Eastern Zhou Dynasty : Zhou Dynasty > the Warring States Period



Contents ·Dynasty ·Author: Zhan Guo ·China's Warring States history ·Introduction ·Seven Warring States ·Political system ·Technological progress ·Scientific Development ·Philosophy ·Seven powers of the hereditary ·History of Japan's Warring States Period ·History of the Warring States Period in Japan ·Warring States Period in Japan a century ·Buddha of the Warring States ·Encyclopedia ·English Expression ·French Expression ·Thesaurus ·Related Phrases ·Containing Phrases ·Classification details ·More results... Dynasty 战国 战国 ?????? 战国 战国 战国 战国 　　“战国”一词最早出自汉代刘向的《战国策》。 　　刘向叙录曰：“万乘之国七，千乘之国五，敌哞争权，盖为战国。” 　　广义的战国时代指公元前475年～公元前221 年，而实际上具体时间应该是从韩赵魏三家分晋开始算起直到秦始皇统一天下为止，即公元前403 年～公元前221年。战国时代是中国古代重要的历史时期之一，其主体时间线处于东周末期。战国时代是华夏历史上分裂对抗最严重且最持久的时代之一。 　　公元前403年，东周共主之周威烈王册命了魏，赵，韩三家列位诸侯，由此战国七雄局面正式形成。从春秋时代初期的一百四十多家诸侯，经过三百六十多年的兼并，到战国初期就只剩下了二十余家。其中又以西嬴姓秦国，东田姓齐国，中原三晋（赵国、魏国、韩国），南芈姓楚国，北姬姓燕国此七国最强。史称“战国七雄”。各家的兼并战争使得诸侯变少了，胜出者疆域变大了，人口变多了，财富也集中了。原本分散在各家诸侯手中的土地人口财富，现在都集中在了少数几个诸侯手里。天下从成百上千个小国家整合为十多个大实体国家，原本的战略缓冲空间不复存在，各个大国不得不面对直接残酷竞争的格局。资源的集中使得各国间的战争规模，战争烈度也急剧上升。在彼此间不断的激烈攻伐中，如何谋求在竞争中生存下来，并且富国强兵成了各国决策层的首要考量目标。在此时代出现的普遍的需求之下，一系列的变法改革应时展开，战国时代的大幕也随之拉开。 　　 　　简介 　　战国时期　春秋之后，也就是周朝的后半期，进入了七国争雄的时代，在后来西汉末年刘向编著的《战国策》中记载这一时期，所以人们称之为战国。《史记•六国年表》记载，战国始于前４７５年（周元王元年）或者从韩赵魏三家分晋开始算起 (公元前403 年)，至前２２１年（秦始皇二十六年），秦始皇统一六国。战国时期，魏、赵、韩、齐、楚、秦、燕这七个诸侯强国，即战国七雄，连年征战，在军事、政治、外交各方面的斗争十分激烈。由于秦国的商鞅变法发挥了富国强兵的重要作用，秦国终于后来居上，逐一灭掉了其他六国，完成了“秦王扫六合”的统一大业，形成“海内为郡县，法令由一统”的统一国家。七雄当中，为了富国强兵而竞相实行变法，魏国的李悝、楚国的吴起、秦国的商鞅等实行的变法都在一定程度上推进了社会的进步。以苏秦、张仪为代表的纵横家人物在外交斗争中十分活跃。战国时期，商业和交通的发展互相促进，出现了一些著名城市。都江堰、郑国渠、鸿沟等著名的水利工程不仅促进了当时的农业，而且造福后世。在文化和思想学术的发展上，战国时期的百家争鸣，辩家鹊起，创造了辉煌的先秦文化，对后世有极大的影响。 　　随着水利的兴修，铁器的使用和牛耕的推广，春秋中后期，各诸侯国的经济得到发展，政治形势也产生了相应的变化。诸侯国内部卿大夫的势力逐渐发展起来，著名的如鲁国的三桓，齐国的田氏，晋国的六卿。他们利用自己的经济实力，控制和瓜分公室，并互相争斗，以扩充领地。晋国的六卿争斗到最后，剩下韩、魏、赵三家。周威烈王二十三年 （前403年），周王正式承认三家为诸侯。周安王十一年（前391年），田民废除了齐康公，自立为国君，也得到周王的承认。三晋和田氏的胜利，宣布了强者生存、弱者淘汰的残酷政治法则。于是，以魏国的李悝改革为起点，各国争相进行以富国强兵为目标的变法运动。变法的核心是将劳动者固定到土地上，以增加国家的赋税收入。社会文明程度的加深，使统治者对物质享受的贪欲急遽膨胀。增加剥削量的最直接的办法，是掠夺更多的土地，而掠夺土地的最便捷的途径是战争。所以，这个时期战争频繁。据统计，从周元王元年（前475年）至秦王政二十六年（前221年） 的二百五十五年中，有大小战争二百三十次。战争打起来，双方动辄出动几万至几十万人。西汉末年的刘向，将有关这段历史的各种资料编成一本书，取名《战国策》，从此，这一历史阶段称为战国时期。 　　 　　战国七雄 　　战国时期最有实力的是齐、楚、燕、秦、韩、赵、魏，人称“战国七雄”。 　　春秋一百多国，经过不断兼并，战国初年，约有十几个国。大国有秦，魏，韩，燕，赵，齐，楚，即“战国七雄”。此外还有越国一个较为强大的国家。小国有宋，卫，中山，鲁，滕，邹等。另外还有不少少数民族分布在四周，北与西北有林胡，楼烦，东胡，仪渠，南有巴，蜀，越。 　　 　　七国的疆土地理： 　　秦：约占有今陕西关中、汉中和甘肃东南部、四川省大部。 　　魏：约占有今山西南部，河南北部，中部和东部 　　赵：约占有今山西北部，中部和河北中部，西南，内蒙古自治区的一部分 　　韩：约占有今河南中部，西部，和山西东南部 　　齐：约占有今山东北部，河北南部，西部，和山西东南部 　　楚：约占有今湖北全省，河南，安徽，湖南，江苏，浙江的一部分 　　燕：约占有今河北北部，辽宁，吉林的一部分 　　战国前期，“七雄”形成，各国将精力用在内部整理上。各国招贤才能，励精图治，像李悝，吴起，商鞅等人的变法维新就发生在这时期。 　　战国中期，就是大战的时候。真是：“国无宁日，岁无宁日”“邦无定交，土无定主”的混战局面。 各个国家为保持自己的生存和扩大国土的势力，君主们都相继称王，独霸一方。一方面加强中央集权，改革图强，加强军备；另一方面，在外交上频频争取别国的“合纵”“连横”。 　　战国后期，秦国昭襄王用范睢为相，采用了“远交近攻”之计，破坏了各国的“合纵”，加强了秦国的国力，军事，成了战国时期的第一强国，削弱了各国的力量。 　　 　　各国变法和新的君主集权制 　　A、魏国李悝变法 　　魏文侯（前445年－前396年在位）任用李悝进行改革，尽地力之教，建立武卒，重用吴起、西门豹等人治理地方，发展经济，成为战国初期第一个强国。 　　变法内容： 　　1、废除世卿世禄制度，建立封建官僚制度。按着“食有劳而禄有功”的原则，根据功劳和能力选拔官吏，削弱贵族特权，建立封建官僚制度。 　　2、推行尽地力之教。 　　3、实行平籴法。 　　4、作《法经》。 　　B、楚国吴起变法 　　背景：楚国衰落，楚悼王用吴起变法。吴起（约前440年－约前381年），卫国人，在卫国谋求发展不成，投奔鲁国，在曾参门下学习，取齐田居儿为妻，因未回家奔母丧，曾子中断了师生关系。鲁穆公用他为将，他杀妻求将。到魏后参与李悝变法。前383年，魏武侯时，吴起受魏相公叔痤排挤，离魏至楚。周安王二十年（前382年），楚悼王任用吴起进行变法，裁减冗官，废除贵族的世卿世棣，明法审令，禁止私门请托，也日益强盛了起来。但楚国旧势力太强，楚悼王刚死，吴起就被乱箭射死。 　　变法内容是： 　　1、明法申令：即制定一系列法律并公开宣布，对各级官府的命令严加审查，实行层层监督，以保证新法的贯彻执行。 　　2、收夺爵禄：凡是封君过三代的就收回其爵禄，废除公族中疏远者的特殊待遇，把一些旧贵族迁移到荒凉的地区。 　　3、裁减官吏：减少俸禄开支，把节省下来的经费用到训练军队上。 　　4、整顿吏治，堵塞私门：要求官吏私不害公，行义不计毁誉，一心为地主政权效力。 　　C、齐威王起用邹忌进行改革……邹忌讽齐王纳谏 　　魏惠王将国都迁至大梁，招徕士人，发展水利，对外用兵，图谋吞并以濮阳为都城的卫国，引起周围国家的不满。这时，齐威王任用邹忌等人进行改革，大力整顿政治，鼓励臣民进谏，制定法律，招抚流亡，经济迅速发展，成为实力仅次于魏的大国。周显王十六年（前353年）的桂陵之战和周显王二十八年（前341年）的马陵之战，齐国以田忌为将军，孙膑为军师，用奇计打败了魏军，从此，齐国成为中原最强的国家。为了满足对人才的需求，齐宣王扩建位于齐都临淄的稷下学宫，对前来稷下的学者，给予士大夫的优厚俸禄和舒适的生活待遇，让他们专心学术，培养弟子，促进了学术的进步和繁荣。 　　D、商鞅变法 　　周显王十三年（前356年）和十九年（前350年），秦孝公任用商鞅进行的变法最为彻底。商鞅变法鼓励人口增殖，重农抑商，废除世卿世禄制度，奖励军功，编制户口，实行连坐之法，使秦国成为战国中期以后最为强大的国家。虽然后来商鞅被车裂而死，新法却并未废止。 　　主要内容： 　　1、废井田，开阡陌封疆。 　　阡陌，是耕地的田界，原来每人有份田，都没有固定的田界，因为休耕地是大家的公田，耕地也常要重新划分。商鞅变法鼓励人民扩大耕地面积发展生产，开阡陌，就是对人民扩大了的耕地，设立阡陌作为固定的田界，这就对土地使用者提供了有利的保证。封疆，是天子、诸侯国境上及贵族采邑上或大田上的疆界，在疆界上聚土为封，封上又植树以为标志，称为封疆。开封疆，就是对当时贵族私有田宅设立的界划。开阡陌封疆，就是破除旧的封疆阡陌，重新规划，不得私自移动。这样维持了封建土地私有制，有利于地方经济的发展。 　　2、奖励军功，禁止私斗 　　奖励军功，凡是有军功的，均可以得到赐爵、赐地、赐官的奖赏。杀得敌人甲士一人，并取得其首级的赐爵一级、田一顷、宅九亩、庶子一人，可当五十石俸禄的官。制定了军功二十等爵，（1）公士；（2）上造；（3）簪象（又称谋人）；（4）不更；（5）大夫；（6）官大夫；（7）公大夫；（8）公乘；（9）五大夫；（10）左庶长；（11）右庶长；（12）左更；（13）中更；（14）右更；（15）少上造；（16）大上造；（17）驷车庶长；（18）大庶长；（19）关内侯；（20）彻侯。按爵位高低授予种种特权、减刑、服饰、坟墓。严格禁止私斗，违犯的各以轻重施刑大小。以此鼓励人们为国家作战，并产生了大批的自耕农和地主，形成了“民勇于公战，怯于私斗”的局面。 　　3、重本抑末，奖励耕织 　　当时把农业称为本业，是国富兵强的基础，而把商业和手工业称为“末业”。商鞅对努力经营农业的免除赋役，而对从事商业或怠惰以致交不起租税的，没收为官奴婢。这对发展农业生产有好处。为了增加税收，鼓励一家一户的生产，规定家中有两个成年男子结婚后必须分家，另立门户，女子到一定年龄必须出嫁，否则，多交纳赋税。在客观上促使了一家一户小农经济的发展，从而成为封建经济的重要特征。一家一户成为生产经营单位，分家析产，使阶级经常在变动当中。 　　4、推行县制 　　秦孝公以前存在县一级行政机构，但不普遍。商鞅变法普遍推行县制，万户以上县设令，不满万户的设长，俸禄由三万石到一千石不等，在县令、长以下设丞等，官吏领取国家俸禄，国君有权任免。这一套机构有利于中央集权，成为中国封建国家机器的雏形。 　　5、颁布法律，实行连坐。 　　6.焚烧读书，申明法令。 　　7、迁都咸阳。 　　8、改革赋税制度。 　　9、革除戎狄风俗。 　　 　　合纵连横 　　齐国和秦国东西对峙，展开了争取其它诸侯国、孤立对方的斗争，而韩、魏、赵、楚、燕等国，则在联秦抗齐和联齐抗秦中摇摆。这时，出现了两个著名的政治家－－张仪和公孙衍，他们分别连横（分化六国）和合纵（联合抗秦）。这种情况又被称为从衡【从者，合众弱以攻一强也；而衡者，事一强以攻众弱也】。 　　强大起来的秦国，不断地向东方扩张领土。周显王四十年（前329年）魏人张仪来到秦国，向惠文君上连横之策，建议与魏、楚相亲善，接着在魏、楚的配合下，进攻韩国的新城和宜阳，将军队开到洛阳，挟天子以令诸侯，最后再回过头来攻取魏、楚的领土，迫使天下诸侯都西面事秦，完成称王的大业。这一策略正中惠文君下怀，遂以张仪为客卿。张仪一再鼓动秦军攻打魏国，又将所夺土地还魏，迫使魏国首先事秦，纳上郡十五县予秦，对其它东方国家形成很大的威胁，张仪被任命为秦的国相。周显王四十六年（前323 年），魏将公孙衍行合纵之策，促使魏、韩、赵、燕、中山五国互相承认对方君主为王，以联合抗秦。但不久，楚国就派兵伐魏，公孙衍的策略受到挫折。魏相惠施联合齐、楚的活动也遭到失败，被驱逐。魏惠王受到齐楚的打击，不得不于周显王四十七年（前322年）任用张仪为魏相，想联合秦、韩之兵以伐齐、楚。但张仪的真正意图，是要魏国首先事秦，而让其它诸侯国仿效。魏惠王没有听从张仪的意见，在齐、楚、燕、赵、韩等国的支持下，于周慎靓王二年（前319年），赶走张仪，以公孙衍为魏相。次年，公孙衍发动魏、楚、燕、赵、韩五国第一次合纵攻秦，以楚怀王为纵长，被秦击溃。 　　此后，秦不断进击三晋，又利用巴蜀互攻的机会，出兵占领了巴蜀全境，获得了一个富庶的后方基地。周慎王五年（前316年），燕王哙将王位让给国相子之。子之为王三年，国内大乱，将军市被与太子平结党进攻子之，百姓反攻，杀太子平和市被，死者数万。齐宣王乘机派兵伐燕，五十余日，就攻取燕国全境。由于齐军大量杀戮平民，燕人起而反抗，齐军被迫撤退。但此事证明，齐国的力量仍相当强大。同时，齐与楚结盟，更加强了齐与秦抗衡的力量。 　　齐、秦斗争的焦点在于争取楚国。楚国的国力开始很弱。 战国初期，楚悼王任用吴起为令尹，实行变法，国势富强，一举打败了魏国并出兵伐秦。公元前381年，楚悼王死，吴起的新法被废除，楚国一天天走下坡路。为了破坏楚、齐联盟，周赧王二年（前313年）张仪出使楚国，使楚与齐绝交。秦国派张仪入楚向楚怀王鼓吹“连横”，劝楚绝齐从秦，并口头许愿，以归还楚国商於（在今河南淅川县西南）600里地方为代价。楚怀王信以为真，就和齐国断交。当楚国派人向秦国讨取土地，秦相张仪狡猾地说：“我和楚王商定是六里，没听说是六百里。”楚怀王十分恼火，发兵攻秦。秦军在丹阳打败楚军，楚兵被杀80000人，楚将屈匄被俘，秦攻取楚国的汉中地六百里。张仪又说服韩、赵、燕与秦连横。周赧王十四年（前301年），齐、韩、魏联合政楚，杀楚将唐昧。周赧王十六年（前299年），楚怀王受骗往秦，被扣留，最后死于秦国。魏国乘楚国空虚，袭击楚国。齐国却不支援楚国。楚国吃了大亏，从此一蹶不振。 　　周赧王八年（前307年），赵武灵王实行胡服骑射，改传统的车兵为骑兵，改车战为运动战，使赵国的军事实力大为增强，成为秦国向东发展的新障碍。秦昭王为了打击赵国，派穰侯魏冉到齐， 约齐愍王与秦昭王同时称帝，联合五国攻赵。游说家苏秦识破了秦的阴谋，劝告齐愍王放弃帝号，发动合纵，会合燕、韩、魏、赵等五国军队，于周赧王二十八年（前287年）联合攻秦，秦被迫割地给魏、赵以求和。此后，赵将赵奢、廉颇，赵相蔺相如一再粉碎了秦人的军事进攻和外交重压，捍卫了赵的尊严和国土。 　　公元前286年，齐国灭掉宋国，一时威势很盛，引起各国的不安。秦国联合了燕、楚、韩、赵、魏等国共同伐齐，于公元前284年，在济西（今山东聊城南）大败齐军。燕昭王自继位以来，奋发图强，卑身事贤，以图雪耻复仇。周人苏秦和魏人乐毅受到重用。乐毅帮助燕昭王进行政治改革，使燕国迅速得到恢复和发展。苏秦则作为间谍出使齐国，劝说齐愍王伐宋、攻楚，以削弱齐的力量。二人并与赵、魏、楚等国约定，联合伐齐。周赧王三十一年（前284年），燕将乐毅率燕、赵、秦、魏、楚五国之兵，联合攻齐，一直攻破齐都临淄，夺其大部分疆土。齐将田单利用燕国内部矛盾，驱逐燕军，收复了失地。然而，齐国已经丧失了与秦国抗衡的能力。 　　秦国在“合纵”斗争中削弱了齐国，开始向东方大发展。 　　 　　横扫六合 　　周赧王三十七年（前278年），秦将白起攻破楚都郢城，揭开了秦国统一战争的序幕。楚国避秦军威势，迁都于陈，爱国诗人屈原痛感国家沦亡，投汨罗江自尽。周赧王四十四年（前271年），客卿范雎向秦昭王献“远交近攻”之策，就是与远方国家结盟，集中力量先打败邻近的国家，再逐步兼并其它各国。秦昭王纳范雎之策，于周赧王五十年（265前年）出兵伐韩，封闭上党郡与韩都城新郑的联系，虽迫使韩国将上党献给秦。然而上党郡却转而依附赵国，秦王大为震怒，秦赵开战，赵派老将廉颇率军驻守长平。周赧王五十四年（前260年），秦派大将王龁夺取上党，与廉颇军在长平对峙。廉颇加固壁垒，以守为攻，打破了秦兵速战速决的计划，双方僵持达四月之久。秦用反间计，使赵国以年轻气盛且只会纸上谈兵的赵括代替廉颇为长平赵军统帅。秦国同时秘密地换来大将白起。赵括一到前线就主动出击，白起派出奇兵分割赵军，并将赵括包围起来。赵军被围断粮四十六天，杀人以食，军心大乱。赵括冒险突围，当场丧命，全军大败。白起将赵军降卒全部活埋，赵军前后共损失四十多万。长平之战是秦国与他在中原最后一个强手的决战，也是战国最为惨烈的一次战争。至此，东方六国都已不再是秦国的对手。 　　长平之战前，东方出现了著名的战国四公子，即齐国孟尝君田文、赵国平原君赵胜、魏国信陵君魏无忌、楚国春申君黄歇。他们礼贤下士，广招宾客，关心国事，谋取权势，采取各种手段对付秦国的入侵和挽救本国的灭亡。长平之战后，秦军乘势包围赵都邯郸。秦军的残杀，激起了赵人的义愤和别国的恐惧，在危急存亡面前，楚春申君、魏信陵君率军与赵军内外夹攻，大败秦军，秦国因在长平之战损失严重亦自感力量不足遂撤兵。燕太子丹甚至派遣荆轲去刺杀秦王政。然而，历史的大潮已无法扭转，六国终于未能摆脱亡国的命运。 　　战国时，周王室连名义上的共主地位也没有了，但仍在洛阳一带勉强维持。西周初年营建洛邑时，共修建了两座城。西边的方十七里，叫王城，东边的小些，叫成周。战国时，由于王室内部争权和分封，先后出现了居于王城的西周公和以巩邑（今河南巩县）为都城的东周公，真正天子的周显王寄居于东周公治下。周赧王五十九年（前256年），秦军攻取韩国的阳城（今河南登封东南）、负黍（今登封西南）二地，斩首四万。西周君联合诸侯军队出伊阙（今河南洛阳南）攻秦，以隔断秦与阳城的通道。秦昭王于是发兵攻西周，西周君不得不将其三十六邑全部献给秦，西周灭亡。同年，周赧王死去，作为天子之国的周朝不复存在。秦庄襄王元年（前249年），秦相吕不韦带兵灭东周公。 　　秦自孝公时商鞅变法，中经秦惠王、武王、昭王，一百余年间，建立了比较巩固的中央集权的统治，注重水利和农业生产，奖励军功，军队装备优良，又充分利用客卿为秦谋划作战，在诸侯国中越战越强，终于打败了东方各个强大的敌手，成为天下第一的强国。秦孝文王立一年（前250年）而卒，秦庄襄王继位，商人出身的吕不韦为丞相，第二年就率兵灭东周，取韩之成皋、荥阳，建三川郡。次年，秦军击赵，伐韩，在上党设太原郡。庄襄王三年（前247年）死，十三岁的秦王政继位，他就是后来的秦始皇。秦王政五年（前242年），秦军攻魏，夺其酸枣等二十城，设东郡，又于秦王政六年（前241年）粉碎了楚、赵、魏、韩等国第四次，也是最后一次合纵对秦的军事进攻，还用反间计除掉了反秦最激烈的魏信陵君。至此，在疆土广大兵强马壮的秦国面前，东方六国君主形同于秦的郡县长官。 　　秦王政九年（前238年），平嫪毒之乱，嬴政亲自执掌政权，随即出动大军，以摧枯拉朽之势，横扫六国旧势力，史称秦灭六国。于十七年（前230年）灭韩，二十二年（前225年）灭魏，二十四年（前223年）灭楚，二十五年（前222年）灭燕、灭赵，二十六年（前221年）灭齐，终于建立了中国历史上第一个统一的中央集权国家。 　　 　　政治制度 　　战国时，各诸侯国陆续形成国君之下将相分职、文武分权的中央官僚体制。相，又称相邦、宰相，是百官之长。将，又称将军，是武官之长。秦国于武王二年（前309）开始设丞相一职，丞相中最尊贵者称相邦，最高武职初为大良造，到秦昭王时才设将军。楚国一直以今尹为最高官职，柱国或上柱国为地位稍次的最高武官。各国次一级的武官为尉，或称国尉、都尉。国君的秘书称御史，并有监察之任。郡县的设置更为普遍，逐渐形成以郡统县的格局。原来，官吏世袭，各有封地。战国中期开始，国君对各级官吏改为给以一定粮食作为俸禄，或赏给黄金、钱币。同时形成玺符制度，任免官吏以玺为凭，调动军队以兵符为据。从而将一切权力集中于国君之手。县以下，有乡、里、聚的组织。乡有三老、廷掾，里有里正。聚是村落，其下有伍、什的编制，五家为一伍，有伍长，十家为一什，有什长。 　　战国初，各国变法进一步使法律系统化。魏国李悝所编《法经》，包括盗法、贼法、囚法、捕法、杂法和具法。盗法治偷窃，贼法治杀人。囚法和捕法是对盗贼侦查和逮捕的处理程序。杂法是对盗、贼以外犯罪的惩罚规定。具法是根据情况对犯罪予以减轻或加重处罚的规定。秦国本来就有族诛之刑。商鞅变法，设连坐之法，更制定了严厉的法律，增加肉刑、大辟，有凿顶、抽肋、镬烹之刑。其它各国也竞相制定严刑酷法。如齐有烹、杀、酝、金刀等刑，楚国有戮、肢解、烹、贯耳、鞭，笞、刖、宫、梏、砾、灭家、夷宗、三族等刑，燕有截、刳腹、系狱、劓等刑。 　　 　　技术进步 　　战国时，铁制农具已排斥木、石农具普遍用于生产中，便利丁砍伐树林、兴修水利、开垦荒地和深耕细作，促进了农业生产的发展。在深耕除草的同时，农民们注意识别土壤性质，因地制宜地选择不同的作物进行种植。施肥技术提高，懂得用肥汁拌种，粪肥、绿肥和草木灰被普遍施用。开始注意选择籽种，防治虫病，实行畦种法，播种疏密得宜，便于通风排，涝，善于培根、除草、间苗和掌握农时季节。普遍推广一年两熟制，大大提高了单位面积的年产量。魏国李悝曾对当时的粮食产量估计说，一亩地（约当今三分之一亩）在平常年景，可以产粟一石半（约合今四十一公斤），大、中、小丰收时可以达到六石、四石半、三石，小、中、大欠收时则只能打一石、七斗、三斗。农民平均每人每月需口粮一石半，五口之家，一年食用九十石，则平常年景一家种地百亩所产粮食，够全家一年半食用。 　　战国时，手工业大发展，冶铁、青铜器铸造、漆器、丝织业的生产水平都有显着的提高。已经较好他掌握了高温液体还原法的生铁冶铸技术，能锻打出用于剑身的高碳钢，铸铁柔化术开始出现。青铜器的制作普遍使用熔铸、焊接、失蜡法和金银嵌错工艺，产生了在铜器表面涂金、鎏金和刻纹工艺，器型轻薄灵巧，花纹细致繁复，具有高超的技术和艺术水平。已经能生产铅钡琉璃。漆器制造业成为独立的手工业部门，所造漆器以木为胎，有黑、红、黄、蓝、紫、白等十多种颜色的漆，在器物上绘出各种光泽美丽的花纹，并发明了催干剂。有了结构和花纹都较复杂的织锦以及手工针编织物。出现了一些私营大手工业主，如鲁国煮监的猗顿，秦国巴地开采丹砂的寡妇清，赵国冶铁的郭纵等。 　　为了适应商业发展的需要，战国时币的种类多，流通数量大。各国铜币的样式不同，齐、燕主要是刀形的刀币，三晋主要是铲形的布币，秦、周主要是圆形有孔的圜钱，楚国主要是形似贝壳的蚁鼻钱。金币有楚国压成方块的郢爰、陈爰。战国初年，魏国每石粟卖三十钱，农民每户种一百亩地在平常年景的收获，除去吃饭和交税，余四十五百粟，可卖一千三百五十钱，每户除社闾尝新春秋之祠要用三百钱，每人一年穿衣要花三百钱，全家要花一千五百钱，还不足四百五十钱。 　　战国时代的散文创作十分兴盛，有各种历史散文，诸子的散文和其它散文作品。这些散文都用接近口语的文字写成，或汪洋恣肆如庄子，或娓娓动人，或激情横溢，或约烂多彩，或譬喻连珠韩非子的寓言，或剖析透彻如孟子，或逻辑严密。现实主义和浪漫主义的完美结合，使屈原的诗作具有极大的艺术感染力。宋玉的作品，在模仿屈原的同时，对楚辞有发展和创造，在骚体中变化出赋体，对后代的文学创作有很大影响。 　　社会重大变革 　　A、农业生产的发展 　　1、铁制工具的进一步推广：各地大量铁器出土，表明其广泛性。方法有所提高，为农业生产的发展提供了物质前提条件。 　　2、畜力耕田的推广：除了牛耕外，还有马耕，地区更为广泛。 　　