Optics is a discipline has a long history, and its history can be traced back over 2000 years ago. Human studies of light, is the first major attempt to answer "how people can see objects around?" Type questions. About 400 years BC (Qin's behalf), China's "Mojing" the world's first recorded optical knowledge. It has eight on the optical record, define and generate narrative shadow, light travels in straight lines and pinhole imaging, and rigorous text discusses the plane mirror, concave spherical mirror and a convex spherical mirror in the relationship between object and image. Since the "Mojing" began, the 11th century Arab Ibn Hessian wooden invention lens; AD 1590 to the early 17th century, Jensen and Li Puxi simultaneously and independently invented the microscope; until the first half of the 17th century, before the Sri Lanka and Descartes Fresnel reflection and refraction of light observation, boils down to today, we are accustomed to the law of reflection and refraction law. 1665, Newton experiments using sunlight, the sunlight into its simplest components, these components form a color in a certain order light distribution - spectrum. It makes people's first exposure to the light of objective and quantitative characteristics of the monochromatic light in space separation is determined by the nature of light. Newton also found that the large radius of curvature of the convex lens on the optical flat glass, when illuminated with white light, then see the contact lens and the glass plate appeared at a group of colored concentric ring stripes; When a monochromatic light irradiation, while there is a _set_ of concentric rings of light and dark stripes, and their descendants to a phenomenon known as Newton's rings. This phenomenon can be used with the first dark ring of the thickness of the air gap corresponding monochromatic characterize quantitatively. Newton discovered these important phenomena, in accordance with rectilinear propagation of light resistance, that light is a particle stream. Particles flying out from the light source in a homogeneous medium fails to comply with the laws of mechanics for uniform linear motion. Newton with this view on the phenomenon of refraction and reflection are explained. Huygens corpuscular theory of light opponents, he founded the wave theory of light. That "simultaneous light, as is the spherical wavefront propagation." And the light that reaches each point of the vibration, the vibration wave can be regarded as sub-center, sub-wave envelope surface of the wavefront propagation wave (wave front). Throughout the 18th century, the light particles flow theory and the wave theory of light are roughly put out, but not very complete. Early 19th century, the initial formation of wave optics, in which Thomas Young satisfactorily explained "thin film color" and the double slit interference. Fresnel in 1818 to Young's interference principle complements the Huygens' principle, thus forming a well known today Huygens - Fresnel principle, it can be satisfactorily explained the phenomenon of interference and diffraction of light , can also explain the rectilinear propagation of light. In further studies, it was observed polarization and the polarization of light interference. In order to explain these phenomena, light is a Fresnel assuming continuous medium (ether) in the wave propagation. To illustrate the optical medium in various different speeds, it must assume the characteristics of the Ethernet in the different materials are different; anisotropic medium is also a need for more complex assumptions. In addition, you must also give a more specific nature of Ethernet can not explain the light wave. So the nature of the ether is unimaginable. In 1846, Faraday discovered plane of vibration of light is rotated in a magnetic field; 1856, Weber found the speed of light in vacuum is equal to the current intensity of the electromagnetic unit ratio of the electrostatic unit. Their findings indicate that optical phenomena and magnetism, electrical phenomena inherent relationship between certain. After 1860, the Maxwell noted changes in electric and magnetic fields, a portion of the space can not be limited, but the electromagnetic unit is equal to the current ratio of the electrostatic unit at the speed of the light is such an electromagnetic phenomenon. This conclusion in 1888 of Hertz's experiments confirmed. However, this can not explain the theory of light such as to produce a high frequency electric vibrator nature, can not explain the dispersion of light. Lorenz was founded in 1896 to electronic theory, it explains and material absorbs light emitting phenomenon also explains the propagation of light in a variety of physical features, including the dispersion of explanation. Lorentz's theory, but the vast infinite ether immobile medium, is characterized by its only in this medium with a light vibration propagation speed. For like hot blackbody radiation energy according to the wavelength distribution such an important issue, Lorentz theory can not give a satisfactory explanation. And if that Lorentz concept about Ether is correct, then we will not be _select_ed as a frame of reference moving Ether, so that people can distinguish the absolute motion. In fact, in 1887 Michelson interferometer measured using the "ether wind", a negative result is obtained, which indicates to the Lorentz theory of electrons period, people's understanding of the nature of light still has a lot of one-sidedness. 