The Three Kingdoms period (simplified Chinese: 三国时代; traditional Chinese: 三國時代; pinyin: Sānguó shídài) is a period in the history of China, part of an era of disunity called the Six Dynasties following immediately the loss of de facto power of the Han Dynasty emperors. In a strict academic sense it refers to the period between the foundation of the Wei in 220 and the conquest of the Wu by the Jin Dynasty in 280. However, many Chinese historians and laymen extend the starting point of this period back to the uprising of the Yellow Turbans in 184.
The three kingdoms were Wei (魏), Shu (蜀), and Wu (吳). To help further distinguish these states from other historical Chinese states of the same name, historians add a relevant character: Wei is also known as Cao Wei (曹魏), Shu is also known as Shu Han (蜀漢), and Wu is also known as Dong Wu or Eastern Wu (東吳). The term Three Kingdoms itself is somewhat of a mistranslation, since each state was eventually headed not by kings, but by an emperor who claimed legitimate succession from the Han Dynasty. Although the translation Three Empires is more contextually accurate, the term Three Kingdoms has become standard among sinologists.
The earlier, "unofficial" part of the period, from 184 to 220, was marked by chaotic infighting between warlords in various parts of China. The middle part of the period, from 220 and 263, was marked by a more militarily stable arrangement between three rival states, Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The later part of this period was marked by the collapse of the tripartite situation: first the destruction of Shu by Wei (263), then the overthrow of Wei by the Jin Dynasty (265), and the destruction of Wu by Jin (280).
Although relatively short, this historical period has been greatly romanticised in the cultures of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. It has been celebrated and popularised in operas, folk stories, novels and in more recent times, films, television series, and video games. The best known of these is undoubtedly the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a novel dealing with the period that draws heavily on history. The authoritative historical record of the era is Chen Shou's Sanguo Zhi, along with Pei Songzhi's later annotations of the text.
The Three Kingdoms period was one of the bloodiest in Chinese history. A population census during the late Eastern Han Dynasty reported a population of approximately 50 million, while a population census during the early Western Jin Dynasty (after Jin re-unified China) reported a population of approximately 16 million. However, the Jin dynasty's census was far less complete than the Han census, so these figures are in question.
Technology advanced significantly during this period. Zhuge Liang invented the wooden ox, suggested to be an early form of the wheelbarrow, and improved on the repeating crossbow. A brilliant mechanical engineer known as Ma Jun, in Wei, is considered by many to be the equal of his predecessor Zhang Heng. He invented a hydraulic-powered, mechanical puppet theatre designed for Emperor Ming of Wei (Cao Rui), square-pallet chain pumps for irrigation of gardens in Luoyang, and the ingenious design of the South Pointing Chariot, a non-magnetic directional compass operated by differential gears.
Yellow Turban Rebellion
The power of the Eastern Han Dynasty went in to depression steadily declined after the reign of Emperor He of Han from a variety of political and economic problems. A series of Han emperors ascended the throne while still youths, and de facto Imperial power often rested with the young emperors' older relatives. Because these relatives occasionally were loath to give up their influence, emperors would, upon reaching maturity, be forced to rely on political alliances with senior officials and eunuchs to achieve control of the government. Political posturing and infighting between Imperial relatives and government eunuchs was a constant problem in Chinese government at the time. During the reigns of Emperors Huan and Ling, leading officials' dissatisfaction with the eunuchs' usurpations of power reached a peak, and many began to openly protest against them. The first and second protests met with failure, and the court eunuchs persuaded the Emperor to execute many of the protesting scholars. Some local rulers seized the opportunity to exert despotic control over their lands and citizens, since many feared to speak out in the oppressive political climate. Emperors Huan' and Ling's reigns were recorded as particularly dark periods of Han Dynasty rule. In addition to political oppression and mismanagement, China experienced a number of natural disasters during this period, and local rebellions sprung up throughout China.