3、耕作技术的进步：识别土壤，施肥技术，比欧洲早一千多年。 　　4、粮食作物种类与分布：由于各国土壤、气候等不同而种植不同的庄稼，粮食作物品种也有所不同。 　　5、农业方面的提高：当时一石相当今60斤，从而可知，中国的农业没有根本性的突破，在当时已奠定了基础。 　　B、手工业和商业的发展 　　1、手工业的发展 　　种类：战国时代的手工业，有作为农业副业的家庭手工业，有独立经营的个体手工业，有豪民经营的大手工业，也有各国政府经营的官营手工业。 　　人员：有农民、手工业者、依附贫民、雇工（佃农）、奴隶、官奴。 　　技术：纺织业有新产品，并有地方特色。木工有规（圆规）、矩（曲尺）、绳（墨斗）、隐栝等。采矿、寻矿技术。 　　产品：琉璃（即玻璃）制作的璧、剑首、印玺等。 　　2、商业的发展 　　因农业，手工业生产的发展，社会分工的扩大，带来了商业的发展。政府也承认了商人的合法存在，征收各种税捐。 　　商人的种类：（1）坐列贩卖的普通商人和小本经营的贩夫贩妇。（2）富商大贾，既有政治地位，又有雄厚的财力。战国时代商人的详细情况，请参见司马迁《史记·货殖列传》。 　　3、城市的兴起 　　随着农业、手工业、商业的发展，专制主义中央集权制度的形成，促进了政治、经济、文化的集中，引起了城市的发展，有代表性的是齐国的临淄、燕下都、楚国的郢、定陶、赵国的邯郸。城市是统治阶级对农村行使统治权的据点，又是官吏、地主、商人、高利贷者聚居的场所。城市从政治上统治农村，从经济上剥削农村。 　　4、货币关系的活跃 　　随着商品交换的发展，货币关系活跃起来。战国时，不仅各国铸造货币，而且很多城市也铸造货币，因此各地货币的样式不同，种类繁多。解放后发现的战国货币，不下几百种之多。从其铸造材料看，有铜币和金币。从其造型上分：刀币，流行于齐、燕等国；铲币，流通于三晋等国；圜钱，流通于秦和东、西周等地；铜贝（蚁鼻钱），流通于楚国。楚国还有铸金币：郢爰、陈爰。种类多、流通量大，反映了当时商品交换的发达。货币种类繁杂，也反映了有很大的地域性。 　　随着货币的发展，高利贷也风行起来。此外还有重农抑商政策。 　　战国时社会经济处于飞速前进当中，但各地区是发展不平衡的。齐、魏不仅自然条件好，而且社会改革早，因而成为战国初年比较发达的国家。秦国原来比较落后，因地处关中沃野，变法比较彻底，因此后来居上，成为战国后期最强盛的国家。楚国疆域最大，土地肥沃，手工业、商业也相当发达，曾与齐、秦并为强国，因军力不强，被秦国灭掉。 　　C、地主与农民 　　战国时的三种社会矛盾：封建地主阶级和农民阶级的矛盾，地主阶级的内部矛盾，地主和奴隶主残余势力的矛盾。 　　主要矛盾是地主和农民的矛盾。并且构成了中国封建社会的主要矛盾。 　　1、地主的类型 　　封建国君，是地主阶级的总代表，也是最大的土地占有者。 　　贵族食封地主：战国四大公子：齐孟尝君田文、赵平原君赵胜、魏信陵君魏无忌、楚春申君黄歇，他们有政治地位，经济上收取封地里的民户租税，又可放高利贷，家中养有食客，拥有奴隶，是地主中的保守阶层。 　　军功官僚地主：主要靠战功和政治才能获得土地、权力，来源有的是原来的将相，如魏国公叔痤一次得赏田四十万亩，王翦求田。有的用君主赏赐的钱购买田地，如赵括。 　　豪民地主：依靠经济手段起家，主要是大手工业主和大商人，以末致财，用本守之。 　　布衣地主：自耕农通过做官或做买卖发财而购地成为地主。《吕氏春秋*博志篇》记赵国中牟自耕农宁越为摆脱种庄稼的劳苦，学习后当了西周君周威公的老师，得到不少土地，成了地主。 　　上述地主虽然在政治、经济上并不完全一样，但他们共同组成社会的统治阶级，势力在不断扩大。 　　2、农民的类型 　　公民：是当时农民的主要部分，由国家授田，农民向国家缴纳租税，服徭役和兵役，有独立的经济和生产能力，但不能迁移，可以称为农民。 　　佃农：没有土地，但还有一些生产工具。租种地主的土地，是依附农民。 　　自耕农：一是士大夫阶级，二是立了军功的军人。 　　雇农：不仅没有土地，连最基本的生产工具和种子也没有，只好出卖劳动力。 　　3、农民与地主阶级的矛盾 　　受封建国家“布缕之征，粟米之征，力役之征”等各种赋税徭役的剥削，受高利贷的盘剥，横征暴敛，激化了地主阶级与农民阶级的矛盾。 　　 　　科学发展 　　战国时，杰出的天文学家齐人甘德有《天文星占》，魏人石申有《天文》。他们发现五大行星中的荧惑（火星）和金星（太白）有逆行现象，测定金星和木星的会合周期长度，并定火星的值星周期为一点九年，木星为十二年，与现代科学测定极为相近。石申对二十八宿距度和其它一些恒星什宿度的测量，是早期恒星定量观测的重大成果。后人将两人的著作合称《甘石星经》。战国时，关于二十四节气的划分和安排大致齐备，对农业生产起了重要的作用。秦朝实行颛顼历，以夏正十月为岁首，九月为岁尾。 　　战国时的《墨经》中，有许多几何命题，如两条并行线之间等距、三点共一直线，同圆的半径相等、矩形四角皆为直角等。发明了计算工具算筹，用十根小棍摆成不同的形状来表示数字，进行计算，大大加快了计算的速度，此外，光学八条也是墨经的重要成就。《考工记》中有分数的简单运算法和特殊角度的概念与名称。《周髀算经》的成书可能在汉初，但它是先秦测量学的经验总结，其中使用了相当繁复的分数算法和开平方法。 　　力学知识在《墨经》中也有很好的阐述。认为，力是人体所具有的使运动发生转移和变化的手段，指出杠杆平衡与两端的重量和力臂的长短都有关系，发现船的形体大小与其在水中下沉深浅有一定的均衡关系，是关于浮力原理的朴素表述。 　　 　　哲学思想 　　战国时代，社会的剧烈变革对学术文化提出了一系列要求，加上士阶层的形成和统治者的提倡，许多学派纷纷出现，形成了百家争鸣的局面。当时，最有影响的，除了儒道二家以外，还有以墨翟为代表的墨家，以韩非、商鞅为代表的法家，以邹衍为代表的阴阳家，以公孙龙子为代表的名家，以孙膑为代表的兵家，以许行为代表的农家，以张仪、公孙衍、苏秦为代表的纵横家，以吕不韦为代表的杂家等。各派各家都着书立说，广授弟子，参与政治，互相批判，又互相渗透，学术思想极为繁荣。秦统一六国，崇尚法家，兼用阴阳家，焚书坑儒，迷信暴力，将法家学说过分夸大君权的一面发挥到极致。 Check out the details of 战国 Zhan Guo   Zhan Guo     现代中国    China's Warring States history 　　"Warring States" first from the Han dynasty scholar Liu Xiang, "war policy." 　　Descriptive Catalogue of Liu Xiang said: "Wan Cheng of the seven countries, Qian Cheng country of five enemy moo struggle for power, cover the Warring States." 　　Warring States Period refers to the broad ~ 475 BC 221 BC, in fact, the specific time should be three points from the Han Wei Jin Zhao begin to run until the Qin Shi Huang unified the world so far, that is, 403 years BC ~ 221 BC. Warring States period in ancient China, one of the important historical period, the main time line in the late Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Chinese history, the Warring States Period is divided against the most serious and one of the most enduring of the times. 　　403 BC, the Zhou Zhou Wei Lie common lord of the king of the Appointment of Wei, Zhao, Han faithfully the three princes, a situation which the Seven Warring States was officially formed. From the beginning of Spring and Autumn Period more than hundred and forty princes, after three hundred and sixty years of mergers, to the early Warring States Period more than twenty left. One win and west of the surname Qin, Dong Tian Qi, the Central Plains Shanxi (Zhao, Wei, Korea), South Mi surname Chu, North Ji Xing Yan strongest in these seven countries. Called the "Seven Warring States." The merger allows each war lords fewer, bigger winners territory, the population becomes more positive, the wealth concentrated. Originally dispersed in the hands of various princes of the land population of wealth, now concentrated in the hands of a few princes. Hundreds of small countries from the integration of the world as more than a dozen countries, large entities, the original strategic buffer space no longer exists, all the major countries have to face directly the pattern of brutal competition. Pooling of resources makes the scale of war between nations, war intensity has increased dramatically. Each other constantly in the fierce attack the, how to seek to survive in the competition, and national decision-making levels Fuguojiangbing become top priority targets. In this era of widespread demand appeared under the seasonal series of political reform reform launched the era of the Warring States also will pull the curtain. Translated by Google Introduction 　　Warring States period 　　Spring and Autumn Period, that is, the second half of the Zhou dynasty, entered the age of seven countries for hegemony in the Western Han Dynasty was edited by Liu Xiang's "war policy" in the records of this period, so people called the Warring States Period. "Historical Records • Chronology of the six countries," recorded in the Warring States Period began 475 years ago (Zhou Yuan Wang first year) or three points from the Han Wei Jin Zhao begin to run (403 BC), to the previous 221 years (Qin Shi Huang twenty-six years), Qin Shi Huang Tongyiliuguo. Warring States period, Qi, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao, Wei, Qin power in the seven princes, the Seven Warring States, after a prolonged war, the military, political and diplomatic aspects of the struggle is very intense. Since Qin Shang Yang played a important role Fuguojiangbing, Qin finally catch up, one by one to exterminate the other six countries, completed the "King of Qin swept Kuni," the great cause of reunification, the formation of "at home and for the county, decrees by the Unity" The reunification of the country. Among the seven powers, in order to compete Fuguojiangbing and political reform to the Kui Wei, Qi, Chu, Qin Shang Yang's Reforms such as the implementation were to some extent, promote the progress of society. By Su Qin, Zhang Yi strategists figure represented a very active in the diplomatic struggle. Warring States period, the development of commerce and traffic and promote each other, there are some well-known cities. Dujiangyan, Zheng channel, divide not only promotes the famous hydraulic agriculture at the time, but for the benefit of future generations. Academic culture and ideology in the development of the Warring States period of contending, highly visible debate at home, creating a brilliant Qin culture, have a great impact on future generations. 　　Along with the irrigating water, the use of iron and cattle farming promotion, in the late Spring and Autumn Period, the vassal state of economic development, and political situation also had a corresponding change. Forces within countries Bureaucrats princes gradually developed, such as the famous three-Huan Lu, Qi Tian, ​​Jin's Liu Qing. They use their economic power, control, and divided the public room, and fighting each other to expand the territory. Liu Qing Jin's fight to the last, leaving Han, Wei, Zhao three. Zhou Wei Lie Wang twenty-three years (before 403), the week of the three officially recognized as a vassal king. An eleventh year of King Zhou (formerly 391), Tian Min abolished Qikang Gong, self-reliance for the monarch, the king also received weekly recognition. Shanxi and Tian victory, announced the strong survive and the weak out of the harsh political rule. Thus, the starting point for reform of the State of Wei Li Kui, countries are scrambling to Fuguoqiangbing targeted for political reform movement. Reform of the core is fixed to the land of workers to increase the country's tax revenue. The deepening of social civilization, so that the rulers of the rapid expansion of materialistic greed. Increase the amount of exploitation of the most direct solution is to plunder more land, and land grabbing the most convenient way is war. Therefore, frequent wars during this period. According to statistics, the first year from Zhou Yuan Wang (formerly 475) to the Qin Wangzheng Twenty-six years (previously 221) of the two hundred fifty-five years, two hundred thirty times the size of war. War breaks out, both sides mobilized tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands at every turn. Western Han Dynasty's Liu Xiang, the various types of information related to this history compiled a book called "war policy", since then, this historical stage, known as the Warring States period. Translated by Google Seven Warring States 　　Warring States Period is the most powerful Qi, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao, Wei, Qin, known as "Seven Warring States." 　　Spring and Autumn Period more than a hundred countries, through constant mergers, the early years of the Warring States Period, about a dozen countries. Large state-owned Qin, Wei, Han, Yan, Zhao, Qi, Chu, namely "Seven Warring States." The more countries in addition to a more powerful country. Small state-owned Song, Wei, Zhongshan, Lu, Teng, Zou and so on. There are also many ethnic minorities located in around the north and northwest Lin Hu, Loufan, East Hu, instrument channel, south bar, Shu, and more. 　　Early Warring States, "the seven powers" to form, countries will focus on the use of in-house finishing. Jobs can countries, good governance, such as Li Kui, Wu Qi, the reforms of Shang Yang, who took place in this period. 　　Warring States Period, when the war is. What: "States have no peace, no peace years" "states no fixed pay, soil no fixed master" of the melee situation. Countries to maintain their own survival and expansion of land forces, monarchs are kings in succession, dominating the party. On the one hand strengthen the centralization of power, reform and strengthen the country and strengthening the military; the other hand, frequently seek diplomatic other countries on the "vertical", "Lien." 　　