1900, Planck theory of molecular structure from the material borrowed the concept of discontinuity proposed quantum theory of radiation. He believes that various frequencies of electromagnetic waves, including light, can determine the respective components of the energy emitted from the transducer, this energy particles called quantum, the quantum called photons. Quantum theory is not only very hot body naturally explained by the wavelength radiation energy distribution law, but in a new way the interaction of light with matter raised the whole question. Not only to the optical quantum theory, but also to provide a whole new concept of physics, so usually it is the birth of modern physics as a starting point. In 1905, Einstein applied quantum theory explains the photoelectric effect. He made a very clear indication of photons, noting in particular the interaction between light and matter, a photon of light is carried out for the smallest unit. September 1905, the German "Physics Yearbook" published Einstein's "On the electrodynamics of moving media," a text. The first presents the basic principles of special relativity, the paper pointed out that since the time of Galileo and Newton dominant classical physics, its scope of application is much faster than the speed of light is limited to the case, and his new theory can explain with great velocity-related characteristics of the process, simply give up the concept of the ether, satisfactorily explains the moving object optical phenomena. Thus, in the early 20th century, on the one hand from the optical interference, diffraction, polarization and optical phenomena of moving objects confirmed the light waves; On the other hand and from thermal radiation, photoelectric effect, light pressure and the chemical action of light and other non- can be suspected proved quantum nature of light - particulate. 1922 discovery of the Compton effect, in 1928 discovered the Raman effect, and then from the experimentally obtained hyperfine structure of atomic spectra, which show that the development of optics and quantum physics are closely related. History shows that the development of optics, modern physics, the two most important basic theory - quantum mechanics and special relativity are studies about light birth and development. Thereafter, the optical entered a new era, so that modern physics and modern science and technology frontier important part. One of the most important achievement is the discovery of Einstein predicted in 1916 atoms and molecules by stimulated emission of radiation, and created a number of specific stimulated emission technology. Einstein radiation research, pointed out that under certain conditions, if the stimulated emission can continue to inspire other particles, causing a chain reaction amplification effect obtained avalanche wildly, and finally you can get highly monochromatic radiation, namely laser . In 1960, Theodore Maiman made the first visible light with a ruby laser; same year made helium-neon laser; 1962 produced a semiconductor laser; 1963 produced a tunable dye laser. Because the laser has excellent color, high brightness and good directivity, so since the discovery since 1958, has been rapid development and wide application, causing major changes in science and technology. Another important branch of optics by the imaging optics, holography and optical information processing component. This branch can be traced back 1873 Abbe's microscope imaging theory, and 1906 baud whom completed experimental verification; 1935 proposed Zernike phase contrast observation, and so made by the Zeiss factory contrast microscope, for which he won the 1953 Nobel Prize in Physics; 1948 Gabor's modern holography predecessor - wavefront reproduction principle, therefore, Gabor won the 1971 Nobel Prize in Physics. Since the 1950s, people began to mathematics, electronics and communications theory and optics combine to give the introduction of optical spectrum, spatial filtering, carrier, linear transformations and related computing concepts, updating the classic imaging optics, forming a so-called "Bo Fourier optics." Coupled with the coherence of the laser light provided by the Leith and holography 阿帕特内克斯 improved, forming a new subject area - optical information processing. Optical fiber communication is based on the theory of important achievements in this regard, it provides information transmission and processing of new technologies. In modern optics itself, produced by the intense laser nonlinear optical phenomena are more and more people pay attention to. Laser spectroscopy, including laser Raman spectroscopy, high-resolution spectroscopy and picosecond ultrashort pulses, as well as tunable laser technology, has made traditional spectroscopy has undergone great changes, becoming in-depth study material microstructure, movement rules and an important means of energy conversion mechanism. It is condensed matter physics, molecular biology and chemistry studies the dynamic process provides unprecedented technology. [Resolved] optical classification An advanced physics Optics Category: (A) Geometrical Optics (2) Physical Optics (3) Quantum Optics Two elementary physics Category: (1) junior: geometrical optics (2) high school: geometrical optics, physical optics (3) Description: Normal life in high school is to improve the optical classification criteria.
