(Oikologie) The word "ecology" is a 1865 by Garrett (Reiter) merger of the two Greek words logs (research) and oikos (house, residence) constitute, in 1866 the German zoologist Haeckel (Ernst Heinrich Haeckel) The initial definition of ecology as "the relationship between the animal and its organic and inorganic environmental science," especially beneficial and harmful relationships between animals and other organisms. Since then, the prelude to the development of ecology. Subsequently, some naturalists believe ecology and natural history of different common with quantitative and dynamic characteristics, they are regarded as the scientific theory of ecology natural history; hold physiological point of view ecologists believe is a common physiological ecology branch, it is the general physiology of different organ systems, focusing on the overall level of life processes and to explore the relationship between environmental conditions; engaged in plant communities and animal behavior researchers are working to understand the ecology of animal science and environmental conditions under the impact of biomes behavioral science; put emphasis on the evolutionary view of the scholars interpreted as ecology and evolutionary science research environment relationships. Later, in the definition of ecology and ecosystem adds perspective, the relationship between organisms and the environment summarized as material flow and energy exchange; since the 1970s is further summarized as material flow, energy flow and information flow.
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Development of ecology
Development of ecology can be divided into infancy, three stages of formation and development period. Infancy ancients simple ecological knowledge accumulated in the long-term production of agriculture, animal husbandry cats, such as the relationship between seasonal climate crop growth and soil moisture, a common animal phenology habits and so on. As the 4th century BC Greek scholar Aristotle had a rough description of the different types of animal habitats, but also according to the type of environment the animal activities will be divided into two types of terrestrial and aquatic, meat into their diet, herbivorous, omnivorous feeding habits, etc., and special classes. Aristotle's students, the third century BC Athens School leaders 赛奥夫拉斯图斯 in its plant geography book has proposed the concept of a similar plant communities today. After BC monograph describes the agriculture, animal husbandry and hunting knowledge, such as the 1st century AD, the Roman Pliny the Elder's "Natural History", the 6th century Chinese agronomists of Jia's "Arts for the People," etc. chronicles the naive point of view of ecology . Formation period from about the 15th century to the 1940s. After the 15th century, many scientists have accumulated a lot of scientific investigation by the macro-ecological information. Early 19th century, began to outline modern ecology. If Reaumur entomological writings of six volumes, there are many aspects of insect ecology description. First, the Swedish naturalist Linnaeus phenology, ecology and geography combine perspectives, a comprehensive description of the impact of external environmental conditions for animals and plants. French naturalist Buffon stressed biological variation based on environmental impact. Germany Phytogeographical family Humboldt) creatively combined effects of climate and geographical factors to describe the distribution of species. 19th century, the further development of ecology. This is due to the development of agriculture and animal husbandry spurred environmental factors experimental study carried out crops and livestock on the physiological effects. For example, in this period to determine the developmental threshold temperature of five degrees Celsius for the general plant growth curve plotted temperature of animals, proposed a "light when the degree of" photochemical indicators compare with illumination time and average temperature of the product as well as minimum amount of legal and spectral structure of plant nutrients for plant and animal developmental effects. On the other hand, Malthus published in 1798, "Population Theory," a book caused a widespread impact. Phil Hulst 1833 famous for its logistic curve describes the relationship between population growth rate and population density, the mathematical analysis methods in ecology. Quantitative description of the plant communities of the late 19th century has also been carried out in statistical theory based. 1851 Darwin in "The Origin of Species," a book put forward the theory of natural _select_ion, emphasizing biological evolution is a product of the interaction of organisms with the environment, raises the importance of the relationship between organisms and the environment, but also promote the development of ecology. The mid-19th century to the early 20th century, the human concern agriculture, fishing cats and direct human health-related issues such as environmental health, promote agro-ecology, wildlife population ecology and behavior of the insect vector disease transmission studies. As the ocean was investigated in both the importance of the organization of biological resources survey, which also enrich the content of the waters of aquatic biology and ecology. To the 1930s, many books and textbooks ecology illustrates some of the basic concepts of ecology and arguments, such as the food chain, ecological niche, biomass, ecological systems. So far, Ecology has basically become an independent discipline with a particular object of study, research methods and theoretical system. Development period since the 1950s, ecology absorbed in mathematics, physics, chemistry, engineering and scientific research, advance the precise quantification direction and formed his own theoretical system: Number of physical and chemical methods, precision instruments and electrical sensitive computer applications, so there may be more widespread ecological workers, in-depth exploration of the material basis of the interaction between organisms and the environment, on complex ecological phenomena quantitative analysis; overall concept development, resulting in a number of new branch systems ecology, initially established a system of ecological theory. Since the majority