The late Warring States, The king is compared with a range of Ju, the use of the "distant past to attack" dollars, destroyed the country's "vertical" to strengthen the state of Qin's strength, military, and became the dominant power in the Warring States period, weakening the power of States . 　　The geographical territory of seven countries: 　　Location can be used to illustrate a couplet 　　Lower on the truck, 　　Qi Chuqin Yan Zhao Wei Han. 　　Qin: there are now about Guanzhong, Hanzhong and southeast Gansu, Sichuan most. 　　Wei: about there today in southern Shanxi, Henan, northern, central and eastern 　　Zhao: There about this northern Shanxi, Hebei, central and central, southwest, part of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region 　　South Korea: There now in Henan about central, western, and southeastern Shanxi 　　Qi: accounts for about this northern Shandong, Hebei, south, west and southeast of Shanxi 　　Chu: about has now Hubei province, Henan, Anhui, Hunan, Jiangsu, Zhejiang part of the 　　Yan: accounts for about this northern Hebei, Liaoning, Jilin, part of the 　　National political reform and the new centralized monarchy 　　A, Wei Li Kui Reform 　　Weiwen Hou (previous 445 years - 396 years before the reign of) appointment Kui reform, to make fertility of education, establishment of military death, re-Qi, Ximen Bao, who control the local, economic development, became the first power in the early Warring States Period. 　　Reform content: 　　1, the abolition of the World Qing Shilu system, the establishment of prefectures and counties bureaucracy. According to "Food with active labor and Paul" principle, the basis of merit and ability to _select_ officials, weakening aristocratic privilege, the establishment of the feudal bureaucracy. 　　2, the implementation of the education to make fertility. 　　3, the implementation level, buy us a law. 　　4, for "Law and Economics." 　　B, Chu Qi Reform 　　Background: The decline of Chu and Chu Dao Wang Qi Reform with. Qi (about 440 years ago - about 381 years ago), defending people, in defending the pursuit of development fails, they go to Lu, to study under the Zeng Shen, Qu Qi Tian wife living child, ran home to mother for not mourning, Zeng interrupted teacher-student relationship. Rumu public he will, he will seek Murder. Wei Li Kui to participate in political reform after. 383 years ago, Wei Wuhou, the Qi Shu by Wei Xiang Gong acne exclusion from the Wei to the Chu. KING week two decades (382 years ago), Chu Dao Wang Qi appointments for political reform, reduction of redundant official, abolished nobility of the World Bank Di Qing, Ming law certiorari, prohibition of private door if asked, are also increasingly strong again. But too old forces Chu Chu mourn death of Wang Gang, Wu Qi was riddled with arrows shot. 　　Reform are: 　　1, Ming Shen Ling law: that is developing a series of legal and publicly announced an order for close scrutiny at all levels of official, the implementation of layers of oversight to ensure implementation of the new law. 　　2, the collection won the Peerage: who lord over three generations to recover the Peerage, by repealing Gongzu alienated those in the special treatment to some of the old aristocracy migrated to the desolate area. 　　3, the reduction of government officials: to reduce salary expenses, the funds saved are used to train troops on. 　　4, rectify the official plug the private door: officials asked not harm the private and public righteousness disregard for critics, as one political force for the landlord. 　　C, advised the king to reform ... ... only use Zou Zou Ji satisfied remonstrance Satire King of Qi 　　D, Shang Yang 　　Zhou Xian Wang ten years (before 356), and nineteen years (350 years ago), Shang Yang Xiao of Qin appointments conducted the most thorough political reform. Shang Yang encouraged the proliferation of Restraining Commerce, repealing the World Qing Shilu system, incentives for war, preparation of accounts, the implementation of the law even to sit, so that after the mid-Warring States Qin became the most powerful country. Shang Yang was tying though later died, the new law was not repealed. 　　Contents: 　　1, waste Ida, terraced rice paddies to open a border. 　　2, the reward for war, against Sidou 　　3, handcraft, weaving farming award 　　Was called in the industry of agriculture is the basis of national wealth a strong military power, while the commercial and handicraft as "the end of business." Shang Yang's hard work in agriculture exemption of Taxes and, while engaged in commercial or laziness that can not afford the tax, and forfeiture of official servants. This is good for the development of agricultural production. In order to increase tax revenue, encouraging the production of a one to provide the family with two adult male married to the separation of a separate door, the woman must be married to a certain age, or, more to pay taxes. An objective to promote the development of a one peasant economy, thus becoming an important feature of the feudal economy. A one as production units, separation of the analysis of production, so that classes often change them. 　　4, the implementation of the county system 　　Xiao of Qin pre-existing county-level administrative bodies, but not common. Shang Yang generally adopted the county system, households above the county to make, less than million of long-established, an official's salary from the thirty thousand stone to stone range in the magistrate, so long the following _set_tings Cheng, officials receive national treasury, the right to appoint or remove the monarch. This _set_ of institutions will be centralized, the state apparatus became the prototype of the system of prefectures and counties. 　　5, enacted laws, the implementation of even sit. 　　6, the burning of study, state laws. 　　7, moved the capital Xianyang. 　　8, reform the tax system. 　　9, get rid of Rong and Di customs. 　　Vertical and horizontal 　　Qi and Qin East-West confrontation, began to fight other kingdoms, isolated each other's struggles, and Han, Wei, Zhao, Chu, Yan and other countries in the joint anti-Qi Qin and Qi Gang Qin in the swing. At this time, there were two well-known politicians - Zhang Yi and Gong Sun Yan, who were not even cross (differentiation of the six countries) Hop longitudinal (United Kangqin). This is also known from the value 【from those, Union is also weak to attack a strong; and balance those things with a strong attacking the weak but also】 public. 　　Stronger of the Qin, and continuously expand the territory to the east. Zhou Xian Wang four years (329 years ago) to the Qin Wei, Zhang Yi people, even the cross on to the benefits of the policy Wenjun, recommendations and Wei, Chu-phase goodwill, and then in the Wei and Chu's coordination with South Korea's Park attack and Yiyang, the army open to Luoyang, Emperor to the nobility, and finally took it back to the Wei and Chu's territory, forcing the world west of Shi Qin princes are to complete the king's cause. Wenjun play into the hands of this strategy benefits the middle, then submitted to Keqing Zhang Yi. Qin Zhang Yi has repeatedly encouraged to attack Wei, Wei also turn the plunder of land, forcing the first Shi Qin Wei, Shang Jun fifth county to Qin satisfied, on the other Eastern countries to form a serious threat to the Qin Zhang Yi was appointed as the national phase . Zhou Xian Wang forty-six years (previously 323), Yan Wei, Kung-sun strategy for combined vertical line, prompting Wei, Han, Zhao, Yan, Zhongshan Five mutual recognition of each sovereign king, to the United Kangqin. But soon, to send troops Fa Wei Chu, Kung-sun strategy Yan _set_back. Wei Xiang Hui Shih United Qi, Chu's activities have also been failures, were expelled. King Hui of Wei was neat and smart blow, the king was forced to forty years in the week (before 322) for the appointment of Wei Zhang Yi, like the United Qin, Han soldiers to Fa Qi, Chu. Zhang Yi, but the real intention is to first Shi Qin Wei, and let the other princes to follow suit. Zhang Yi Wei Hui Wang did not listen to opinions, Qi, Chu, Yan, Zhao, Han and other countries with the support of Zhou Shen Jing Wang in two years (before 319), the off Zhang Yi, Yan Wei, compared to Kung-sun. The following year, launched Gongsun Yan Wei, Chu, Yan, Zhao, Han Wuguo first combined vertical attack Qin, the grandson of the longitudinal length, by Qin defeated. 　　Since then, Qin continued onslaught Shanxi, Sichuan and use the opportunity to attack each other, troops occupied the whole territory of Sichuan, access to the rear of a rich base. Zhou Wang Shen five years (before 316 years), Yan Wang Kuai give the throne of the country sub-phase. Son of the king for three years, domestic chaos, the general city gangs were attacking and Prince Edward son of peace, the people counter-offensive, peaceful city was to kill Prince, tens of thousands dead. Attacking King Xuan Yan took the opportunity, the five Shi Yuri to invade the whole territory of the State of Yan. Since a large number of killings of civilians Qi Jun, who turned against Yan, Qi army was forced to retreat. But this proved the power of Qi is still very strong. Meanwhile, Qi and Chu alliance has strengthened the power of Qi and Qin compete. 　　Qi, Qin focus of the struggle for the state of Chu. Chu's strength began to weak. Early Warring States Period, Chu Dao Wang Qi as Yoshitada appointments, political reform, national strength, prosperity, and in one fell swoop defeated the Wei troops Faqin. In 381 BC, Chu Daowang death, Qi of the new law was abolished, Chu decline day by day. In order to destroy Chu, Qi Union, Zhou Nan Wang two years (before 313) envoy Zhang Yi Chu, the Dear John Chu and Qi. Qin Zhang Yi into the clear to send the grandson of advocating "Lien" must persuade Chu Qi of Qin, and oral vow to return the business in the State of Chu (in this southwestern Henan Xichuan) 600 in place for a price. Grandson believed to break off diplomatic relations, and Qi. When Chu sent to take the land to discuss the state of Qin, Qin Zhang Yi cunning relative said: "I and the king agreed to a six years, have not heard of six hundred years." Grandson of the very angry, made Bing Gong Qin. Qin defeated Chu in Danyang, Chubing killed 80,000 people, Chu captured the flexor Gai, Qin to invade Chu Hanzhong to six years. Zhang Yi and persuade Han, Zhao, Yan and Qin Lian Heng. Zhou Nan Wang fourteen years (before 301), Qi, Han, Wei Chu joint government and kill the Tang Chu Mei. Zhou Nan Wang sixteen years (before 299), the grandson of the deception to the Qin, was detained, and finally died of Qin. By Wei Chu empty, attacked Chu. Qi does not support the state of Chu. Chu suffered a major loss, never recovered. 　　