In the second month of 184 AD, Zhang Jue, leader of the Dao of Supreme Harmony Daoist movement, along with his two brothers Zhang Liang and Zhang Bao, led the movement's followers in a rebellion against the government that was called the Yellow Turban Rebellion. Their movement quickly attracted followers and soon numbered several hundred thousands and received support from many parts of Han China. They had 36 bases throughout China, with large bases having 10,000 or more followers and minor bases having 6,000 to 7,000, similar to Han armies. Their motto was: "The Han Emperor's already dead, Lord Zhang Jue shall take his stead; the year-cycle is at its head, into fortune shall all be led!" (Chinese: 蒼天已死，黃天當立，歲在甲子，天下大吉) Emperor Ling of Han dispatched Generals Huangfu Song, Lu Zhi, and Zhu Jun to lead the Han armies against the Yellow Turbans, and decreed that local governments had to supply soldiers to assist in their efforts. It is at this point that the great epic Romance of the Three Kingdoms begins its narrative. The Yellow Turbans were ultimately defeated and its surviving followers dispersed throughout China, but due to the turbulent situation throughout the empire, many were able to survive as bandits in mountainous areas, thus continuing their ability to contribute to the turmoil of the era.
With the widespread increase in bandits across the Chinese nation, the Han army had no way to repel each and every raiding party. In 188, Emperor Ling accepted a memorial from Yizhou governor Liu Yan suggesting he grant direct administrative power over feudal provinces and direct command of regional military to local governors, as well promoting them in rank and filling such positions with members of the Liu family or court officials. This move made provinces (zhou) official administrative units, and although they had power to combat rebellions, the later intra-government chaos allowed these local governors to easily rule independently of the central government. Soon after this move, Liu Yan severed all of his region's (modern Sichuan) ties to the Han court, and several other areas followed suit.
Dong Zhuo in power
That same year, Emperor Ling died, and another struggle began between the court eunuchs for control of the Imperial family . Court eunuch Jian Shuo planned to kill General He Jin, a relative of the royal family, and to replace the Crown Prince Liu Bian with his younger brother Liu Xie, the Prince of Chenliu (in modern Kaifeng), though his plan was unsuccessful. Liu Bian took the Han throne as Emperor Shao of Han, and General He Jin plotted with warlord Yuan Shao to assassinate the Ten Attendants, a clique of ten eunuchs led by Zhang Rang who controlled much of the imperial court. He Jin also ordered Dong Zhuo, the frontier general in Liangzhou, and Ding Yuan, Inspector of Bingzhou (the area now between Baoding and Taiyuan), to bring troops to the capital to reinforce his position of authority. The eunuchs learned of General He's plot, and had him assassinated before Dong Zhuo ever reached the capital, Luoyang. When Yuan Shao's troops reached the capital they stormed the palace complex, killing the Ten Attendants and two thousand of those loyal to them. Though this move effectively ended the century-long feud between the eunuchs and the Imperial family, it ushered in the era of warlords and martial law that became the Three Kingdoms Era.
This event prompted the invitation of Dong Zhuo to enter Luoyang from the northwest boundary of China. At the time China faced the powerful barbarians of Qiang tribe to the northwest, and thus Dong Zhuo controlled a large army with elite training. When he brought the army to Luoyang, he was able to easily overpower the existing armies of both sides and took control of the imperial court, ushering in a period of civil war across China.
Dong Zhuo then manipulated the succession so that the future Emperor Xian could take the throne in lieu of his elder half-brother. Dong Zhuo, while ambitious, genuinely wished for a more capable emperor. On his way to Luoyang, he encountered a small band of soldiers protecting the two sons of Emperor Ling fleeing the war zone. In the encounter Dong Zhuo acted arrogantly and threateningly, causing the elder half-brother to be paralyzed with fear; the younger brother, the future Emperor Xian, responded calmly with authority and commanded Dong Zhuo to protect the royal family with his army to return to the Imperial Court.
While Dong Zhuo originally wanted to re-establish the authority of Han Empire and manage all the political conflict properly, his political capability proved to be much worse than his military leadership. His behaviour grew more and more violent and authoritarian, executing or sending into exile all that opposed him, and showed less and less respect to the Emperor. He ignored all royal etiquette and frequently carried open weapons into the imperial court. In 190 a coalition led by Yuan Shao was formed between nearly all the provincial authorities in the eastern provinces of the empire against Dong Zhuo. The mounting pressure from repeated defeat on the southern frontline against the Sun Jian forces drove the Han Emperor and later Dong Zhuo himself west to Chang'an in May 191.