of the world's ecosystems affected by human activities, social and economic production systems and ecosystems are intertwined, the actual formation of a huge complex systems. With the high-speed development of the social economy and modern industrialization, a series of social production and life of natural resources, population, food and the environment have become increasingly prominent. In order to find a scientific basis and effective measures to solve these problems, the International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS) formulated the "International Day for Biological Plan" (IBP), terrestrial and aquatic biota to conduct ecological studies. Following the 1972 UNESCO and other IBP, established the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) international organizations, to develop "Man and Biosphere" planning, organization participating States in forests, grasslands. Oceans, lakes and other ecosystems and human activities, and the relationship between agriculture and cities, pollution and other science-related. Many countries have established ecology and environmental science research institutions. Like many natural sciences, ecology is a developing trend: the trend from qualitative research quantitative research, from static to describe the dynamic trend analysis; gradually to a multi-level integrated research and development; and some other cross-disciplinary research is increasingly significant. The impact of human activities on the environment, the ecology of natural science and social science intersection; in methodology, the study of environmental factors in the mechanism of high physiological methods does not open, inseparable from physics and chemistry, but also groups investigation and analysis system is not open higher mathematical methods and techniques; in theory, metabolism and homeostasis of basic concepts such as ecosystem is a quote from physiology, but by the flow, energy flow and information flow perspective to the study of biological substances and interaction with the environment can be described by physics, chemistry, physiology, ecology and socio-economics jointly develop a research system.
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The basic content of ecology
According to the studied biological category, microbial ecology, plant ecology, animal ecology, human ecology; can be broken down, such as insect ecology, fish ecology. By the hierarchy of biological systems, there are individual ecology, population ecology, community ecology, ecosystem ecology. Biological environment inhabited by category, there are terrestrial ecology and water ecology; former can be divided into forest ecology, grassland ecology, desert ecology, soil ecology, which can be divided into marine ecology, limnology ecology, watershed ecology; still finer division, such as the plant rhizosphere ecology, intestinal ecology. Ecology and the combination of non-life science, mathematical ecology, chemical ecology, physical ecology, geography ecology, economic ecology, ecological economics, accounting and other forest ecosystem; with other branches of the life sciences combination of physiological ecology, behavioral ecology, genetic ecology, evolutionary ecology of ancient ecology. Applied branches are: agricultural ecology, medical ecology, industrial ecology resources, environmental ecology, environmental ecology, conservation, eco-informatics, urban ecology, ecosystem services, landscape ecology. General laws of ecology can be broadly described from four populations, communities, ecosystems and the relationship between people and the environment. No significant changes in the environmental conditions, the population has remained stable trend. The habitat of a population, resources and environment space is limited and can only carry a certain number of creatures, when the carrying amount is close to saturation, if the number (density) further increase the population growth rate will fall even be negative, so reducing the number of population ; whereas when the number (density) is reduced to a certain limit population growth rate will rise again, eventually reaching the environment allows population stabilization levels. Research on natural populations of the law regulating the practice can guide the production. For example, to develop a reasonable amount of fishing and forestry harvest, to ensure optimum yields without harming the ability of renewable biological resources premise. A biome any species with other species exist interdependence and mutual restraint relationship. Common are: Food chain, the ratio of the number of species living in two adjacent links have remained relatively stable trend. If the predator survival depends on prey, their number is also affected by the constraints of prey; was survival and the number of predators are also constrained by the predator. The number remained relatively stable between the two; Competition among species often occur due to the use of the same resources and competition: win glory as among plants, fight space, competition for water, soil nutrients dispute; fight between animal food, habitat, etc. contention. In the long-term evolution, competition promotes the differentiation of species and ecological characteristics, resulting in competition eased, and to produce certain biological community structure. For example, both high exultation Yang forest trees, shrubs have little shade, get what they want; forest animals come out at night or day out of the points, or differences in diet, each disturbance; Mutualism. Such as bacteria and algae in lichens dependent living, large herbivores dependent gastrointestinal parasitic microbes to help digestion, as well as the symbiotic relationship between ants and aphids, etc., have demonstrated a relationship of interdependence among species. Several more relationships exhibit complex biological communities and stable structure, namely the ecological balance, the balance may result in permanent damage is often the loss of a biological resource. Metabolic function of ecosystems is needed to keep life constantly recycled material. The energy provided by the sun drives the substance in the ecosystem kept circulating, both substances circulating in the environment, bio-nutrient transfer and exchange of material between