Qin in "balancing" Qi struggle weakened and began the great development to the east. 　　Qin sweep Luhe 　　Zhou Nan Wang thirty-seven years (278 years ago), Qin Bai Ying Chu break from the city, opened a state of Qin unified the prelude to war. Potential to avoid Qinjun Wei Chu, moved the capital to Chen, the patriotic poet Qu Yuan pain state lost, cast himself into the Mi Low river. Zhou Nan Wang Forty-four years (prior to 271 years), Fan Ju Keqing The king offered to the "distant past to attack" strategy, is aligned with the distant countries and concentrate on the first beat neighboring countries, and then gradually merged other countries. The king Nafan strategy for Ju, Zhou Nan Wang in five years (265 years ago) out of Bing Fa Han, closed capital Shangdang Xinzheng County ties with South Korea, though South Korea will Shangdang force dedicated to Qin. However, the county has turned to dependency Shangdang Zhao, Qin much anger, Qin Zhao war veteran Lian Zhao sent his troops stationed in Changping. Zhou Nan Wang fifty-four years (before 260), the Qin king He sent generals to win Shangdang, and Get the lead level in the long military confrontation. Get the lead reinforce barriers to the defensive to the offensive, breaking the Chi quick scheme, the two sides reached a stalemate as long as April. By discord among the Qin, Zhao to young and fit so that only the drawing board and replaced Zhao Kuo Chang Ping Zhao Lian as commander in chief. Qin also secretly exchange general Bai Qi. Zhao Kuo to the front to take the initiative of a white split from Jones sent Zhao, and Zhao Kuo surrounded. Zhao surrounded forty-six days without food, killing the food, the military chaos. Zhao Kuo adventure break out on the spot killed, the military defeat. Zhao Xiang Zu Bai Qi to all buried alive, Zhao total loss of over four hundred thousand before. Zhangpingzhizhan Qin and He is a strong player in the Central Plains final decisive battle, but also one of the deadliest war in the Warring States Period. So far, six countries have no longer the Eastern Qin opponent. 　　Hours Qinzi Xiao Shang Yang, Zhong Jing Qin Hui Wang, Wang, the king was a hundred years, the establishment of a relatively strong centralized rule, focusing on water and agricultural production, incentives for war, military equipment quality, and to take full advantage of Keqing Qin planning operations in the Vietnam War in the vassal state of the stronger, and finally defeated the East all powerful rival, to become the world's first power. Qin Xiaowen WANG year (the first 250 years) Ercu, Qin Zhuang Xiangwang to the throne, a former businessman Lu Pu-wei as prime minister, the second year to the Eastern Zhou Dynasty shuaibing off, take the Cheng Gao Han, Ying Yang, Jian Sanchuan County. The following year, hit Qin Zhao, attacked South Korea, located in Taiyuan Shangdang County. Zhuang Xiangwang three years (before 247) collapse, thirteen-year-old Qin Zhao political succession, he is later Qin Shi Huang. Qinwang Zheng five years (before 242), the Qin Gong Wei, won the jujube and other twenty city, located ita, but also in the Qin Wangzheng six years (before 241) of crushed Chu, Zhao, Wei, Han and other country's Fourth, and last vertical and a military offensive against the Qin, also used to get rid of the discord among the most intense Weixin Ling Jun Fan Qin. So far, the majority of their combat readiness of the state of Qin in the territory in front of six monarchs east of the county just like Qin Executive. 　　Qin Wangzheng nine years (238 years before), Ai Ping lustful rebellion, the King of Qin Zheng Zhao himself came to power, immediately dispatched troops to Cuikulaxiu trend sweeping the old forces of the six countries, known as Qinmie six countries. In seventeen years (230 years ago) off South Korea, two years (225 years ago) off Wei, twenty-four years (prior to 223 years) off Chu, twenty-five years (previous 222) out of Yan, Zhao off Twenty-six years (before 221) off together, finally establishing the history of China's first unified national system of prefectures and counties. Translated by Google Political system 　　Warring States period, the vassal state under the monarch would have formed sub-level phase, civil and military decentralization of the central bureaucracy. Phase, also known as phase state, prime minister, is Baiguan long. Will, also known as the General, is the length of military attache. King Wu Qin in two years (before 309) begin _set_ting up the post of prime minister, the prime minister said the most honored of phase states, the highest military post in early for the big Ryozo to The king _set_ only general. Yin Chu has been the highest office this year, Zhu Guo Zhu Guo for the position or the lesser of the highest military officer. Countries in sub-level military attache to Wei, or the country Wei, Du Wei. The king's secretary, said the censor, and the monitoring of the office. More general _set_ting of counties, and gradually formed the pattern of the county system the county. Originally, officials hereditary, each fief. Warring States Period began, officials at all levels to give the monarch a certain food as salary, or Shanggei gold coins. At the same time the formation of Yuxi Fu system, appointment and removal of officials to seal as proof, as far as mobilizing the army to easily intimidated. Thus all power concentrated in the hands of the monarch. Below the county, there are townships, where the organization together. Township are old folk, Ting auxiliary, there is in the positive. Poly is a village, under which Kivu, even the preparation, five for Wu, a sergeant, even as a ten, there are even longer. Translated by Google Technological progress 　　Warring States period, iron tools have been excluded wood, stone tools commonly used in production, it Liding deforestation, irrigation, land reclamation and deep secret agents, to promote the development of agricultural production. Deep plowing and weeding in the same time, farmers pay attention to recognize the nature of the soil, according to local conditions to choose to plant different crops. Fertilization technology to enhance, knows how to juice dressing fertilizer, manure, green manure and plant ash was widely applied. _Select_ Zizhong began to pay attention, control echinococcosis, the implementation of plot species law, proper planting density, easy ventilation row, flood, good bacon, weeding, thinning and master farming season season. Promotion of double cropping system in general, greatly improving the unit area per year. Wei Li Kui had estimated that food production at the time, an acre of land (about one-third of today acres) in the normal harvest years, can produce half a stone grain (about this forty-one kg), large, medium and small harvest can be achieved when the six-stone, four stone and a half, three stone, small, medium and large failures can only be played when a stone, seven fighting, three bucket. Farmers need food rations per person per month on average half a stone, a family of five, ninety year eating stone, the usual year for food produced in a farming acres, enough for the whole family eating one and a half. 　　Commercial development in order to meet the needs of the Warring States Period more than the type of currency in circulation in large quantities. Different countries in the style of copper, Qi, Yan-shaped knife blade is mainly coins, Shanxi mainly spade cloth currency, Qin, Zhou mainly money won in round holes, the main Chu is the shape of the nose shell money ant . Gold coins are pressed into the box Chu Ying Yuan, Chen Yuan. Warring States Dynasty, Wei Su per stone sold for money, farmers plant a hundred acres per year for the harvest in the ordinary, except for meals and taxes, over five hundred forty grain, to sell one thousand three hundred and fifty money, household except the Temple community to use the Spring and Autumn Lu hundred epistemic money each year to spend three hundred money, clothing, family money to spend fifteen hundred, or less than four hundred and fifty of money. 　　Warring States Period prose flourished, a variety of historical essays, philosophers and other prose works of prose. These essays are written by close to spoken language, or unrestrained, such as Wang Yang Zi, or sounds and moving, or passion Smirnov, or about rotten and colorful, or metaphor Lianzhu Han Fei fable, or a thorough analysis, such as Mencius, or rigorous logic. Realism and Romanticism in the perfect combination of Qu Yuan's poems have great artistic appeal. Song Yu's work, in imitation of Qu Yuan, while the development and creation of Songs of the South have, in the change in the Sao Fu, future generations have a great impact on literature. 　　Major changes in society 　　A, the development of agricultural production 　　1, iron tools, to further promote: a lot of iron around the excavated, indicating that extensive. Improved methods for the development of agricultural production, provided the material preconditions. 　　2, animal farming promotion: In addition to cattle farming, there are horse farming, the wider region. 　　3, advances in farming techniques: identification of soil, fertilizer technology, a thousand years earlier than in Europe. 　　4, type and distribution of food crops: As the national soil, climate and other different planting different crops, different varieties of food crops. 　　