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Optics research
We usually put into geometrical optics optics, physical optics and quantum optics. Geometrical optics is from several experiments come from the basic principle, to study the propagation of light subjects. It uses the concept of light, refraction, to describe the law of reflection of light transmission medium in a variety of ways, it is almost always the result of wave optics approximation under certain conditions or limits. Physical Optics is the volatility of the departure from the light to study the propagation of light in a phenomenon that occurred during the disciplines, it is also known as wave optics. It can be relatively easy to study light interference, diffraction of light, polarized light, and the light transfer medium in anisotropy demonstrated when _insert_ed phenomenon. Wave optics is the basis of classical electrodynamics Maxwell equations. Wave optics unknown permittivity and magnetic permeability of the material structure of the relationship, while focusing on the performance of law interpretation waves. Wave optics can be explained in light scattering medium and propagation phenomena anisotropic medium, and the optical performance of the medium near the interface; also explain the phenomenon of dispersion medium and a variety of pressure, temperature, acoustic, electric fields and magnetic phenomena of light effects. Quantum Optics English name: quantum optics Quantum optics is a quantum theory of radiation light generation, transmission, detection and interaction of light with matter disciplines. 1900 Planck blackbody radiation in the study, in order to derive theoretically get very good experience with the actual formula, he boldly presented with the classic concept of a very different assumption that the "component blackbody oscillator energy can not be continuously, can only take discrete values of a copy. " In 1905, Einstein's photoelectric effect is to promote the study of the quantum theory of Planck, then puts forward the concept of photons. He considered not as light as described electromagnetic theory wavefront distribution, but rather focus on the so-called photon particles. In the photoelectric effect, when the photons to the metal surface, the primary electrons in the metal to absorb all without the electromagnetic theory that the projected cumulative energy of the time, the electronic part of this energy is used to overcome its metal surface that is, for the work function of suction, and the remaining leaves on the metal surface becomes electron momentum. This departure from the nature of photons to study the interaction between light and matter is the subject of quantum optics. It is based primarily on quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics. This is both an expression of light and volatile nature of the phenomenon, with particles both for the wave-particle duality of light. Later research on theoretical and experimental indisputably proved: not only have this dual nature of light, the world of all substances, including electrons, protons, neutrons and atoms, as well as all the macro things, also have their own quality and speed fluctuations associated properties. Applied Optics Optics is composed of many closely associated with the branch of physics composition; due to its wide range of applications, so there is a series of strong application background branches also belong to the optical range. For example, on the physical measurement of electromagnetic radiation photometric, radiometric; normal average human eye as a receiver, to study the electromagnetic radiation caused color vision, and mental physical measurements of colorimetry; well as numerous Technical Optics: Optical system design and theory of optical instruments, optical fabrication and optical testing, interferometry, thin film optics, fiber optics and integrated optics; well with other interdisciplinary branches such as astronomical optics, marine optics, optical remote sensing, atmospheric optics, physiological optics and optical and other weapons.
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China Optical achievements
1 method to make fire and fire awareness The tools to make fire in ancient China called "flint" gold flint, wood flint of the points. Jin Sui fire in the day, wood flint fire in the wood. According to China's ancient records, the ancient common "husband flint", "Yang Sui" (actually a concave mirror, made of metal as a result, so collectively referred to as the "Golden flint") to make fire. Ancient people in the march or hunting, always carry with taking firearms, "Book of Rites" in there "left Pekin flint", "right wear wooden flint," the record indicates that gold flint to make fire when sunny, cloudy flint to make fire with wood. Yang Sui make fire is human use of optical instruments convergence of a pioneer in solar energy. Talked about to make fire, but also with homemade ancient ancient lenses make fire. 2nd century BC, people used to make ice lens, converging sunlight to make fire. "Asked by the Church Series", "Huainan Wan Bi technique" has such a record: "cut ice so round, held to the Japanese to Ai order of its shadow, then Huo-sheng." We often say that fire and water are not compatible, but made of ice lenses to make fire, is really a wonderful creation. Made of ice lenses are not long-term preservation, so they appear to manufacture glass or glass lenses. 