Dong Zhuo once again demonstrated his political shortcomings by forcing millions of residents of Luoyang to migrate to Chang'an. He then set fire to Luoyang, preventing occupation by his enemies and destroying the biggest city in China at that time. In addition, he ordered his army to slaughter a whole village of civilians. The soldiers beheaded the civilians and carried their heads into Chang'an to show off as war trophies, pretending to have had a great victory against his enemies. A year later Dong Zhuo was killed in a coup d'etat by Wang Yun and Lü Bu.
Rise of Cao Cao
Sculpture of a foreign soldier, Three Kingdoms, 3rd century AD, China.
In 191, there was some talk among the coalition of appointing Liu Yu, an imperial relative, as emperor, and gradually its members began to fall out. Most of the warlords in the coalition, with a few exceptions, sought the increase of personal military power in the time of instability instead of seriously wishing to restore the Han Dynasty's authority. The Han empire was divided between a number of regional warlords. Yuan Shao occupied the northern area of Ye and extended his power, by taking over his superior Han Fu with trickery and intimidation, north of the Yellow River against Gongsun Zan, who held the northern frontier. Cáo Cāo, directly to Yuan's south, was engaged in a struggle against Yuan Shu and Liu Biao, who occupied respectively the Huai River basin and Middle Yangzi regions. Further south the young warlord Sun Ce, taking over after the untimely death of Sun Jian, was establishing his rule in the Lower Yangzi, albeit as a subordinate of Yuan Shu. In the west, Liu Zhang held Yizhou province while Hanzhong and the northwest were controlled by a motley collection of smaller warlords such as Ma Teng of Xiliang, the original post of Dong Zhuo.
Dong Zhuo, confident in his success, was slain by his own adopted son, Lü Bu and his father-in-law Wang Yun. Lü Bu, in turn, was attacked by Dong Zhuo's supporters: Li Jue, Guo Si, Zhang Ji and Fan Chou. Wang Yun and his whole family were executed. Lu fled to Zhang Yang, a northern warlord, and remained with him for a time before briefly joining Yuan Shao, but it was clear that Lü Bu was far too independent to serve another.
In August 195, Emperor Xian fled the tyranny of Li Jue at Chang'an and made a year long hazardous journey east in search of supporters. By 196, when he was received by Cao Cao, most of the smaller contenders for power had either been absorbed by larger ones or destroyed. This was an extremely important move for Cao Cao following the suggestion from his primary advisor, Xun Yu, commenting that by supporting the authentic Emperor, Cao Cao would have the formal legal authority to control the other warlords and force them to comply in order to restore the Han dynasty.
Cao Cao, whose zone of control was the precursor to the Kingdom of Wei, had raised an army in the winter of 189. In several strategic movements and battles, he controlled the Dui province and defeated several factions of the Yellow Turban rebels. This earned him the aid of other local militaries controlled by Zhang Miao and Chen Gong, who joined his cause to create his first sizable army. He continued the effort and absorbed approximately 300,000 Yellow Turbans into his army as well as a number of clan-based military groups from the eastern side of Qing province. In 196 he established an imperial court at Xuchang and developed military agricultural colonies (tuntian) to support his army. Although the system imposed a heavy tax on hired civilian farmers (40% to 60% of agricultural production), the farmers were more than pleased to be able to work with relative stability and professional military protection in a time of chaos. This was later said to be his second important policy for success.
In 194, Cao Cao went to war with Tao Qian of Xuzhou, whose officers had executed his whole family. Tao Qian received the support of Liu Bei and Gongsun Zan, but even then it seemed as if Cao Cao's superior forces would overrun Xuzhou entirely. However, Cao Cao received word that Lü Bu had seized Yan province in Cao Cao's absence, and accordingly he retreated, putting a halt to hostilities with Tao Qian for the time being. Tao Qian died that same year, leaving his province to Liu Bei. A year later, in 195, Cao Cao managed to drive Lü Bu out of Yan. Lu Bu fled to Xuzhou and was received by Liu Bei, and an uneasy alliance began between the two.