5, the improvement of agriculture: this was a considerable one stone 60 pounds, so we can see that China's agriculture has been no fundamental breakthrough, at the time the foundation has been laid. 　　B, handicraft industry and commercial development 　　1, the handicraft industry 　　Category: Warring States Period, the handicraft, has a sideline as a cottage industry of agriculture, handicraft industry of independent business individuals, there is a large handicraft ho business people, but also government-run national government-run handicraft. 　　Staff: some farmers, craftsmen, dependent poor, workers (tenants), the slave, official slavery. 　　Technology: textile industry with new products, and local characteristics. Woodworking with Regulation (compass), moment (colt), rope (fountain), hidden Trichosanthes and so on. Mining, mining technology to find. 　　Products: glass (ie glass) produced bi, sword first, India seal and so on. 　　2, commercial development 　　For agriculture, the development of handicraft production, the expansion of social division of labor has brought commercial development. The Government also recognized the legal existence of the merchants, the collection of various taxes. 　　Types of traders: (1) sat out of the ordinary businessmen and selling a small business of trafficking women trafficking husband. (2) rich merchants, the existing political status, but also wealth. Details of the Warring States Period merchants, see Sima Qian, "Historical Records." 　　3, the rise of the city 　　With agriculture, handicraft industry, commercial development, the formation of autocratic centralization system, promoting political, economic and cultural focus, causing the development of the city is representative of Qi Linzi, Yan Empire, Chu The Ying, Dingtao, Zhao Handan. Cities are the ruling class to exercise the right to rule the rural strongholds, but also officials, landowners, merchants, loan sharks inhabited places. Political rule of the city from the countryside, from the economic exploitation of rural areas. 　　4, active monetary relations 　　With the development of commodity exchange, monetary relations alive. Warring States period, not only the national coin money, and many cities coin money, so the style of money around the different variety. Discovered after the liberation of the Warring States currency, no less than several hundred species. Casting material from its perspective, there are coins and gold coins. From the modeling point: knife coin, popular Yu Qi, Yan and other countries; shovel coins in circulation in Shanxi and other countries; won money in circulation Qin and the East, the Western Zhou Dynasty, etc.; copper shell (Ant Nose Money), circulation in Chu. Chu also cast gold: Ying Yuan, Chen Yuan. Many kinds of large circulation, reflecting the commodity exchange was developed. Currency complicated, but also reflect the great regional. 　　With the development of currency, loan sharks have to chill out. In addition, there Restraining Commerce policy. 　　Warring States Period, the rapid social and economic progress in these, but the region is uneven development. Qi, Wei not only the good natural conditions, and social reform early, thus the early years of the Warring States Period more developed countries. Qin original backward, because is located off the fertile fields, more thorough political reform, so come from behind to become the most powerful nation the late Warring States Period. Chu largest territory, fertile land, handicrafts, commerce is quite developed, worked with Qi, Qin and for power, because military power is not strong, was to exterminate the state of Qin. 　　C, landowners and farmers 　　Warring States Period, the three social contradictions: the feudal landlord class and the peasant class contradictions, the internal contradictions of the landlord class, landowners and slave owners remnants of conflict. 　　The main contradiction is the contradiction between the landlords and peasants. And constitutes the principal contradiction in Chinese feudal society. 　　1, the type of landlord 　　Feudal monarch, is the chief representative of the landlord class and largest landowners. 　　Awarding aristocratic landowners: the Warring States four sons: Mengchang Tian Qi, Zhao Pingyuan Zhaosheng, Weixin Ling Jun Wei Wuji, Chuchun Shen Jun Huang Xie, they have political status, economic fief in the public account to receive the tax, but also loan sharking, raising a family diners, with slaves, is the landlord of the conservative class. 　　Bureaucratic landlords for war: mainly by military exploits and political to get land, power, source of some of the original phase, such as the one obtained reward Weiguo Gong Shu Tian Cuo forty acres, WANG Jian TIAN. Some use the reward money to buy land monarch, such as Zhao Kuo. 　　Hao Min landlord: started to rely on economic instruments, mainly large hand-owners and business persons to the end-financing, the use of this Code. 　　Commoner landlords: farmers do business through an official, or to become rich and buy the landlord. "Lu * Hiroshi articles" are written Ning Zhao Zhongmou the more farmers plant crops of hard work out of learning later, when the Western Zhou Jun Zhou Wei male teacher, get a lot of land, became a landlord. 　　Although the landlord in the political, economic is not exactly the same, but they together constitute the ruling class of society, power is growing. 　　2 type Farmers 　　Citizens: farmers was the main part of the State of Granting Land, the farmers pay the tax to the state, serving the lord and military service, independent financial and production capacity, but can not move, can be called farmers. 　　Tenant: no land, but there are some production tools. Landlord rented the land, is dependent farmers. 　　Farmers: one scholar class, the second is the military established a military exploit. 　　Farm laborers: not only did not land, even the most basic tools and seed production have not had to sell their labor. 　　3, the contradiction between peasants and landlords 　　By the feudal state "thread of the cloth sign, the sign of corn, labor service of the levy," and other taxes lord of exploitation, the exploitation by loan sharks, exacting, intensified the landlord class and the peasant class contradictions. Translated by Google Scientific Development 　　Warring States Period, the "Mojing", there are many geometric propositions, such as the off_set_ between the two parallel lines, three were in line, with the same radius of the circle, square corners are all right angles and so on. Calculated to raise the invention of computational tools, with ten stick placed into different shapes to represent numbers, calculation, greatly accelerated the speed of calculation, in addition, optical eight is a major achievement Mojing. "Kao Gong Ji," there are scores of simple algorithms and special point of the concept and name. "Zhou Bi Suan Jing" in a book may be the early Han Dynasty, but it is the experience of surveying Pre summary, which use very complicated algorithms and Kaiping score methods. 　　Mechanical knowledge "Mojing" also has a good exposition. That force is the human body has the movement is transferred and a means of changing that balance and both ends of the lever arm length of the weight and have a relationship, find the shape of the size of the ship and its sinking in the water depth there is a certain balance between is a simple statement about the principle of buoyancy. Translated by Google Philosophy 　　Warring States period, dramatic changes in society made a series of academic and cultural requirements, coupled with the formation of classes and rulers of disability advocates, and many schools have emerged to form a contending situation. At that time, the most influential, in addition to Confucianism, Taoism and two, there are represented by Mo Di's School, to Han Fei, Shang Yang's legalist as the representative to the School of Zou Yan represented to the public as represented by Sun Longzi the famous, the Sun Bin's military commander as the representative to act on behalf of the farm promise to Zhang Yi, Gong Sun Yan, Qin Su, represented by the strategists, the Lu Pu-wei as the representative of the eclectic and so on. Factions each wrote books are widely granted disciples, political participation, mutual criticism, and mutual penetration, academic thought very prosperous. Qin Tongyiliuguo, advocating legalism, use either the School of, the burning of poetry and literature, superstition, violence, and the Legalism exaggerated side to the limits of sovereignty. Translated by Google Seven powers of the hereditary 战国 七雄世袭 　　Qin 　　Zhao} {win name 　　Qi 　　{Surname Jiang Lu - Tian Gui name} 　　Qikang Gong Lu loan before 404 BC - 386 Qitai Gong Tian and former 386 BC - 385 years of public Tian Qi Yan spent 384 years ago - before 375 years ago on the Duke field 374 BC - 357 years of the king of Qi by Qi Tian before 356 BC - 320 years before King Xuan Tian Pijiang 319 BC - 301 years before the fields Qimin Wang 300 BC - 284 King Xiang of Qi Tian Law Chapter 283 years ago - was built before 265 years ago Qi Wang Jiantian 264 BC - 221 　　Chu 　　{Mi surname Xiong} 　　The current king of Chu Xiong 403 BC - 402 years before the suspected bear Chu Daowang 401 - 381 years before the king of Chu Xiong Zang Su 380 years ago - Chu Xuan Wang Xiong Liangfu 370 years ago before the 369 BC - 340 years of King Wei of Chu Xiong Business before 339 BC - 329 years of Chu Huai Wang Xionghuai before 328 BC - 299 Chu hectare entered the bear cross before 298 BC - 263 years of Chu Dynasty Lie Wang Xiong Yuan before 262 BC - 238 BC Chu You Wang Xiong defended before the 237 years - 229 years ago still bear Chu Aiwang 228 years ago bears a negative Chu Chu Chu negative before 227 BC - 223 years 　　Wei 　　{Ji Xing Wei} 　　Wei Wenhou Weiss 403 years ago - before the 387 attack on Wei Wei Wuhou 386 years ago - before the 370 years before King Hui of Wei Wei earthen jar with long neck 369 BC - 319 years before the Wei-hsiang Wang Weisi 318 BC - 296 BC Wang Wei Su Wei Zhao 295 years ago - 277 WEI determined before the prince Yu Wang Wei before 276 BC - 243 King Min Wei held the jobs growth in 242 years ago - before the 228 years before the king fake fake Wei 227 BC - 225 years 　　Zhao 　　Zhao} {win name 　　Zhao Lie Hou Zhao Ji before 403 BC - 400 Zhaowu Gong Zhao Hou before 399 BC - 387 years of Zhao Jing Hou Zhao chapter before 386 BC - 375 Zhao Hou Zhao species before 374 BC - 350 Zhao Su Hou Zhao language before 349 BC - 326 years before King Wuling of Zhao Yong 325 BC - 299 Zhaohui Wen Ho Wang Zhao 298 years ago - the former king of Zhao Dan Zhao Xiaocheng 266 years ago 265 years - 245 years before King Xiang of Zhao Yan Zhao mourning before 244 BC - 236 years of quiet Miao Zhao Wang Zhao moved to the former 235 BC - 228 Zhao Jia Zhao on behalf of the king before 227 BC - 222 years Translated by Google History of Japan's Warring States Period 　　Introduction 　　The term comes from the Warring States Period of Japan Kai (now Yamanashi Prefecture) daimyo Takeda Shingen (1521-1573) established a sub-law of the land, "a state of testimonies of the sequential" Diershitiao; its beginning to remember "the world over the Warring States Period." In other words, the Health Department was later known as the Warring States Period of the people, there was "Now is the Warring States Period of the World" recognition of the. 　　