organisms and the environment, but also including material forms, such as composition and decomposition of living matter conversion. Normal operation cycle of the material, requires a certain ecosystem structure. With the evolution and proliferation of biological, environmental large number of inorganic substances are synthesized into living matter formed vast forests, grasslands and earning one of the beasts. In general, metabolism biome is developing into more and less, and when the community tends to mature metabolic balance out roughly. People in the process of transformation of the natural metabolism of the law shall be noted. On the one hand, can capitalize on the trend in production and rational exploitation of biological resources, and can not just momentary, exploit. At present, a large area of farmland due to fertility decline did not receive timely compensation and production in the world. On the other hand, should control environmental pollution, due to the large toxic industrial waste into the environment, beyond the degradation of ecosystems and the biosphere and self-purification capacity, resulting in the accumulation of poison damage humans and other organisms living environment. Biological evolution is a product of the interaction of organisms with the environment. Biological processes in living constantly input from the environment to the substance of its output, and biological changes in the physical environment is in turn affected or _select_ creatures, always moving in both directions collaborative development of mutual adaptation, commonly referred to as normal The natural succession. With the expansion of human activity, the impact on the environment has become increasingly apparent. In the words of dynamic transformation of nature, human beings consciously or unconsciously do a lot of things contrary to the laws of nature, harm their own interests. As long denudation of certain natural resources, overfishing, causing a shortage of resources and indiscriminate depletion, and thus can not meet the needs of human beings; massive industrial pollution directly endanger the health of human beings, etc. These are the results of the interaction between man and the environment , after the destruction of nature generated by a reaction.
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General law of ecology
U.S. scientists Little Miller summed up the three laws of ecology as follows: The first law of ecology: Any of our actions are not isolated, any infringement of the natural world has a myriad effect Should, many of which are unpredictable. This law is G. Harding (G.Hardin) proposed, can be called multi-effect principle. Ecology's second law: each thing and mingled with each other all contact with other things. This is also called the law of the principle of mutual contact. Ecology Third Law: Any substance produced not respond to our planet's natural biogeochemical cycles of any interference. This can be called not to interfere with the principle of the law. Text: Can be broadly described from populations, communities, ecosystems and the relationship between people and the environment four aspects. ● natural regulation of populations no significant changes in the environmental conditions, the population has remained stable trend. The habitat of a population, resources and environment space is limited and can only carry a certain number of creatures, when the carrying amount is close to saturation, if the number (density) further increase the population growth rate will fall even be negative, so reducing the number of population ; whereas when the number (density) is reduced to a certain limit population growth rate will rise again, eventually reaching the environment allows population stabilization levels. Research on natural populations of the law regulating the practice can guide the production. For example, to develop a reasonable amount of fishing and forestry harvest, to ensure optimum yields without harming the ability of renewable biological resources premise. ● interdependence and mutual restraint in a biome species are any species with other species, and there is a relationship of mutual interdependence constraints. Common are: ① the food chain. In the food chain, the ratio of the number of species living in two adjacent sectors have remained relatively stable trend. If the predator survival depends on prey, their number is also affected by the constraints of prey; was survival and the number of predators are also constrained by the predator. The number remained relatively stable between the two. ② competition. Often occur due to the use of the same resources and competition between species: plants, such as inter-winning glory, fight space, competition for water, soil nutrients dispute; fight between animal food, habitat, etc. contention. In the long-term evolution, competition promotes the differentiation of species and ecological characteristics, resulting in competition eased, and to produce certain biological community structure. For example, both high exultation Yang forest trees, shrubs have little shade, get what they want; forest animals come out at night or day out of the points, or differences in diet, each disturbance. ③ mutualism. Such as bacteria and algae in lichens dependent living, large herbivores dependent gastrointestinal parasitic microbes to help digestion, as well as the symbiotic relationship between ants and aphids, etc., have demonstrated a relationship of interdependence among species. Several more relationships exhibit complex biological communities and stable structure, namely the ecological balance, the balance may result in permanent damage is often the loss of a biological resource. ● ecosystem regeneration cycle substances metabolic functions necessary for life is to keep constantly recycled material. The energy provided by the sun drives the substance in the ecosystem kept circulating, both substances circulating in the environment, bio-nutrient transfer and exchange of material between organisms and the environment, but also including material forms, such as composition and decomposition of living matter conversion. Normal operation cycle of the material, requires a certain ecosystem structure. With the evolution and proliferation of biological, environmental large number of