Geological history of biological science. Fossil for the study to explore the origin and evolution biology, paleontology, morphology, structure, classification, ecology and distribution law.
Translated by Google
No. 2
paleontology Paleontology is the convergence of life sciences and earth sciences interdisciplinary science. A unique branch of both the life sciences unique nature of historical time scale scientific, research the origin of life, the development of an important part of the foundation and history of biological macro-evolutionary model, such as the history of rhythm and biological mechanisms; yet another Earth sciences branch of study in the formation of stored biological remains, relics, fossils to determine the stratigraphic sequence of the times, to understand the history of the development of the crust inferred geologic history of the land and water distribution, regular mineral formation and distribution of climate change and deposition. Depending on the object of study, paleontology, paleobotany and ancient zoology into two branches. With the development of modern production needs and deepen scientific research, paleobotany palynology and separation of the ancient science of ancient algae; ancient separation of the ancient invertebrate zoology science and Vertebrate Paleontology; paleoanthropology both anthropology branches, is the branch of Vertebrate Paleontology; tiny plants and animals based on individual studies or large fossil organisms tiny part, but also the formation of a branch of microfossils, showing significance in theory and practice. Paleontology Overview Paleontology is the study of the geological era in biological science and development. Paleontology comprehensive study of ancient biological morphology, classification, lifestyle, living conditions and ground distribution history, paleontology, evolutionary development also illustrates the basic approach and laws. Paleontology is the study of objects excavated from the rock out of the fossil (fossil). Through investigation of the fossil, with the understanding of the geological and other studies on the issue of fossil-bearing rock formations, ancient organisms can explain various problems. The most famous paleontological research is to verify the theory of continental drift. In addition, due to the different natural and geographical environment of living a different life, a different sediments are deposited, through which the study of fossils, was inferred ancient geography and ancient climate, and the formation of some minerals, such as coal, oil, etc. closely related organisms, can be understood by studying the causes of these minerals. Paleontology has the following branches: Paleobotany: studies of ancient plant morphology, classification, lifestyle, living conditions, and to the history of the distribution; Ancient Zoology: the study of ancient animal morphology, taxonomy, lifestyle, living conditions, and to the history of the distribution; Paleoecology: study paleontology and environmental relations; Ancient Biochemistry: study ancient strata of life contained in the organic matter of the research to explore the origin of life on Earth provides new information; Paleobiogeography: Research in the history of flora and fauna geographical distribution. Paleontology is the study of various types have been stored in the ground where the remains of extinct ancient creatures, artifacts or relics of science. The purpose of research is to understand the history of paleontology biological evolution in the long geological age, in order to determine the order of the process before and after the formation of the Earth's history and development, and to infer changes in the Earth's geological history and changes of land and water distribution landscape, climate and environment conditions and sedimentary deposits generated rule. Depending on the study of paleontology can be divided into ancient botany, zoology and other ancient branches. With the development of science, paleontology in modern times and the formation of micro-body paleontology, paleoanthropology Palynology and ancient branch of anthropology, recently emerging molecular paleontology is to get a vigorous development and traditional paleontological Science has played a lot of revolutionary impact.
Translated by Google
Paleontology Overview
Paleontology is the convergence of life sciences and earth sciences interdisciplinary science. A unique branch of both the life sciences unique nature of historical time scale scientific, research the origin of life, the development of an important part of the foundation and history of biological macro-evolutionary model, such as the history of rhythm and biological mechanisms; yet another Earth sciences branch of study in the formation of stored biological remains, relics, fossils to determine the stratigraphic sequence of the times, to understand the history of the development of the crust inferred geologic history of the land and water distribution, regular mineral formation and distribution of climate change and deposition. Depending on the object of study, paleontology, paleobotany and ancient zoology into two branches. With the development of modern production needs and deepen scientific research, paleobotany palynology and separation of the ancient science of ancient algae; ancient separation of the ancient invertebrate zoology science and Vertebrate Paleontology; paleoanthropology both anthropology branches, is the branch of Vertebrate Paleontology; tiny plants and animals based on individual studies or large fossil organisms tiny part, but also the formation of a branch of microfossils, showing significance in theory and practice.