Most of today began in 1467 that Japan's Warring States Onin, but the end time will generally have the following statement: 　　1568 Oda Nobunaga on the Luo (in Kyoto). 　　Oda Nobunaga in 1573 fell to the Muromachi Gosho, Muromachi Shogunate was overthrown. 　　1590 Toyotomi Hideyoshi eliminated for the Kanto area Hojo, rein ou local, completed the unification of Japan in general. 　　1603 Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Edo Shogunate. 　　Tokugawa Ieyasu in the summer of 1615 the array of Osaka defeated Toyotomi Hideyori, Toyotomi's demise. 　　As has not been determined, it is euphemistically used in the last argument, in order to complete this presentation of history. 　　Timeline 　　Events occurred in AD Reign Chronicles (Japan old calendar) 　　Jen should be the first year of 1467 ◎ Onin beginning (1.18) ◎ Jun Ouchi's participation in the West (7.3) 　　Year 1473 ◎ Yamana civilization were all dead (3.18) ◎ dead Hosokawa Katsumoto (5.11) 　　Civilization nine 1477 ◎ Onin final (11.11) 　　1478 ◎ years of civilization to enjoy the chaos of the final de 　　Thirteen years of civilization were pure 1481 ◎ passed away a break (11.21) 　　1484 ◎ sixteen years of civilization in Hong Kong's business sector to form trade unions (11.21) 　　Seventeen years of civilization 1485 ◎ Premier outbreak of mountain country, one (12.11) 　　1488 ◎ years has been long shared control were added Guo-(6.9) ◎ long to enjoy the chaos of the beginning of (2.5) 　　Extension of the first year of 1489 ◎ German generals is still dead, Ashikaga (3.26) 　　Yan Tak years 1490 ◎ Ashikaga Zheng Yi Zhi successor generals (7.5) 　　Ming Ming 1493 ◎ shall be two years of the change (4.22) ◎ Premier mountain country, one be put down (9.11) 　　Yongzheng years 1508 ◎ Ashikaga shogunate Great General Yin task (8.15) 　　1519 ◎ Yong is sixteen years goes dead early Hojo (8.15) 　　Big Wing first year 1521 ◎ Ashikaga Zheng Yi Ching successor generals (12.25) 　　Paul enjoyed within the first year of 1528 ◎ Yoshioki large dead (12.20) 　　Astronomical years 1543 ◎ guns into Japan (8.25) 　　1546 ◎ River Astronomy fifteen years more night operations (4.20) ◎ fan valley Uesugi's demise (4.20) 　　Eighteen years of Astronomy 1549 ◎ together _Set_tsu Eguchi war (6.24) ◎ Hosokawa's demise 　　Astronomy twenty-first in 1552 ◎ Sichuan Island Hop Battle (August) 　　In 1554 ◎ Astronomy Niansan Takeda, Hojo, Imagawa three alliance 　　Hongzhi first year of combined warfare Itsukushima 1555 ◎ ◎ Island Hop in the Second Battle River (7.19) 　　Koji Ouchi's three-1557 ◎ perish (4.3) ◎ Island Hop in the Third Battle River (August) 　　Vinh loc narrow barrel for three years between 1560 ◎ Battle (4.20) ◎ killed Imagawa Yoshimoto (4.20) 　　Vinh loc 1561 ◎ four islands together in the fourth war ◎ Chuan Jing Hu took over as the long tail pipe collar Kanto 　　Vinh loc year 1562 ◎ Oda, Tokugawa Cheongju Alliance (1.11) 　　Vinh loc 1564 ◎ seven islands together in the fifth Battle River 　　Vinh loc 1565 ◎ eight general Ashikaga Yoshiteru Miyoshi forces besieged by suicide Matsunaga 　　Vinh loc eleven 1568 ◎ Ashikaga Zheng Yi Rong successor generals (2.8) ◎ ​​Oda Nobunaga on the Luo (9.7) ◎ successor Ashikaga Yoshiaki Great General Yi Zheng (10.18) 　　Vinh loc years 1569 ◎ Imagawa's demise (5.23) 　　Yuan Gui percent the first year of 1570 ◎ war Kawai 　　Gross profit dollars per turtle for years 1571 ◎ ◎ dead Oda Nobunaga burned Hieizan Enryakuji (9.12) 　　Yuan Gui three of the original three-year joint war 1572 ◎ 　　Tengen first year of the 1573 ◎ Takeda Shingen dead (4.12) ◎ Muromachi Shogunate was overthrown (7.18) ◎ Asakura's demise (8.20) ◎ Asai's demise (8.28) 　　Tengen together for three years 1575 ◎ Nagashino war 　　Tengen years 1578 ◎ ◎ ear Uesugi Kenshin fight Kawai dead son's demise ◎ Nigeria (11.21) 　　Tengen years 1582 ◎ ◎ Takeda's demise become instinct Temple ◎ ◎ wisdom Yamazaki Mitsuhide killed in battle together 　　Tengen ten year war 1583 ◎ ◎ together cheap Shibata Yue singer suicide 　　Tengen years of Komaki Nagakute 1584 ◎ ◎ Chong Tin Zhui joint war fighting 　　Thirteen years 1585 ◎ Tengen Yu Chai Xiuji assumed the post of off white 　　Sixteen years 1588 ◎ Tianzheng Toyotomi Hideyoshi orders issued hunting knife 　　Tengen off seventeen years 1589 ◎ ◎ Lo Anonymous Uehara war perish together (6.5) 　　Tengen eighteen years 1590 ◎ ◎ Hojo Toyotomi Hideyoshi unified the world's demise (8.9) 　　Wen Lu Wen Lu first year of the Battle of 1592 ◎ 　　Qing Qing long long first year the Battle of 1596 ◎ ◎ Fushimi earthquake (Run 7.13) 　　Qing long dead for three years 1598 ◎ Toyotomi Hideyoshi (8.18) 　　Qing-long four-year 1599 ◎ Maeda family dead (Run 3.3) 　　Qing-long five years off the original co-1600 ◎ Battle (9.15) ◎ Dantiansancheng chop (10.1) 　　Qing-long eight 1603 ◎ established the Edo Shogunate (2.12) 　　Qing long years of the Tokugawa Hidetada 1605 ◎ generals took over Zheng Yi (4.16) 　　Nineteen years 1614 ◎ celebrate long winter of the array of Osaka City 　　Element and the first year of 1615 ◎ ◎ Osaka Castle of the array of summer's demise Toyotomi Translated by Google History of the Warring States Period in Japan 　　Although the Muromachi shogunate self interest Yoshimitsu been disturbed after they divided: politics, in addition to the Furukawa Kanto public confrontation between the party and the shogunate, the endless stream of political killings and around or private war against the feudal lords all over the political landscape destroyed. Community, the riots broke out throughout the Premier as the dolphin is not a time bomb, the entire social order of the damage caused by large and small. But never give up the stability of Muromachi shogunate resolve the situation in the country, all these efforts until 1441 because of an accident caused by the country's infighting and come to naught. 　　Onin, the decline of the shogunate 　　Cargill first year (1441) June 24, Harima, the United States for, prepared before the guardian of three full-woo Akamatsu house in Kyoto since the assassination of General Ashikaga Yoshinori. Faced with this emergency situation, Shogun Yoshinori crowned the one hand, the son of Ashikaga shogunate as a great general wins; the one hand, to send troops to the mountain as the main force of the army onslaught on Akamatsu's. The mountains were also delivered in the same year were full on Sept. 10 put down pine's. In order to reward rich shogunate authorities will hold Akamatsu's originally by the three countries as the guardian of the mountain Anonymous management. So originally Tajima, Inaba, ready, Iwami, Peter SAGE Five Anonymous took over guarding the mountain after the three countries, quickly became the most powerful forces in the West Country. 　　Change between instinct Yu Chaixiu Ji Temple Rise 　　Japan Tengen decade, the year June 2, 1582, Oda Nobunaga coastal bases instinct Temple in Kyoto, Japan, the Ministry was informed Mitsuhide's rebellion. Too few guards as Oda Nobunaga, Mitsuhide wise can not afford to stop the attack, so Oda Nobunaga ritual suicide, dying, ordered his personal guard Shisen Lan Wan _set_ fire to his body, so cut by the rebels to the head. In this mutiny and killed him along with the eldest son of Oda Nobunaga and his personal organization Tianxin Zhong Wei Shi Senlan pills. The time of the coup, Oda Nobunaga built before the effective love will keep Yu Chai Xiuji (Toyotomi Hideyoshi) is prepared in the area operations. When he learned of the news, immediately rushed to back the Kyoto suppression of the rebellion, defeated Mitsuhide wise. Home of the Governor in the next battle, he successfully established the organization Tianxin Zhong Yong eldest son of the "Three Master" Tian Xiuxin organization. Also defeated in the military's chief Oda family retainer Shibata singer. Mount Komaki - Nagakute a war, although he did not beat the Tokugawa Ieyasu, Tokugawa Ieyasu but successfully neutralized Tian Xinxiong alliance with the organization. Finally forced the Tokugawa Ieyasu took it on board, clearing a major obstacle for the unification of Japan. Translated by Google Warring States Period in Japan a century 　　【Age】 on the next g 　　Ying Ren, civilization the chaos after the shogunate, the generals and the guardian of the inherent authority of the loss of name dropping, replaced by the name of the Warring States debut. Name is the Muromachi Shogunate guardian appointed by the will be dominated by the local sub-national management committee. Onin later, in addition to some border areas, many have declined guardian name, and then from the second level or guardian on behalf of the people (*), which produce some upstart Strength class, known as the Warring States Period daimyo. 　　(*) Guardian generation: most powerful guardian name act to rule the country a few hours of work, and to assist the shogunate government in Beijing. Neighbors side so strong retainer commissioned a "guardian on behalf of" the identity of regulation. 　　