In the south, Sun Ce, then an independent general under the service of Yuan Shu, defeated the warlords of Yangzhou, including Liu Yao, Wang Lang, and Yan Baihu. The speed with which Sun Ce accomplished his conquests led to his nickname, "Little Conqueror" (小霸王), a reference to the late Xiang Yu. In 197, Yuan Shu, who was at odds with Cao Cao, Yuan Shao, and Liu Bei, felt assured of victory with his subordinate's conquests, and thus declared himself emperor of the Cheng Dynasty. The move, however, was a strategic blunder, as it drew the ire of many warlords across the land, including Yuan Shu's own subordinate Sun Ce, who had advised Yuan Shu not to make such a move. Cao Cao issued orders to Sun Ce to attack Yuan Shu. Sun Ce complied, but first convinced Cao Cao to form a coalition against Yuan Shu, of which Liu Bei and Lü Bu were members. Attacked on all sides, Yuan Shu was defeated and fled into hiding.
Afterwards, Lü Bu betrayed Liu Bei and seized Xuzhou, forming an alliance with Yuan Shu's remnant forces. Liu Bei fled to Cao Cao, who accepted him. Soon, preparations were made for an attack on Lü Bu, and the combined forces of Cao Cao and Liu Bei besieged Xia Pi. Lü Bu's officers deserted him, Yuan Shu's forces never arrived as reinforcements, and he was bound by his own officers Song Xian and Wei Xu and executed along with many of his officers. Thus, the man known as the mightiest warrior in the land was no more.
In 200, Dong Cheng, an officer of the Imperial Court, received a secret edict from the Emperor to assassinate Cao Cao. He collaborated with Liu Bei on this effort, but Cao Cao soon found out about the plot and had Dong Cheng and his co-conspirators executed, with only Liu Bei surviving and fleeing to the Yuan Shao in the north.
After settling the nearby provinces, including a rebellion led by former Yellow Turbans, and internal affairs with the court, Cao Cao turned his attention north to Yuan Shao, who himself had eliminated his northern rival Gongsun Zan that same year. Yuan Shao, himself of higher nobility than Cao Cao, amassed a large army and camped along the northern bank of the Yellow river.
In 200, after winning a decisive battle against Liu Biao at Shaxian and putting down the rebellions of Xu Gong and others, Sun Ce was struck by an arrow and fatally wounded. On his deathbed, he named his younger brother, Sun Quan, as his heir.
Following months of planning, Cao Cao and Yuan Shao met in force at Guandu. Overcoming Yuan's superior numbers, Cao Cao decisively defeated him by setting fire to his supplies, and in doing so crippled the northern army. Liu Bei fled to Liu Biao of Jing province, and many of Yuan Shao's forces were destroyed. In 202, Cao Cao took advantage of Yuan Shao's death and the resulting division among his sons to advance north of the Yellow River. He captured Ye in 204 and occupied the provinces of Ji, Bing, Qing and You. By the end of 207, after a lightning campaign against the Wuhuan barbarians, Cao Cao had achieved undisputed dominance of the North China Plain.
Battle of Red Cliff
In 208, Cao Cao marched south with his army hoping to quickly unify the empire. Liu Biao's son Liu Cong surrendered the province of Jing and Cao was able to capture a sizable fleet at Jiangling. Sun Quan, the successor to Sun Ce in the Lower Yangzi, continued to resist, however. His advisor Lu Su secured an alliance with Liu Bei, himself a recent refugee from the north, and Sun Ce's sworn brother Zhou Yu was placed in command of Sun Quan's navy, along with a veteran officer of the Sun family, Cheng Pu. Their combined armies of 50,000 met Cao Cao's fleet and 200,000-strong force at Red Cliffs (Chinese: 赤壁 Chi Bi) that winter. After an initial skirmish, an attack beginning with a plan to set fire to Cao Cao's fleet was set in motion to lead to the decisive defeat of Cao Cao, forcing him to retreat in disarray back to the north. The allied victory at Red Cliffs ensured the survival of Liu Bei and Sun Quan, and provided the basis for the states of Shu and Wu.