2 pinhole imaging and image understanding 4th century BC Mohist it done pinhole imaging experiments, and give analysis and interpretation. "Mojing" explicitly wrote: "King to the (inverted), in the afternoon to end, with King Long, said in the end." Here, "afternoon" that hole located. This text indicates that the orifice into the inverted image, The reason is that the cross hole at a place a little light ("terminal"), image size, and regardless of the position that the intersection. From here you can clearly see, the ancients had recognized that light travels in straight lines, so common "shoot" to describe the light straight ahead. Song Shen Kuo in the "which" also chronicles the rectilinear propagation of light and pinhole imaging experiments. He first direct observation of flying in the air, on the ground shadow also moves, the direction of movement and flying in the same direction. Then open a small hole in Zhichuang that fly out of the window within the shadow of the paper presented in the smothering screen, including Shen ran straight into the truth to explain the observed results: "East is shadow the west and then the shadow the East. " Mohist use of rectilinear propagation of light of this nature were discussed light, objects, relations between the projector. "Mojing" wrote: "King without migration, said that instead." "Light to, King death and if in, although ancient interest." Description shadow is not moving, if shadow shift, it is the light source or object moves, so that the original film constantly disappear, constantly generate new film's sake. Projection place if the light to a photo, the shadow will disappear, if there is a shadow that an object does not move, as long as the object does not move, the shadow will always exist in the same place. Mohist for umbra, penumbra is also explained. "Mojing" in such a record: "King two, said that heavy." "King two, light folder. A light one. Light Bearer, King also." Meant one thing, there are two projectors (umbra, semi- shadow), indicating that it has received the results of the two light sources repeated irradiation ("those who say that", "light clip") A projection, indicating that it is only by a light source, and stressed the light source and the projection of the contact ("Light who is also King "). Linked to this, Mohists also according to the relative position of objects and the light source changes, and the material and the size of the light source itself to discuss the different size and change the shadow. 3 pairs of mirror understanding Mo of concave, convex and mirror imaging principle was also systematically study the focus has been found that the presence of the concave mirror. If Mohists concave mirror in depth observation and research, and in the "Mo Jing" made clear, detailed records. "Kam low, King of a small easily understood, a large and positive, saying that in addition inside." "Low" indicates deep, concave meaning; placed "on the inside", than get such large objects upright. Although he is still confused with the center of the sphere and the focus, but these experiments is the world's first optical experiments, is of great scientific significance. Needham once Mo optics and optical comparison of ancient Greece, noting that Mozi's optical research "than any of us know as early as the Greek", "India can not be compared." Song Shen made, including on the determination of the focal length of a concave mirror. Concave mirror placed his fingers before observation imaging, and found the mirror with your fingers and distances vary, as also change accordingly. In the "which" made in the records: "Yang Sui surface depression, refers to a forced and Teruyuki is positive and further away no see, then pour over this." Description fingers close to the concave mirror, the image is upright , gradually move to a distant place (in the near focus), then the "no see", said the did not like (like into at infinity); moved over this distance, like on a handstand. This experiment, both expressed the concave mirror imaging principle, but also the determination of a crude method of concave mirror focal length. Mohist right lens also studied. "Mojing" wrote: "Kam Group, King one. Said that great punishment." "Kam group" that Yan mask, also known as group mirrors. "King a" indicates that only one convex mirror imaging. "Punishment" isomorphic word refers to the object, it is better than like a big. Our ancestors, use of a plane mirror can reflect the characteristics of light, a plurality of flat mirrors combined together, to obtain interesting results. Such as "Zhuangzi world articles" about the comment "Zhuangzi correction" and been recorded: "Kam Kam with shadow, while Kam to a shadow, two phase Kam, the ghosting infinite." Such a device, has received "According to flower before a mirror, flower delivery matched" effect. "Rooms by the Church Series", "Huainan Wan Bi technique" in mind are "taking big mirror hanging, _set_ the basin under it, then see the neighbors carry on." Indicates someone very early production of the earliest open tube "periscope "that can wait outside wall of the scene. In addition, the Han Dynasty invented translucent mirror, bronze mirror reflecting back to the exquisite images of ancient Chinese Optics a great invention, it is still causing concern of Chinese and foreign scholars. 4 pairs of rainbow understanding Rainbow is an atmospheric optical phenomenon, from the 6th century, there is a rainbow in ancient China more correct understanding. The Brief Account Tang Dynasty (574-648) has summarized the causes of rainbow, he believes that "Ruoyun thin drain day, sunshine rainbow raindrop is born." Clear that produce rainbow three conditions, namely cloud, day, "sunshine raindrop" . Shen also made, including this detailed study, and make site visits. In the "Dream Pool Essays _Select_ion Notes" wrote: "Yes when Xinyu Ji, see the rainbow in the next account before the stream." I buckle stream with the same level of view, the two are vertical stream of rainbow. People over streams, across the rainbow opposition, quite Shu Zhang, like every other raw silk frightened middle, facing west toward the east since then see; cover evening rainbow too. Li Jian Wang of the things, for the day of the melt, are nothing to see. "That the rainbow and the sun's position is just the opposite, evening rainbow seen in the East, while the sun is invisible rainbow, Earth Rainbow With understanding, you can then artificial rainbow. 8 century, Tang had been such a test: "Back at spray water into a rainbow of call-like", which means that small droplets ejected back to the sun, will be able to see a similar rainbow scene.
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Writings on optics
Ancient: "Optics" Author: [ancient Greece] Euclid "Optics" (Optics) is the first Greek science perspective, from 12 assumptions (postulates) starting launched 61 proposition. Suppose one is "people see objects that light shines from the eyes are looking at starting up an object." This is the view from the tradition since Plato. Proposition 6 which is "in the parallel position, the same size but from the different objects, the eyes to see the size is not proportional to the distance."