Translated by Google
A brief history of paleontology
Understanding of fossils in China and the West have been more than a millennium of history. But paleontology a science began in the late 18th century, about 200 years old. The founders of this science include: J.-B.de Lamarck (invertebrate), W. Smith (biostratigraphy), G. Cuvier (make relevant laws and extinction, disaster concepts), CR Darwin (his theory of evolution as a scientific paleontology provides the theoretical basis, noting that the "incompleteness of the fossil record," this defect). Since then hundreds of years to the mid-20th century, is to describe the mainstream paleontology paleontology and biostratigraphy. Achievement of this is enormous. First, Western Europe, North America, and the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Japan, China, India, and elsewhere in the world of paleontology published numerous monographs and biological formations provide a factual basis for the comprehensive study of paleontology. During this period the development of other aspects of paleontology is not significant, one of the reasons is the development of modern biology (genetics, molecular biology) has not infiltrated, also lacking in geology can point the way for a unified theory of paleontology grid . From the mid-20th century after, paleontology has some major breakthroughs: ① electron microscope, special photographic technology applications and oil exploration needs to make up some of the rapid development of new branches, including microfossils and Advanced Micro paleontology, ancient biochemistry, Fossil petrology; ② On the basis of the accumulation of large amounts of data on the occurrence of a leap paleontological theoretical work, and Fort Simpson was first based on genetics and evolutionary paleontology comprehensive theory of evolution. After the 1960s, due to the theory of plate paleontology provides a unified global geological context, also the paleontology request. As the number of new developments on biology (neutral theory, science and other branches of the system), paleontology, there have been many new ideas in the theory of evolution, systematics, paleontology and other aspects of geography. Forming impact on traditional concepts, there are some new achievements, such as total non-finfish nostrils and may not be the ancestors of tetrapods, etc.
Translated by Google
Paleontology research methods
Paleontology is the study of fossils. Study of fossils, including field and laboratory two stages. Wild stage is to collect specimens and collecting observations. The general requirement is more than the amount collected and observation of good quality, with the specific requirements of a given research tasks, such as bio-stratigraphic studies, they asked to choose a good cross-section, step by step to find and collect fossils, simultaneous measurements, observed and recorded rock drill and fossil output conditions, while the rock, fossil specimens cataloged packaging. If it is something of ecological research, in addition to general biostratigraphic work, but also to observe the collection focuses on the distribution of paleontology, burial, community structure and other information, often collected in the wild and quantitative observations and make more drawings and photography. Indoor phase includes the identification and description of thematic studies on fossils. Identification description includes grinding, repair, identification, photography, describe a series of procedures, classification and description of procedures used and biological same nomenclature (Two law, legal precedence, etc.) also follow the "International action (planting) matter Nomenclature "requirement. On this basis, and then a special study subjects direction.