(*) People: also known as the country the public. People's history is complex, in short, the Jin, Muromachi and the Warring States Period divided country on the local lords in the land. 　　From the Warring States Period, end in 1480, and extended to 1590 or so, so used to the Warring States era, we often call the "Century of the Warring States." The number of name in the end the Warring States the number of bits, with our name on the identification of the Warring States Period of the reference point in different conditions, there are different amounts. In general, about one hundred to three hundred or so. 　　Name the elements of the Warring States to survive a wide range, some of which depend on the survival of the manor system, while others protect the system by virtue of the shogunate ‧ firms. Dominated region also determine whether the scale of neighboring countries have been identified as the key name Warring States Period. However, for example, children's and Mao Lishi Nepal is the country with more than ten points name the majority of territory; In contrast, only licensed Asai's three counties, but still able to independence. Therefore, the definition of the Warring States Period name is still divergent, scholars have advocated a "guardian of the Warring States period," the claim that title. 　　According to the Warring States Period daimyo's family background can be divided into three groups. 　　* Name of a guardian is a direct transition from the original name into the Warring States Period. For example, Takeda's Kai, Suruga the Imagawa clan, Bungo's great friends, Satsuma Shimazu's, all belong to this case. Ida's identity is born from the people, was promoted to guard, and then transition to the Warring States Period daimyo, should be able to summarize them in this case. 　　* The other is the means of war, the collapse of the original by the name of the guardian forces, so that their identity was upgraded to the Warring States Period daimyo. For example, a guardian on behalf of the Nepalese children Cloud durable to protect name of Beijing's most overturned, and as the Warring States Period daimyo; more after the long tail as a guardian on behalf of the daimyo Uesugi King's overthrow of the guard, and a name Warring States Period, all belong to this case. This kind of vassal king to overthrow the Lord as to shift or even replaced the practice has become a major historical Warring States period features, known as the "next g on." 　　* The third is by the Lord's people on the ground all the people with the forces of neighboring regions, launched the "people of a Premier," and fight, while the transition to the Warring States Period daimyo. An example of Mao Lishi Arts, near the river's shallow wells belong to this case. 　　Generated by the process name from the Warring States Period, you can understand that this is an era of bad personal strength, and strength to develop the source was very odd. Water can carry a boat, can also overturn it. At first glance seem to name Warring States is the implementation of absolute monarchy, but in fact there is a strong minister of state doctrine of joint management team characteristics. Relationship between the Warring States Period and the Edo period from the different feudal lords. Master-slave relationship as the relationship between the ship and water, the main king is the ship, retainer of water, the ship can not move forward without water. Even prior retainer only the main concept is very popular monarch. Main Jun in dealing with government, we must also take into account the subjects as if favor. Generally speaking, the "grace" is to discuss the subjects as to please the most specific approach. The so-called "grace" is the means by war and plunder each other's land redistribution to the meritorious generals. Name as the Warring States Period, the subjects as if you can not buy the hearts and minds, it could lead to being "off against" fate. "From the anti-" means to give shape up the main retainer Jun and left. Retainers in order to prevent "off against", the main king had to constantly wage war to fight for the "grace" of the capital. 　　Most of the art of war】 【Warring States 　　As we all know, is a law of the jungle the Warring States Period, pay attention to strength of the doctrine of the era. Warring States Period name in order to maintain a high degree of combat effectiveness, in addition to training soldiers, but also must reserve a large number of weapons, so spending on military expenses is considerable. This Modern Japan when the Meiji Restoration advocates "Fuguoqiangbing" concept is very similar. In addition to strong soldiers, the rich countries is the subject must be considered. In the agricultural age, environment, irrigation, flood control as a prerequisite for the rich. Takeda Shingen's Ranked embankment, Date Masamune, the Chen-Shan Hori name Warring States are represented, not only in the battlefield bravery and combat skills, the management of the country is suitably organized. River regulation, reducing the number of flooding, preparation of irrigation water, the result of the development of new fields, the natural rapid surge in rice production. Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Ieyasu was able to complete the reunification of dominance can not neglect their country under the management of the work. Which can be said that Pioneer figurines Oda Nobunaga who played a pioneering role. For example, he invented the steel vessels to withstand rocket, or three sections of Lilium approach to solve the facelift of ammunition to attack the gap, are all believed to play a rich imagination and be a long proof of success. 　　1567 (vinh loc years) Mino Saito Xing Nobunaga captured mountain of rice leaves, and then renamed Gifu, then to "the world cloth arms," ​​the word engraved use. Most scholars agree that this is a long letter of declaration to the people of the world will be forcibly taken the meaning of the world, but some people think here, "Wu" the word does not mean force, protest, but was intended to take military family. So long believed "the world cloth arms" is declared to the world in the future world ruled by military family, military family will become the center of political power. 　　After the thirteenth century, Japanese society is basically a military family present, the public sector (= court nobility) and Temple House (= the Buddhist temple) full of powers situation. On this occasion, the weak and sluggish public has long been there for a total bet. Long letter to a merciless fire Hieizan Enryakuji discussion, or were the mountains and along Rock Hill Honganji clash, it is coveted by the Wu family is completely above the political forces at home over Temple. This political line Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, basically, the era of Ieyasu continued to be passed along. Therefore, the Wu family's era to the Meiji Restoration that has been maintained so far. 　　【Change the truth of instinct Temple】 　　As we all know, Oda Nobunaga in June 1582 Temple in Kyoto instinct for the retainer wise Mitsuhide was killed by the thorn, but also the end of Ambition Nobunaga, at the age of forty-year-old. However, for the instinct of the change occurs because the temple is controversial. In the past, academics have a wide range of claims, such resentment that the wild hope that the intercom said, or so desperate that, but have no agreement. 　　Professor of Shizuoka University Faculty of Education which is small and Mr. Tian Zhenan have their unique insights. Mr. Owada view is from the general representation of a long letter level Jakob source of the angle of historical grievances, to analyze the change instinct Temple truth of the incident. 1582 (Tengen years) March, the long crusade against Takeda's Kai, the court should have begun to seriously consider how to adjust the court in the form of a long relationship with the letter. Is pro-cho emperor can do is to grant the court official under the system of long letters to highlight long as the legitimacy of the letter. In fact, both the length of his letter Ye Hao, Ye Hao, or the intention of the court, both with each other in private, that the Great General Yi to sign a long letter grade given is appropriate. However, a long letter to the family can be traced back before the twelfth century Huan Wu Pingshi. Ping Ping Chiang Saen's ancestors also served in the court too political minister. Although the letter no longer respond to their default position on the court, are willing to accept any official position. However, the court also has considered that if the letter is too long government minister desires, or off white sort of official position, it might be. However, Nobunaga was in Beijing to prepare the way to respond to the court was informed Mitsuhide assassinated. 　　It is said that wise Mitsuhide origins can be traced back to the Mino Genji of Toki's descendant, although some reluctantly, but if Mitsuhide own is Genji after itself, then, from the source level II's history between scores and in accordance with a positive and realistic requirements, Ping's Nobunaga took over a former general staff after the incident it is difficult to be recognized Genji. In other words, Mitsuhide to stop Nobunaga took over Generals, is waiting for an opportunity to launch the instinct Temple of the change. 　　Of course, Mitsuhide should be supported in the court and another conspiracy, not its own separate line offense. Although the existing historical data, are unsure why the conspirators in the end, but there are still some doubts to be survived. In addition, according to Mr. Tong Ye Zuoren research, Yoshida Yoshida Shinto were home from the pen and see the diary "Yoshida Big mind" about their close friends and relations between Mitsuhide has done some tampering. Thus two cases can deduce, after the incident, the court notes some are concerned that some content will be Hideyoshi to look over, to be wiped out in advance, or other re-writing. Therefore, the murder of Nobunaga and many can discuss the truth of the space. 　　