inorganic substances are synthesized into living matter, forming a forest, grassland birds and animals as well as earning them vast. In general, metabolism biome is developing into more and less, and when the community tends to mature metabolic balance out roughly. People in the process of transformation of the natural metabolism of the law shall be noted. On the one hand, can capitalize on the trend in production and rational exploitation of biological resources, and can not just momentary, exploit. At present, a large area of farmland due to fertility decline did not receive timely compensation and production in the world. On the other hand, should be to control environmental pollution. Due to a large number of toxic industrial waste into the environment, beyond the degradation of ecosystems and the biosphere and self-purification capacity, resulting in the accumulation of poison damage humans and other organisms living environment. ● biological and environmental interactions of biological evolution is the product of interaction between organisms and the environment. Biological processes in living constantly input from the environment to the substance of its output, and biological changes in the physical environment is in turn affected or _select_ creatures, always moving in both directions collaborative development of mutual adaptation, commonly referred to as normal The natural succession. With the expansion of human activity, the impact on the environment has become increasingly apparent. Activities in the transformation of nature, human beings consciously or unconsciously do a lot of things contrary to the laws of nature, harm their own interests. As long denudation of certain natural resources, overfishing, causing a shortage of resources and indiscriminate depletion, and thus can not meet the needs of human beings; massive industrial pollution directly endanger the health of human beings, etc. These are the results of the interaction between man and the environment , after the destruction of nature generated by a reaction.
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Branch
① Press the studied biological category, microbial ecology, plant ecology, animal ecology, human ecology; can be broken down, such as insect ecology, fish ecology. ② Press the hierarchy of biological systems, there are individual ecology, population ecology, community ecology, ecosystem ecology. ③ environment inhabited by biological category, there are terrestrial and aquatic ecology ecology; former can be divided into forest ecology, grassland ecology, desert ecology, etc., which can be divided into marine ecology, lake ecology, river ecology; still finer division, such as the plant rhizosphere ecology, intestinal ecology. ④ ecology and non-life science of combining mathematical ecology, chemical ecology, physical ecology, geography ecology, economic ecology; and other branches of the life sciences combination of physiological ecology, behavioral ecology, Genetic ecology, evolutionary ecology, paleoecology and so on. ⑤ applied branches are: agricultural ecology, medical ecology, industrial resources, ecology, pollution ecology (environmental ecology), urban ecology.
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Application of the basic principles of ideas
The basic principles of ecology, which typically includes four aspects: individual ecology, population ecology, community ecology and ecosystem ecology. A healthy ecosystem is stable and sustainable: in time be able to maintain its organizational structure and autonomy, but also to maintain resilience to stress. Healthy ecosystems can maintain their complexity while meeting human needs. The application of the basic principles of ecology ideas, I think it is an imitation of biological production of natural ecosystems, energy flow, nutrient cycling, and information delivery and _set_ up of human social organization, based natural energy flow, minimize manual additional energy, seeking to consumption as small as possible to produce the greatest overall efficiency of solving the current environmental crisis facing humanity. Several of the more popular ideas as follows: 1, the implementation of sustainable development 1987 World Commission on Environment and Development that "meets the needs of people, not on the ability of future generations to meet their development needs that pose a threat." The concept of sustainable development and coordination of social relations between human development, including the environment, sustainable development of economy and society, but the most fundamental is the sustainable development of the ecological environment. 2, focusing on the harmonious development between man and nature In fact an important reason causing serious ecological crisis of unprecedented facing the contemporary world is ever wrong understanding of human nature. Since the industrial civilization, humans with advanced since that "high-tech" trying to dominate, conquer nature, this serious misconception and behavior brings about economic leap forward, but it is the environmental problems caused irreparable. Human beings are part of the biological world, it must be in harmony with nature, and common development. 3, eco Ethics Arbitrarily large number of roads and the development of environmental damage, depletion of natural resources for future generations is an irresponsible and unethical and other biological development model. The new Eco-Ethics of economic development should also consider these contemporary human behavior is not only beneficial to human survival and development, but also for future generations to leave enough space for development. Differentiation from out of industrial ecology ecology, restoration ecology and ecological engineering, urban ecological construction, etc., are the results of the promotion of the basic principles of ecology. In the calculation of economic production, natural resources should not be considered of no value or infinite, but with ecological values, and should take into account the devastating effects of economic development on the environment, the use of advances in technology, will be reduced to the maximum damage, while promote a beneficial substance virtuous cycle of consumption, that enough is enough, sustainable and healthy consumption concept.