Translated by Google
Paleontology research
Evolutionary paleontology Paleontology is the biological geological history, and also follow the principles of Darwinian evolution. Evolutionary manner specified ─ ─ evolutionary branching evolutionary stage of evolution, radiation adapt, divergent evolution, convergent evolution, parallel evolution, dynamic evolution, etc. The same applies to paleontology. In addition, paleontological evolution has its own rules and characteristics. More important laws are: ① irreversible law, proposed by the Belgian paleontologist L. Dolo. It noted that both the organism or organ, once again could not recover in the future evolution of the biosphere, and once again in the offspring can not disappear or reappear elsewhere. For example, the evolution of the terrestrial fish, mammals, mammal back to the ocean to become a part of cetaceans, but the fish fins, gills and so can not be restored in the whale, the whale can only rely lungs and limbs evolved and tail fins from the role. According irreversible law, in the older strata have been extinct fossil species that no longer appear in the newer formations, formations of different ages will have different fossil biota. The sequence law and irreversible law together, constitute the basic principles of the use of the method to determine the age of the strata paleontology and stratigraphy of the division. ② the relevant law, the French paleontologist G. Cuvier proposed. It pointed out that the development of the various parts of an organism is closely interlinked, a part of change, will cause a corresponding change in the other part. This is because adaptation to the environment will inevitably affect many aspects. For example carnivorous mammals adapt to cause tooth differentiation (adapted to the bite), jaw strengthening and sensibility, strong limbs, toe with a series of related changes claws. According to the relevant law, the application of comparative anatomy knowledge, you can usually recover its overall from fossil preservation incomplete information, and according to infer their behavior in order to restore the ancient environment. ③ repeat of law, as proposed by the German biologist Haeckel. It noted that ontogeny is a brief repetition of the system occurred. According to a repeat of law, recourse from biological belongs ontogeny phylogenetic group classes, in order to establish pedigree, helps correct classification. For example, some of the monomer rugose coral slice observation, can be seen from early infancy to adulthood order with the internal structure of a single type, followed by a dual band type, and finally into a three-band type. This shows that the band has gone from one type to the dual band type to three with three types of process systems with type rugose corals occur. Progressive evolution There evolutionary paleontology progress macroscopic characteristics and stage of evolution. Progressive evolution refers to the biological history of the total is from less to more, from lower to higher, from simple to complex trend. Harland et al (1967) distribution statistics are based on 2526's era of the above categories, dozens to more than 1,000 now from the Cambrian time. Plants, invertebrates, vertebrates, respectively, showing the same trend. In the 16 major categories, in addition to gymnosperms doors, Mollusca, Brachiopoda and Reptilia, but showed different degrees of increase, from low to high, from simple to complex trends (Chen Xiang, 1978). Stage of evolution A series of short-term mutation (intermittent) and long-term gradient (equilibrium) alternately processes occur. Mutation is due to the massive extinction of old categories and followed by a new category of explosive and radiation freshmen adapt; generated after the new category, you can have a gradient of a long-term stable development until the next break. Is the mass extinction of many categories of extinction in most areas of the earth in the same geological period. In the late Phanerozoic implicitly, on behalf of Ediacaran fauna disappear once the mass extinction. In the Phanerozoic, some statistics a total of six large-scale extinction (the end of the Cambrian, Ordovician, late Devonian, end-Permian, late Triassic, Cretaceous end). Including one of the most dramatic end of the Permian. Each time a large-scale extinction, up to tens of percent is alternating, alternating larger species, up to 90%. They immediately with a new category of radiation adapt combine to form the basis of the relative geological ages of the history of division. About the reasons for mass extinction can be broadly divided into biological reason itself (competition, grab food, nutrient sources, nutrition areas, changes in nutrient levels, etc.), the ball (temperature, salinity, climate, oxygen, shallow, changes, etc.), etc. The reason the continental shelf area and the ball outside (radiation, shock, the magnetic field changes, etc.) reasons. In recent years, that because the ball hit the outer planets, sparking dust clouds, causing the combined effects of opacity, refrigeration, poisoning, etc., caused by the end of the Cretaceous mass extinction; well as due to the split plate, the continental shelf area of the sea retreat caused the Permian scale extinction saying quite popular. Paleontological classification system Paleontology of the same taxa and biology, namely, Phylum, class, order, family, genus, species, during which there are some auxiliary units such as superfamily, super mesh, Chaogang, ultra door (Biology Division, said the total, Head), subspecies, subgenus, subfamily, suborder, subclass, sub-doors. Paleontological