. The main features of prokaryotic cells is not the mitochondrial, plastid and other membrane organelles, chromosome is a circular DNA molecule, and other non-histone proteins, no nuclear membrane. Prokaryotes, including bacteria and cyanobacteria, which are solitary or groups of single-cell organisms. Mycoplasma, rickettsia and chlamydia are bacterial. Mycoplasma-free cell wall, cell very small, even more than some of the larger virus particles is still small, through bacterial filters, is the ability to independently carry out the growth and metabolic activity of the smallest life forms. Rickettsia of the enzyme system is not complete, it can only be oxidized glutamate, but not oxidation of glucose or organic acids to produce ATP. Chlamydia is not energy metabolism system, can not make ATP. Most of Rickettsia and Chlamydia can not be independent of metabolic activity, is considered among the range of bacterial and viral organisms. The earliest life is no free oxygen in the reducing atmosphere occur (see the origin of life), so they should be anaerobic, but also heterotrophic. From anaerobic to aerobic, autotrophic from heterotrophic to, is the evolutionary history of the two major breakthrough. Cyanobacteria photosynthesis to make oxygen into Earth's atmosphere from oxygen, thus changing the whole environment for the occurrence of aerobic organisms created the conditions for biological evolution to start a new future. In modern terrestrial ecosystems, cyanobacteria are still producers. In recent years, green algae found in the original, containing chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids. From the composition of their photosynthetic pigments and their cell structure, much like the green algae and higher plant chloroplast, therefore attention by biologists. Compared to eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells are of more complicated cells. It has a variety of membrane organelles such as mitochondria, there is enclosed by a double membrane of the nucleus, the genetic material in the nucleus and cytoplasm separately. DNA for the long-chain molecules, as well as other proteins and histone combination of chromosomes. Eukaryotic cell division is mitosis and meiosis, resulting in splitting of the equal distribution of replicated chromosomes into daughter cells go. Plants are photoautotrophic eukaryotes as the main mode of nutrition. Typical plant cells contain vacuoles and the cell walls of cellulose. Cytoplasmic organelles are photosynthetic photosynthetic pigments that contain plasmid ─ ─ chloroplasts. Chloroplasts of green algae and higher plants, in addition to chlorophyll a, there is chlorophyll b. A variety of aquatic algae, due to the different auxiliary photosynthetic pigment composition, and showing a different color. Photosynthesis are water as the electron donor and, therefore, been put on oxygen. Photoautotrophic nutrition is a major way to the plant kingdom, only some of the low single-cell algae, mixed nutrition. A small number of higher plants are parasitic, heterotrophic uptake of secondary lines, there is still a small number of higher plants to capture insects, the absorption of heterotrophic. Flora from a single cell green algae to angiosperms, along the direction of adaptation of photosynthesis. Occur in higher plants photosynthetic plant organs (leaf), support organ (stem) and for fixed and absorption of organs (roots) of differentiation. Petiole and stem support for many branches to the four leaf flakes start to get the maximum absorption of light and C of the area. Cells and gradually differentiate to form specialized for photosynthesis, transporting and coverage, and other organizations. Sexual reproduction of most plants is to form a gametophyte and sporophyte life cycle of generational change. In higher plants, the continuous development of sporophyte differentiation, while the gametophyte is become simplified. Plants are the main producers of the ecosystem, but also a major source of oxygen on Earth. Myxomycetes is a special fungus. It has a life cycle of the fungus, while another section is the animal, its structure, behavior and feeding methods and amoeba similar. Slime molds, fungi and is considered to be between the biological animals. Animal nutrition is swallowed as a way of eukaryotes. Heterotrophic ingestion, including capture, ingestion, digestion and absorption of such a complex process. The structure of animals to adapt to swallow along the direction of the development of heterotrophic. Single-cell animal food vacuole formed after ingestion of food. Food is digested in the food vacuole, and then through the membrane and into the cytoplasm, the cytoplasm lysosome fusion with it, is intracellular digestion. The evolution of multicellular animals, the cells digest the extracellular digestion gradually replaced by the food in the digestive tract after being captured by the secretion of digestive gland enzyme was digested molecules after digestion of nutrients absorbed by the digestive tract, and through the loop system is transferred to the parts of the body's cells. Correspondingly, the gradual formation of multicellular animals, a complex drainage system, the respiratory gas exchange and complex external sensory organs, nervous system, endocrine system and motor system. Nervous system and endocrine system and other components of the complex self-regulation and self-control institutions, regulation and control of all physiological processes. In all species, the only animal's body structure developed to such a high level of complexity. In the ecosystem, the animals are organic food consumers. In the early days of life, that the earth is only blue and bacteria, the ecological system is composed of producers and decomposers of the two ring system. Eukaryotes, especially animals with the emergence and development of the ecosystem into two rings by the producers, decomposers and consumers loop system composed of. Appeared in a variety of biological world today. From the class of virus, the virus to the plants, animals, biology has many distinctive features of the type. By a series of intermediate links between the various types to form a continuous spectrum. At the same time determined by the nutritional evolution of the three directions shown in the ecosystem interactions of spatial relations. Thus, the evolution of both the time course, but also the spatial development process. From the time of historical bio-
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English Expression
n.: Biology, scientific study of the life and structure of plants and animals
life