After his return to the north, Cao Cao contented himself with absorbing the northwestern regions in 211 and consolidating his power. He progressively increased his titles and power, eventually becoming the Prince of Wei in 217, a title bestowed upon him by the puppet Han emperor that he controlled. Liu Bei, having defeated the weak Jing warlords Han Xuan, Jin Xuan, Zhao Fan, and Liu Du, entered Yi province and later in 214 displaced Liu Zhang as ruler, leaving his commander Guan Yu in charge of Jing province. Sun Quan, who had in the intervening years being engaged with defenses against Cao Cao in the southeast at Hefei, now turned his attention to Jing province and the Middle Yangzi. Tensions between the allies were increasingly visible. In 219, after Liu Bei successfully seized Hanzhong from Cao Cao and as Guan Yu was engaged in the siege of Fan, Sun Quan's commander-in-chief Lu Meng secretly seized Jing province, and his forces captured and slew Guan Yu.
Three Emperor
In the first month of 220, Cao Cao died and in the tenth month his son Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate, thus ending the Han Dynasty. He named his state Wei and made himself emperor at Luoyang. In 221, Liu Bei named himself Emperor of Han, in a bid to restore the fallen Han dynasty. (His state is known to history as "Shu" or "Shu Han".) In the same year, Wei bestowed on Sun Quan the title of King of Wu. A year later, Shu Han troops declared war on Wu and met the Wu armies at the Battle of Yiling. At Yiling, Liu Bei was disastrously defeated by Sun Quan's commander Lu Xun and forced to retreat back to Shu, where he died soon afterward. After the death of Liu Bei, Shu and Wu resumed friendly relations at the expense of Wei, thus stabilizing the tripartite configuration. In 222, Sun Quan renounced his recognition of Cao Pi's regime and, in 229, he declared himself emperor at Wuchang.
Dominion of the north completely belonged to Wei, whilst Shu occupied the southwest and Wu the central south and east. The external borders of the states were generally limited to the extent of Chinese civilization. For example, the political control of Shu on its southern frontier was limited by the Tai tribes of modern Yunnan and Burma, known collectively as the Southern Barbarians (南蠻).
Consolidation
In 223 Liu Shan rose to the throne of Shu following his father's defeat and death. The defeat of Liu Bei at Yiling ended the period of hostility between Wu and Shu and both used the opportunity to concentrate on internal problems and the external enemy of Wei. For Sun Quan, the victory terminated his fears of Shu expansion into Jing province and he turned to the aborigines of the southeast, whom the Chinese collectively called the "Shanyue" peoples . A collection of successes against the rebellious tribesmen culminated in the victory of 224. In that year Zhuge Ke ended a three year siege of Danyang with the surrender of 100,000 Shanyue. Of these, 40,000 were drafted as auxiliaries into the Wu army. Meanwhile Shu was also experiencing troubles with the indigenous tribes of their south. The Southwestern Nanman peoples rose in revolt against Han authority, captured and looted the city of Yizhou. Zhuge Liang, recognising the importance of stability in the south, ordered the advance of the Shu armies in three columns against the Nanman. He fought a number of engagements against the chieftain Meng Huo, at the end of which Meng submitted. A tribesman was allowed to reside at the Shu capital Chengdu as an official and the Nanman formed their own battalions within the Shu army.
Zhuge Liang's Northern Expedition
At the end of Zhuge Liang's southern campaign, the Wu-Shu alliance came to fruition and Shu was free to move against the north. In 227 Zhuge Liang transferred his main Shu armies to Hanzhong, and opened up the battle for the northwest with Wei. The next year, he ordered the general Zhao Yun to attack from Ji Gorge as a diversion while Zhuge himself led the main force to Qishan. The vanguard Ma Su, however, suffered a tactical defeat at Jieting and the Shu army was forced to withdraw. In the next six years Zhuge Liang attempted several more offensives, but supply problems limited the capacity for success. In 234 he led his last great northern offensive, reaching the Battle of Wuzhang Plains south of the Wei River. Due to the death of Zhuge Liang (234 AD), however, the Shu army was forced once again to withdraw, but were pursued by Wei. The Shu forces began to withdraw; Sima Yi deduced Zhuge's demise and ordered an attack. Shu struck back almost immediately, causing Sima Yi to second guess and allow Shu to withdraw successfully.