and biological species concept the same species, but because of the fossil can not determine whether there is reproductive isolation, it is more focused on the following characteristics: ① common morphological features; ② constitute certain populations; ③ populations distributed in a certain geographic range. Based on the above characteristics distinguish fossil species, is considered to be a natural taxonomic unit, with objectivity. Some fossil species but often only determined by the shape of certain parts of organisms (such as plant leaves) a; or after detailed study found that in the same part of the name describes the organisms belonging to different taxonomic units; or the same classification unit has several kinds of patterns (such as the shape of the twin phenomenon), but has been given a separate species name respectively. These kinds of morphological species called to distinguish them from natural seed unit. There is also the same situation. Another difference is the lowest in modern biological classification units only geographical subspecies, but there's paleontology subspecies classification, it refers to the same kind of inner distribution at different times on different populations of their morphological characteristics;'s Asia kinds of further development, has become kind's. Functional Morphology According bone morphogenetic judgment function. The basic principle is: the vast majority of shape is the result of adaptation, there is a function, these functions can be inferred based on morphological methods by scientific proof. For example, cephalopods and housing next to the boundary line - sutures, in the evolution of its fold more complex. Its causes have raised three kinds of hypotheses: ① fold increase in the strength of the shell, to resist the pressure difference caused by the rapid rise and fall; ② fold part of the muscle attachment of muscles stretching to make the animal retreat in order to change the proportion of the whole case, adjust the lift; ③ fold increase in the secretion of the mantle area of gas and liquid, adjusting the lift, the mantle wall is the result of folding the fold. Were extrapolated based on three kinds of hypotheses should have reasonable performance, and to the history and evolution of sutures, ontogeny validation phase, the proof of the second hypothesis can not be established, the first one is more reasonable, which clarified the morphology ─ ─ suture folds function. Functional morphological study can be generalized to paleoecology, paleoenvironmental inference, as recently advocated some people but dinosaurs are not cold-blooded animal warm-blooded animals, is to make judgments based on functional morphology. Built morphological German paleontologist S. Saila He and others from further development and functional morphology proposed. Considers biological bone formation based on three factors: ① historical factors, namely the system occurs through breeding decisions genotype of the organism, it has decided to build what organisms and bone material; ② functional factors, namely adaptation, by population and species by natural _select_ion determines the direction of bone construction and organisms; ③ morphogenetic factors, namely the growth of the organism and in the manner decided by the biochemical process of bone growth. Such as the construction process is dependent on modern horseshoe: ① adapted to run on the prairie needs, ② their ancestors three toed, ③ occur in the course of the individual forms, and other toe degradation, and develop into the toe shoe. Accordingly, in turn, can be constructed by the shape of bones to infer phylogenetic, environmental and morphogenetic processes. Paleopathological Is the science of the fossil remains of pathological phenomena. Most limited to vertebrates, known are: growing too fast, teeth deformities and dental caries, fractures and bone callus, bone necrosis, a new joint hyperplasia, odontoma, opisthotonos, osteoma, osteomalacia, osteomyelitis , periostitis, osteoarthritis, bone and jaw hypertrophy, spinal deformities, pathological bone tuberculosis, mainly seen in dinosaurs and mammals. Plants and invertebrates also reported pathological phenomena, such as mollusks of the parasite disease. Paleobiogeography Geographical Distribution of paleontology. In recent years, rapid development, has been widely used in the reconstruction of ancient geography and ancient environments to explore as well as the distribution of plate motion history of mineral formation. At present, research is palaeobiogeographic flora each era, currently the world's flora Phanerozoic each discipline has begun to outline. Flora is generally divided into large areas or domains (realm), district (region), district or province (province), there are further sub-divided into provinces (subprovince) and local centers (endemic center) is. Divided according to various flora varies, usually divided region and the region more attention latitude, temperature control and geographic barrier control, while the lower unit flora, different biomes often play a major role, therefore, and paleoecology Learn overlap, Valentin (1973) considered the intercontinental level geography and paleontology paleoecology global level. In addition to studying paleontology floristic geography, but also the proliferation of paleontological research, distribution, migration, isolation, mixing phenomenon, which aspects of the work are deepening. In recent years, with the punctuated equilibrium theory and cladistic combined with the rise of the alternative differentiation