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Optical and explanations in English
Optics Optics (appearance or look in ancient Greek) is a branch of physics that describes the behavior and properties of light and the interaction of light with matter. Optics explains and is illuminated by optical phenomena. The field of optics usually describes the behavior of visible, infrared and ultraviolet light; however because light is an electromagnetic wave, analogous phenomena occur in X-rays, microwaves, radio waves, and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. Optics can thus be regarded as a sub-field of electromagnetism. Some optical phenomena depend on the quantum nature of light and as such some areas of optics are also related to quantum mechanics. In practice, the vast majority of optical phenomena can be accounted for using the electromagnetic description of light , as described by Maxwell's Equations.
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Encyclopedia
guangxue Optics optics Narrow sense, is about the light and the viewing optics science, optics (optical) the word is only used with the eyes and early viewport associated things. Today, often said optical a broad sense, is the study from the microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet light until the X-rays in a wide wavelength range of the occurrence of electromagnetic radiation, transmission, reception and display, and the interaction with the material science, focuses on the range from infrared to ultraviolet. It is an important part of physics, but also with other applications technology closely related disciplines. Subject content is usually put into geometrical optics optics, physical optics and quantum optics. Geometrical optics is derived from several of the experiments to study the basic principles of light propagation in discipline. It uses the concept of light refraction, to describe the law of reflection of light transmission medium in a variety of ways; It is almost always the result of wave optics approximation under certain conditions or limits. Physical optics is just starting to study a wave propagation of light in a phenomenon that occurred during the disciplines, it is also known as wave optics. Can be used to study the interference of light diffracted light, the polarization of light and propagation in anisotropic medium demonstrated phenomenon. Since light travels at the same speed and electromagnetic wave propagation, and thus presumably light is an electromagnetic wave, after all this speculation is confirmed by experiments. With different geometrical optics, wave optics is not only much larger than the wavelength aperture investigate the propagation of light in case of process and any aperture case study of light propagation. Wave optics can always reach the right solution, but sometimes too volatile optical methods used too complicated, so much to determine the nature of the question using geometrical optics or wave optics, or both, and used. For example, in optical instruments in general optical system design, the use of geometric optics method to determine the structural elements of the system, but in the light distribution pattern obtained to evaluate the image quality, it must use the method of wave optics. Wave optics is the basis of classical electrodynamics Maxwell equations. Light in the medium macroscopic parameters ─ ─ permittivity and permeability □ □ ─ ─ in the Maxwell equations for the coefficient of performance, the refractive index of the medium they □ There is a simple relationship between: □. On the wave optics Unknown □ □ □ and with the relationship between the structure of matter waves focused on explaining the performance of the law. □ □ and with the establishment of the molecular and crystal structure of the relationship between research these are sometimes called molecular optics. Wave optics can be interpreted in light scattering medium and anisotropic propagation medium accompanying the process and in the media generated near the interface performance; also explain various phenomena and dispersion medium pressure, temperature, acoustic, electric and magnetic fields of light The phenomenon. Although the spread of the light wave optics can give a satisfactory explanation, but can not explain the process of light emission and absorption, showing the difficulty of classical physics. Quantum Optics 1900, M. Planck blackbody radiation in order to study theoretically derived from the time he has been a very good experience with the actual formula, he boldly presented with the classic concept of a very different assumption that "component blackbody a vibrator energy can not continuously changed, only an aliquot part of the discrete values: 0, □ □, 2 □ □, ..., □ □ □", where □ is a positive integer, □ the oscillator frequency, □ the general Planck constant, the value of 6.626 × 10 □ erg seconds. In 1905, A. Einstein's photoelectric effect is to promote the study of the quantum theory of Planck, then puts forward the concept of photons. He believes that electromagnetic energy is not as described in the theory of the energy distribution of the wavefront, but rather focus on the so-called photon particles. However, this particle still maintained the concept of frequency, the frequency of a photon having an energy □ □ □. In the photoelectric effect, when the photons to the metal surface, the primary electrons in the metal to absorb all without the electromagnetic theory that the projected cumulative energy of the time, the electronic part of this energy is used to overcome its metal surface that is, for the work function of suction, and the remaining leaves on the metal surface becomes electron momentum. Thus recognizes an atom or a molecule to make it a point to electromagnetic energy or gain energy from the field, but only in photon □ □ as a unit to carry out. From this starting to study the nature of photons of light-matter interaction discipline is known as quantum optics. It is based primarily on quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics. On the light in the molecules, atoms in the generation and disappearance of the nature of the problem is not only light, but also related to the molecular, atomic junction
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English Expression
: optics
n.: photology, scientific study of sight and of light in relation to it
color