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Other definitions
There are many definitions of ecology: Ecology is the study of organisms (including animals and plants) how life sciences and why they follow their own lifestyle life. (Elton, 1927) Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of organisms of. (Andrenathes, 1954) Ecology is the scientific study of ecosystem structure and function. (EPOdum, 1956) Ecology is the study of the mechanism of interaction between living systems and science. (Ma Shijun, 1980) Ecology is a comprehensive study of the organism, the physical environment and human social science. (EPOdum, 1997) Author: Yang held editor Publisher: Higher Education Press Published: 2008-1-1 Words: Revision: 2 Pages: 415 Print Time: Folio: 16 Printing: Paper: ISBN: 9787040229967 Editor This book is the Ministry of Education, "Higher Education in the 21st Century teaching contents and curriculum reform plan," the research results. The book has 16 chapters, the first 13 chapters is a fundamental part of ecology, about the basic laws of ecology from individual organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems and other levels. Chapter XIV of landscape ecology as an emerging, are in-depth development and the rapid development of the discipline in biodiversity conservation, natural resource management and protection, urban and regional planning, design and other aspects of nature reserves has a very wide range of Application. Chapter XV discussed in greater detail and sustainable development linked to global climate change, biodiversity conservation, desertification, and several human faces of the most important ecological and environmental problems. Chapter XVI describes the ecological risk assessment and ecological planning principles and methods. Introduction This book is the Ministry of Education, "Higher Education in the 21st Century teaching contents and curriculum reform plan," the research results, the "curriculum materials for the 21st century" and environmental science majors core materials. The book has 16 chapters, the first 13 chapters is a fundamental part of ecology, about the basic laws of ecology from individual organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems and other levels. Chapter XIV of landscape ecology as an emerging, are in-depth development and the rapid development of the discipline in biodiversity conservation, natural resource management and protection, urban and regional planning, design and other aspects of nature reserves has a very wide range of Application. Chapter XV discussed in greater detail and sustainable development linked to global climate change, biodiversity conservation, desertification, and several human faces of the most important ecological and environmental problems in order to solve social and ecological reflect production the role of practical problems. Chapter XVI describes the ecological risk assessment and ecological planning principles and methods, and its purpose is to put forward the basic principles of rational exploitation of resources, and promote a virtuous cycle of regional and urban ecosystems, maintaining harmony between man and nature and the social, economic and coordination of environmental development. This book can serve as institutions of higher learning environmental science class professional, college, agricultural and forestry colleges related materials, but also for environmental protection and other professionals engaged in scientific and technological personnel.