biogeography, which considers the distribution of the biological process is not diffused outward from the center of origin, but an ancestral taxon due to geographical isolation branches into two sister groups process, representatives of branch points in the genealogy ancestry groups, geographically representative of the barrier. Its analysis and cladistic same as that to find a relationship between the two regions closer relations with any third country in order to establish the distribution of the closeness of each taxon (chronological order) linkages between regions with each other. Mathematical paleontology Mathematical methods are now being used in various fields of paleontology. There are many aspects of the current application: The application of mathematical methods and computer perform fossil identification, description and statistics; application of mathematical methods such as univariate, bivariate analysis and the corresponding coordinate diagram population variation, dynamics of populations; numerical classification; quantitative paleoecology and so on. Ancient Biochemistry Study of chemical processes and products and paleontological activities. This is roughly in two directions: one direction focuses on fossils and sedimentary organic matter, it would be as a chemical fossils to explore the history of the evolution of organic chemistry. Find and study this chemical fossils in the oldest rocks, exploring the origins of life on Earth is important. Another direction is to study the chemical composition of the bones paleontology, especially its mineral composition, traces of the chemical composition and isotopic composition. These results can be used to study: ① sea water chemistry evolution history; determination ② ancient seawater environmental parameters (salinity, temperature); ③ carbonate rocks, rocks with fossils as the main component and diagenesis; ④ chemical cycle history; ⑤ to bone chemistry-based taxonomy; ⑥ bone formation process; ⑦ application of chemical evolution of stratigraphy years; ⑧ enriched in organic matter in the rare elements (uranium, nickel, vanadium, cobalt) to form the distribution of minerals and so on. Molecular paleontology Molecular paleontology is a multidisciplinary field of the rise in the 1990s, it involves the theory and methods of ancient biology, molecular evolution and molecular systematics, geology, geochemistry and other branches of science. Content ancient molecular biology research, including basic concepts of molecular paleontology research techniques, methods, theories and principles as well as the main research direction and progress abroad, including the theory of molecular evolution, molecular data processing and analysis methods, the ancient DNA, the ancient amino acids, molecular markers, molecular systematics, paleontology and comprehensive research and other aspects of modern bio-molecular data. Develop and improve the means of modern technology, modern biology study on the extension of the traditional paleontological research in the field, and brought new development opportunities. Molecular biology is the study of ancient direction of new theories and techniques of modern biology paleontology research methods used in the process, such as the study of ancient protein molecules and their decomposition products, determine the arrangement of the amino acid sequence of the ancient, but also fully reflects the contemporary paleontology research characteristics and goals, explore paleontology evolutionary, genetic and chemical composition from the molecular level. Determination of amino acid racemization has been applied to determine the absolute age. Biological mineralogy Biological inorganic crystals and not produce crystalline organic, inorganic substances in the process of composition of bones and results. On the one hand study of bone mineral composition and their formation mechanism, other research fine bone structure (polygonal, staggered sheet nacre, homogeneous layer, etc.). The research results are used: ① fine structure classification paleontology and evolution; ② infer ancient marine environment factors and changes history. Ancient biochemistry, molecular paleontology research areas and biological mineralogy are partially overlapping. Fossil petrology Mainly fossil carbonate petrology. Modern study shows often generate carbonates and biological role of this includes granulation (bone particles, oolitic, fecal pellets, oncoids clot stone, etc.), making mud (algae or invertebrates bone decomposition The product is the main source of modern plaster), building frame (corals, stromatolites, sponges form of rock grid) and so on. Transformation of carbonate rocks are often related biochemical, biological ingredients contained calcium carbonate skeletons (eg magnesium) and structural (calcite, aragonite, etc.) have evolved in the history of the earth. By dissolving them, accountable and recrystallization an impact on diagenesis. This is caused by ancient and modern Carbonate diagenesis different one important reason. Calcareous fossils now being regarded as an important sign petrogenesis flakes studied fossils has become one of the best ways to determine the ancient carbonate depositional environments. Ancient bionics Explore simulated physiological structure of ancient biological advantages of modern technology to provide a useful reference for design. E.g., the sequence based on the overlap comb tooth dragon has devised a double bit; hadrosaurs staggered rows of teeth (400 ~ 500) continuously replaced, can be used for grinding, crushing equipment design.