Taiko Hideyoshi and recorded 【】 　　Relative to the long letter gives a cold, nothingness impression Hideyoshi is giving a friendly and approachable image of the ordinary poor peasant with his children, to climb to the apex of power, natural charm exudes a hero of the bush. Therefore, suffering from the shackles of the identity of the Edo period of the general system of common people, the success of Hideyoshi Story full of longing, and how many have Hideyoshi complex. Edo period, which also published a large number of Hideyoshi generation in mind. Among them, the most representative work is "Taiko mind." The same "Taiko mind" for the title of the works of many, but because of the different, so the title "Taiko mind" above and then the name of the crown. For example, the writings of Oze Um just called "Fu Temple Taiko mind"; Chuan Kok Saburo Koemon work is called "Chuan Kok Taiko mind." If only the "Taiko mind" in the title and generally refers to the "Fu Temple Taiko mind." In addition, there are also accompanied by illustrations of the "picture book Taiko mind," written by the Takeuchi is fast, Okada Yushan graphics, naturally, became a bestseller. Although it must be noted that, no matter what version of the "Taiko mind", its contents are a considerable distance with the historical facts, and wrote a variety of interesting anecdotes, but that is of historical facts or fabricated stories, it shall not conceivable. 　　In various versions of "Taiko in mind," Chen's works known to Tsuchiya, "Taiko Su Sang Kee" account of boyhood in the letter by the higher degree of Hideyoshi. However, the contents of this book so much work, as it is a compilation of oral interviews, to be more appropriate, which collected all sorts of information Hideyoshi youth. 　　In addition to self-efforts, Hideyoshi's fortune is also good. For example, in 1582 when the instinct to change Temple, has been assassinated Nobunaga secret letter, the secret to the wrong messenger camp, which has allowed Hideyoshi to seize the initiative. In addition, Hideyoshi unified the world at the same time to complete, due to advances in metallurgy (ash blowing, excavation method), the era of Hideyoshi Japanese gold and silver production increased significantly. Thus, Hideyoshi in the strong backing of financial resources, continue to build city (cities, city, Fushimi City, befriending the first), to expand domestic demand, thereby promoting social and economic prosperity. Translated by Google Buddha of the Warring States 　　Buddha of the Warring States Period (Japanese comic book, "One Piece" in the figure) 　　Japanese Name: Fo ゴ ク ン の セ 　　English name: Warring.States.Buddha 　　Status: Marshal Navy Headquarters 　　Devil Fruit: not available 　　Weapons: Unknown Translated by Google Encyclopedia 　　Zhanguo 　　Warring States 　　Before 475 BC to 221 years of Chinese history before the Qin unification period. Countries during this period endless infighting, it is called the Warring States predecessors. But also the previous spring, collectively known as the Eastern Zhou Warring States Period, the Warring States also called for the nations or six of state. He began in the Warring States in the past by different methods. "Historical Records" and "Six Form" given in the first year of Zhou Yuan Wang (formerly 475), and "Mirror" depicts 403 years BC, Han, Zhao, and Wei Jin as the Warring States period beginning three minutes. Seems to err on the former 403 later, it is now rarely used the criteria for the classification. 　　Spring and Autumn Warring States Period, and as the country is still divided separatist state, but the trend is gradually through mergers war uniform. Spring and Autumn Period total of over one hundred countries, through constant mergers, to the Warring States in the early years only a dozen countries. Large state-owned Qin, Chu, Han, Zhao, Wei, Qi, Yan Qiguo, the famous "Seven Warring States." In addition to the seven powers, the more early in the Warring States also dominated the time, but soon demise. Small state-owned weekly, Song, Wei, Zhongshan, Lu, Teng, Zou, fees, later annexed by the seven countries has been. Located in close proximity with the seven powers, there are many ethnic minorities, the north and northwest forest Hu, Loufan, Donghu, Huns, instrument channel, Sichuan and Fujian to the south, Vietnam, to the Qin unification, has been more integration with the Han nationality. 　　The boundaries of the seven countries are: Qin possession of this southeastern Shaanxi and Gansu, Sichuan, after the progressive to the present, Shanxi, Henan. Capital initially Yung (now Shaanxi Fengxiang), and finally moved to Xianyang. South Korea's territory is the smallest of the seven countries who in this southeastern Shanxi and Henan, are of the western Han Yu, the capital city in Binh Duong (now Linfen, Shanxi Province), later moved Zheng (Henan Xinzheng). Shanxi Zhao possession of this central, northern and central and northwestern Hebei, Inner Mongolia, after the antipodes since the southern Yellow River, the capital Handan. Wei holds today in North and South of Shanxi and Henan in the east area, the capital of the Anyi (now Shanxi Xiaxian), after the transfer beam (now Kaifeng). Shandong Qi possession of this part of the north and southeast of Hebei, the capital in the Linzi. Chu holds now Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Shandong as part of capital at Ying (now Hubei Jiangling), later moved to Chen (Henan Huaiyang), Shouchun (now Shou County, Anhui) and other places. Yan occupy the northern and southern Liaoning, Hebei this area, and then share this Liaodong and Inner Mongolia, Jilin, part of the capital of a thistle (now Beijing), under which all this Yi County, Hebei. 　　Sima Qian was due to the lack of a complete monograph on the history of the Warring States Period, the "Historical Records" can only save in the "war policy", "World of the" raw materials such as books written about the history of the Warring States biographical and family. Yinqueshan Mawangdui, Yunmeng such as those unearthed bamboo slips and silk, and bearing in mind the materials on a variety of artifacts, there are many important historical data, may amend or supplement the "Historical Records" and other books. 　　Tremendous changes in social and economic 　　From late Spring and Autumn to the Warring States, the rapid social and economic development, and economic development, but also, and production tools, technology and the enthusiasm of producers work closely to improve. 　　Production tools, revolutionary change that occurred, mainly the emergence and widespread use of iron. Late spring and already has iron, but not universal. After entering the Warring States Period, whether agriculture or handicrafts, iron tools have been inseparable. In the "Mencius" book mentioned iron plow. "Tube" is that: the farmer must have iron Lei, □, Diao, workers must have a needle and knife, the system must have the burden of Cut, saw, awl, chisel. Otherwise they can not become the case. It is now know, Henan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Shandong, Hebei, Liaoning, Hunan, Hubei and other provinces have been unearthed in the Warring States Period of iron tools is obvious that the use of iron broad regional anomaly. But also a variety of types of iron tools and, if hoe, □, sickle, □ other tools, there are ax, adze, chisels, knives and other hand tools in the tool have the same size or different type of difference. In the Bronze Age, copper tools often and wood, stone, bone, clam tools made of co-existence. To the Warring States, not only wood and stone tools gradually disappeared, bronze tools is declining. Sharp and strong use of a large number of iron tools in agriculture and handicrafts, greatly improving efficiency. (See color pictures of the iron plow the Warring States Period, the Warring States period of iron sickle) 　　Yan Yi County, Hebei iron tools are under 22, the tomb unearthed 　　Yan Yi County, Hebei iron tools are under 22, the tomb unearthed 　　Warring States period field system collapsed from a variety of fields were no longer farming, the State of Wei "line field" of the system, is about to land into small pieces, each farmer may be subject to mu. Other countries also do so, in addition to acres of fields, as well as small residential garden land. Although there are small farmers on the land Translated by Google English Expression :  zhan guo n.:  the Warring States Period French Expression n.  les Royaumes Combattants (722-221 av. JC) Thesaurus the Warring States Period off, the Warring States Period epoch Related Phrases In length and breadth home historical figures cutthroat Qin Shihuang Chinese history Handan city a famous general zhaoguo Wikipedia Daquan history Characters czar tengzhou The warring states period four son of a high official qiguo Han Hebei geography Spring and Autumn Annals arm outbreak campaign More results... Containing Phrases belligerent "Record of the Warring States", compiled in early Han Dynasty Classification details Zhao Hundred Schoolars Chu the Warring States Period sovereign Qin Shihuang Qin Xiaogong qinhuiwang qinwangzheng Patriotic center mountainous Chu King City the basic policy of a state; national policy be an armchair strategist prime minister (in feudal China) Miluo river monarch Invincible well-trained army with strong soldiers and study horses Cuikulaxiu courteous to the wise and condescending to the scholarly desperation gulf class lao'ai Rang Hou legislation schematize backside base Liu Xiang, a famous writer in ancient china Wu Qi Sun City Zhang Yi, a strategist during the Warring States epoch who advocated alliance with the Lian Po, general of the state of Zhou during the Warring States period "Record of the Warring States", compiled in early Han Dynasty make a country rich and build up its military power Quick fix contention of a hundred schools of thought crossbeam Danyang vertical integration the censor Dujiang Weirs the affairs of State Xinzheng power horse King of the heap Shang Yang Sun Bin Jin Ke Lin Hsiang-ju Sanjin Tiandan Zhao wu King Ling Chunshenjun Bai Qi Grandson Fan Ju Yue Yi King Wei Tian More results...