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Some supplement on ecology
Ecology is a young science, so it should be a very promising side, but often by other workers are despicable creatures, that its "false, big and empty," In fact, this idea is totally incorrect. Ecology generation because it is very close to our daily lives, it is used to study the relationship between biological and environmental science, and thus an eco-worker, the ecological requirements of human knowledge that is quite comprehensive, at least biological, environmental, water, geography, etc. have a certain understanding, especially if the organisms and the environment have quite a solid foundation, so that many an ecologist to understand things. Do ecology are suffering, to collect samples everywhere, investigate the cause, but also to come back to do the experiment analysis, hard work is inevitable. Here I would like to talk about the ecology of several reference books, first as an ecology entry people, ecology Rae Academy of Inner Mongolia University written is a very good reference book, whether it is from the content or type_set_ting, is a classic, in fact, Yang described above, it was held just a start before he (Rae academicians had died, what a pity). There is also a Fellow of the Sun Ruyong BNU is prepared on the basis of ecology, but also a good book, Sun Yuanshi still alive, still active in the research of the first line. Many branches of ecology, such as engaging in grassland ecology, plant in Beijing by very powerful; engaged in aquatic ecology, among the highest in the country Hydrobiology, here too mention a very powerful man, Liu Jiankang academician, he is freshwater ecology one of the founders, is now 93 years old, and still go to work every day, the spirit is also very good, be regarded as a veteran figure. Ecology have a future? This is a question that many people wonder, personal idea that: if you put the future entirely as "money", then advise you not to engage in ecological research, if you really want to improve the deteriorating ecological environment King modest strength, can be considered.
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Ecology personnel training
Subject: Science Categories: environmental science class Professional Name: Ecology Business training objectives: the professional training of the basic theory of ecology, basic knowledge and basic skills, research institutions, universities, enterprises and administrative departments engaged in scientific research, teaching and management of high-level expertise in. Business training requirements: the basic theory of the students mainly study the ecology, basic knowledge by scientific thinking and scientific training in basic research and applied basic research, with better scientific literacy, master modern ecological theory and computer simulation experimental skills, initially with teaching, research, development, and management capabilities. Graduates should acquire the following knowledge and abilities: 1. Master the basic theory and basic knowledge of mathematics, physics, chemistry and other areas; 2. The basic theory of modern ecology, the basic approach of basic knowledge, basic experimental skills and mastery of ecological engineering design; 3. Understanding the general principles and similar professional knowledge; 4. Familiar with the national environmental protection, rational use of natural resources, sustainable development, intellectual property and other relevant policies and regulations; 5. Understand the theoretical front, prospects and the latest developments ecology; 6. Query master data, document retrieval and use of modern information technology to obtain information related to the basic methods; has some experimental design, creating experimental conditions, induction, consolidation, analysis of experimental results, writing papers, ability to participate in academic exchanges. Main subjects: ecology, biology, environmental science. Main courses: general biology, biochemistry, ecology, environmental microbiology, environmental science, earth science based environmental and ecological engineering, environmental humanities and social sciences. The main practice teaching links include: teaching practice, production practices, thesis, etc., the general arrangements for 8-14 weeks. Period of Study: four years Degree: Bachelor of Science Biosphere From an ecological perspective, the Earth's surface from the underground 11 km to 15 km altitude ground by the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere composed of three laps interchanges exist in the biosphere, the vast majority of organisms are living in 100 m between 100 meters underground to the ground. Bio was first generated from the hydrosphere, gradually to deep water development, due to the increased atmospheric oxygen content in the atmosphere because of the role of the outermost layer of cosmic rays, oxygen molecules to form ozone reorganization, the ozone layer prevents harmful ultraviolet radiation into the atmosphere of life, making organisms can develop from the landward hydrosphere. Large regional differences in different terrestrial environments, in order to adapt to the environment, the development of many different types of organisms. The flow of energy in different circles, green plants absorb solar energy converted into chemical energy storage, animal feeding plants absorb energy plants, the vast majority being absorbed solar atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, increasing temperature, causing the wind , tides and rock weathering cleavage. Earth's own energy performance in volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and also continue to influence each other laps. The main source of energy is the sun, the earth constantly being consumed. Loop material may be the circle, but there is not much consumed in the form of carbon dioxide absorbed by plants, animals, plants, and by discharging respiration, is fixed to the body of water plants and animals, calcium and other trace elements, will soon die other natural decomposition circle back again, there may accumulate to form fossil. Such as the formation of coal plant remains, animal remains form of oil, sulfur, sulfur ore forming bacteria remains.
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Encyclopedia
shengtaixue Ecology ecology Between biological and biological survival of organisms and their survival status of the relationship between environmental and biological sciences. Generalized said study ecosystem science. Human Ecology is the study of the impact of environmental factors on populations of disease and health. Environmental factors often include elements of nature, society and behavior. Ecological principles and methods have been applied to clinical diagnosis, prevention and treatment and prognosis, and has formed a marginal branch - clinical ecology.
phytoplankton