Translated by Google
Branch of paleontology
Traditional emphasis on paleontology fossils classification for descriptions. Usually divided into paleobotany, ancient zoology (including invertebrate paleontology and vertebrate paleontology) and microfossils paleontology. Which micropalaeontology credits Palynology a separate branch in recent years, and the separation of a new branch of ultrafine paleontology to Nannofossils study. Nannofossils refers to optical microscopes can not identify, required microfossils electron microscopy studies, generally less than 10 microns in diameter. On the basis of data accumulation description on paleontology, modern biology gradually to change the direction of research, or theory called the modern paleontology paleontology (Paleobiology) on the current level of development, the Division has formed roughly as follows: ① evolutionary theory: If a comprehensive theory that modern Darwinism; punctuated equilibrium. ② systematics and taxonomy: classification includes comprehensive school, school branch system, the number of schools and other categories. ③ morphology: in particular, functional morphology and construction morphology. ④ paleoecology and ancient ruins to learn. ⑤ ancient pathology. Paleontology and geology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, genetics combined, and the formation of the following disciplines: ① biostratigraphy and ecological stratigraphy; ② paleobiogeography; ③ mathematical paleontology; ④ ancient biochemistry; ⑤ molecular paleontology ; ⑥ biological mineralogy; ⑦ fossil petrology; ⑧ ancient bionics. Where ancient biochemistry, molecular biology and biotechnology ancient mineralogy is also considered part of modern paleontology.
Translated by Google
Significance of paleontology
Paleontology charged with the dual task of geology and biology services. Of Geology Service Establish systems and geological formations on behalf of: This is in geology, paleontology most widely used, the effectiveness of the outstanding aspects. Stratigraphic base law, biological evolution progressive, irreversible stage and, after several decades of effort, established in the 19th century from Precambrian to Quaternary strata systems and corresponding geological age system. Since the 20th century, although the development of radioactive dating methods and other means, biostratigraphy method is still the primary means of establishing stratigraphic units at all levels. On behalf of the geological time, the discipline, the World, the corresponding stratigraphic units of the boundary line, system, order. For example the reptile, gymnosperms, prosperous era ammonites class designated as the Mesozoic, where dinosaurs and ammonites suborder heyday Jurassic period; Early Jurassic to Eode-rocerataceae ammonites and Psilocerataceae two super Branch is characterized; which Cenomanian to Aries Stone Branch Kuk characterized. Several of these can also be separated with ammonites. Stratigraphic division and correlation: research in this area is called biostratigraphy. Biostratigraphy methods, is the oldest fossils law. Fossils must meet the following conditions: the presence of geological time is short, in order to accurately determine the age of the strata; wide geographic distribution, so easy to find and compare a wide range of work. Such as the aforementioned Aries stone, can be found throughout Europe and the ancient Mediterranean area, is standard Cenomanian fossils. When using the standard method of fossil should be noted that there occurs at any time fossils, prosperous scarce, and the extinction process space origin, migration, spreading process. Predecessors and geographical distribution of the literature of the times and the required modifications needed depending on the circumstances, can not be applied mechanically. Also note that a fossil biota in various types have different degrees of stratigraphic significance, can not ignore the entire biota face, but only based on a small number of fossils to determine the age of the strata. In addition to standard fossil law, the percentage statistical method endures, in recent years many new methods biostratigraphy, such as ecological communities comparison method, the number (or graphic) comparison method. Restore ancient geography and ancient climate due to the result of the environment to adapt to a variety of biological and behavioral habits in their body shape structure has to reflect the characteristics of the environmental conditions. So find out fossil morphology, classification, the ecology, the application "will present on the ancient" approach, we can infer its existence during the living environment. Particularly useful in this regard is the relative fossils, fossils of some kind that is able to give clear directions to the depositional environment. For example coral reef environment for marine life, no more than 100 meters water depth, water temperature above 18 ℃, the water is clear, calm water. So, if you find a body in the formation of coral reefs can determine its sedimentary environment for the warm, clear shallow water. Again, ferns live in warm, humid climates, so a lot of fern fossils found in the formation, on the instructions of the ancient climate was warm and humid. When using fossil restoration of ancient environments, organisms should be noted that many of its geological history of the evolution of living environment, for example, are typically shallow Paleozoic crinoids in animals, now the majority inhabit the deep sea. Moreover, not only refers to the phase fossils, and each category biota and sediments reflect the significance of the environment itself, there should be noted that the composite analysis. Sedimentary rocks and mineral research the causes and distribution: Many sedimentary rocks, such as some limestone, diatomaceous earth, composed mainly of fossils, especially energy minerals (oil, oil shale, coal) formed mainly transformed from plant and animal remains. Current application paleontology at prospecting mainly the following aspects: ① According to the fossil era mineralization distribution, ecological characteristics, etc., study the distribution of minerals; ② widespread use of microfossils and nannofossils, accurate classification and correlation with seam position, drilling and other guidance; ③ ancient biochemical point of view, study paleontology through adsorption, complexation, etc. enrichment of rare element compounds law; study the role of archaea and other mineral formation. Applications in geophysics, geochemistry, structural geology: Changes in the Earth's rotation rate, causing biological changes in living conditions, reflected as changes in biological form and structure. Ancient clock that features the use of biological growth cycle to calculate changes in geological history of the Earth's rotation speed. Such as modern coral body growth period the previous year growth of fine lines around 360 laps each day on behalf of grain. Devonian fossil coral on the growth of fine lines and about 400 laps, Carboniferous 385 to 390 laps, indicating that the number of days per year, respectively, about 400 and 385 to 390, the data obtained with the use of various geological astronomical methods times the number of days per year is substantially the same. With Bivalvia, cephalopods, growth lines studied gastropods and stromatolites can be drawn similar conclusions. By calculation shows that since the Cambrian, and the annual number of days in the month decreased, indicating that the Earth's rotation rate slows down. In structural geology, the application has been deformed contrast fossils (brachiopods, graptolites, trilobites) and similar undeformed fossils to obtain the strain ellipsoid shape and direction. About plate tectonics, there are some examples of the aid paleontology, such as splitting the southern continent, can be found on both sides simultaneously freshwater reptiles Dragon (Mesosaurus) fossil example. In a series of micro-plate or terrane study, more need to rely on the relevant basis for comparison of fossils. Ancient ruins deep in the study of sedimentary strata formed when it makes sense. To Biology Services Provide the factual basis for the theory of the origin and evolution of life. Aspects of the origin of life, the earliest known fossils of information is as follows: 700 million years ago the earliest large fossils (Ediacaran fauna) 800 million years ago, forming protozoan gnawing grass Billion years ago to form the sexual division of biological 1.5 billion years ago, eukaryotic cells form Dating back 2.3 billion annual oxygen microbial community development 3.1 billion years ago, the earliest stromatolites 3.3 billion years ago, the earliest fossils (ancient tuberculosis in South Africa and Barbados through sp) above clearly shows the process of the evolution of life in the early stages of development. Paleontology provide evidence of evolution has three aspects: ① Display the total development of the biological history of paleontology from low to high, from simple to complex general trend, plants by bacteria - algae - ferns - gymnosperms; animals from protozoa - invertebrates - invertebrates, vertebrates from fish - amphibians - reptiles - birds and mammals, which are formed and prosperous era have appeared in the above order. ② middle part of the fossils have been discovered among the major categories, prove kinship and common origin between them. For example between total finfish between fish and amphibians; Ichthyostega between amphibians and reptiles between; ranged between reptiles and birds Archaeopteryx and so on. ③ In some specific categories established in line with the evolutionary phylogenetic relationships, such as horses pedigree, from the beginning to now occur throughout the process has been relatively well studied, providing evidence for the evolution. With interdisciplinary penetration, the range of services cross beyond paleontology geology and biology, toward astronomy, physics and other direction to expand.
Translated by Google
Wikipedia Encyclopedia
gushengwuxue Paleontology palaeontology Scientific research in the history of the period biogenesis, development, classification, distribution and evolution laws. The subjects were fossils. Through research, development history can elucidate biological organisms to determine the sequence of strata formation, to understand the history of crustal development, land and water distribution and inferred geological history of climate change, as well as guidance on the census of mineral resources exploration and exploitation. Birth and development in the 3rd century BC, 5 to China's Warring States Period, "Shan Hai Jing", has been on the keel (vertebrate fossils) records. 5th century AD, records relating to the Eastern Jin Shen Huai fish fossils of "South Vietnam records,". Yen Chen Tang Dynasty (709 - 785) from the fossil shells to contact marshes, Yingwu (737 ~ 789) correctly interpreted the formation of fossil insects in amber. The Song Shen Kuo (1031 - 1095) in the "Dream Pool Essays" in addition made a scientific explanation for the fossil, but also demonstrates the ancient geography and ancient climate changes issues. Italy Leonardo da Vinci discovered the fossils of marine shells in the formation, that these fossils are the last remains of creatures living in the seaside. 18th century, Swedish biologist C.von Linnaeus created the "binomial nomenclature", and established a system of classification of organisms, but he insisted on the same species. The 19th century, the natural sciences with industrial development and the rapid development, the French biologist J.-B.deM. Lamarck believed that the species is not constant, but gradually evolved, and noted changes in the environment is the cause of the evolution of species . He first put the animal kingdom is divided into invertebrates and vertebrates, and proposed a "use and disuse" theory. French zoologist G. Cuvier author of 12 volumes of Vertebrate Paleontology. His considerable contribution to comparative anatomy, proposed the "organ-related law." Almost simultaneously with Cuvier, British W. Smith founded the law of the fossil sequence. Biological facts are in order of appearance provides the basis for biological evolution and stratigraphic correlation. AT Bron Virginia Smith inherited development work, and study of the principles proposed classification scheme ancient plants, is considered the founder of paleobotany. In 1859, British C. Darwin's "Origin of Species" was published, he thinks there between ancient and modern biological creature common ancestor of modern biotechnology is the ancient law of natural _select_ion in the biological gradual evolution. Subsequently, the German paleontologist KARvon Zittel by the classification system has a four-volume paleontology, which is a comprehensive and detailed classics. In 1972, the American Museum of Natural History in N. Eldredge and SJ Gould of Harvard University established the biological evolution of "punctuated equilibrium" that the new species is its ancestor branch quickly generated. Proposed this theory, enrich and validate biological evolution. Paleontology research has four main research areas. In order to facilitate research taxonomy, paleontology and biology, must establish a classification system to reflect the natural biological kinship and evolutionary development. According to the degree of similarities and differences between the biological and genetic relationship, is divided into several different groups of rank or unit, is the basic unit of the ancient species, this taxonomy. Generally divided into lower and higher eukaryotes, prokaryotes, including a total of five circles: prokaryotes community, Protista, Fungi, plant and animal kingdoms. Paleontology and biology is different, there are some difficult now extinct fossil, classification is difficult to determine the location. Paleontological research conducted systematic classification discipline, called the system paleontology. The basic concepts and theories of biological evolution biological evolution, including speciation studies the way and speed. Biological evolutionary trends, including the evolution and differentiation of complex evolution, evolutionary irreversibility, extinction and other issues. Biological evolution and the historical process of the law, including the origin of life to emerge from humans. The study of ancient biological evolution theory and the law of discipline called evolutionary paleontology. According to the vertical distribution and evolution of fossil sequence, the establishment of bio-stratigraphic discipline called bio-stratigraphy. Biological and Environmental living organisms and their environment interact, mutual restraint, closely related organisms can adapt to a variety of certain environmental, health or terrestrial water. Use of the marine environment and the characteristics of modern continental environment and its effect on the knowledge of biological control organisms inferred geologic time relationship habits and living environment between the contents of the ancient ecology. From the relationship between organisms and the environment in terms of a biological history is constantly adapt, extend the historical process of living space. Biogeographic modern biogeography learn basic theory and methods to study the geological time due to environmental control factors, such as
Translated by Google
English Expression
: n [U] study of fossils as a guide to the history of life on earth, palaeobiology, paleobiology
Dromaeosauridae