Wu and the South
In the times of Zhuge Liang's great northern offensives, the state of Wu had always been on the defensive against invasions from the north. The area around Hefei was the scene of many bitter battles and under constant pressure from Wei after the Battle of Red Cliffs. Warfare had grown so intense that many of the residents chose to migrate and resettle south of the Yangzi. After Zhuge Liang's death, attacks on the Huainan region intensified but nonetheless, Wei could not break through the line of the river defenses erected by Wu, which included the Ruxu fortress.
Sun Quan's long reign is regarded as a time of plenty for his southern state. Migrations from the north and the settlement of the Shanyue increased manpower for agriculture, especially along the lower reaches of the Yangzi and in Kuaiji commandery. River transport blossomed, with the construction of the Zhedong and Jiangnan canals. Trade with Shu flourished, with a huge influx of Shu cotton and the development of celadon and metal industries. Ocean transport was improved to such an extent that sea journeys were made to Manchuria and the island of Taiwan. In the south, Wu merchants reached Linyi (northern Vietnam) and Fu'nan (southern Vietnam). As the economy prospered, so too did the arts and culture. In the Yangzi delta, the first Buddhist influences reached the south from Luoyang.
Decline and End of the Three Kingdom
From the late 230s tensions began to become visible between the imperial Cao clan and the Sima clan. Following the death of Cao Zhen, factionalism was evident between Cao Shuang and the Grand Commander Sima Yi. In deliberations, Cao Shuang placed his own supporters in important posts and excluded Sima, whom he regarded as a threat. The power of the Sima clan, one of the great landowning families of the Han, was bolstered by Sima Yi's military victories. Additionally, Sima Yi was an extremely capable strategist and politician. In 238 he crushed the rebellion of Gongsun Yuan and brought the Liaodong region directly under central control. Ultimately, he outmaneuvered Cao Shuang in power play. Taking advantage of an excursion by the imperial clansmen to the Gaoping tombs, Sima undertook a putsch in Luoyang, forcing Cao Shuang's faction from authority. Many protested against the overwhelming power of the Sima family; notable among these were the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove. One of the sages, Xi Kang, was executed as part of the purges after Cao Shuang's downfall.
Fall of Shu
The decreasing strength of the Cao clan was mirrored by the decline of Shu. After Zhuge Liang's death, his position as Lieutenant Chancellor fell to Jiang Wan, Fei Yi and Dong Yun, in that order. But after 258, Shu politics became increasingly controlled by the eunuch faction and corruption rose. Despite the energetic efforts of Jiang Wei, Zhuge's protege, Shu was unable to secure any decisive achievement. In 263, Wei launched a three-pronged attack and the Shu army was forced into general retreat from Hanzhong. Jiang Wei hurriedly held a position at Jian'ge but he was outflanked by the Wei commander Deng Ai, who force-marched his army from Yinping through territory formerly considered impassable. By the winter of the year, the capital Chengdu fell due to the strategic invasion of Wei by Deng Ai who invaded Chengdu personally. The emperor Liu Shan thus surrendered. The state of Shu had come to an end after forty-three years.
Fall of Wei
Cao Huan succeeded to the throne in 260 after Cao Mao was killed by Sima Zhao. Soon after, Sima Zhao died and his title as Lord of Jin was inherited by his son Sima Yan. Sima Yan immediately began plotting to become Emperor but faced stiff opposition. However, due to advice from his advisors, Cao Huan decided the best course of action would be to abdicate, unlike his predecessor Cao Mao. Sima Yan seized the throne in 264 after forcing Cao Huan's abdication, effectively overthrowing the Wei Dynasty and establishing the successor Jin Dynasty. This situation was similar to the deposal of Emperor Xian of the Han Dynasty by Cao Pi, the founder of the Wei Dynasty.
Fall of Wu
Following Sun Quan's death and the ascension of the young Sun Liang as emperor in 252, the kingdom of Wu went into a period of steady decline. Successful Wei suppression of rebellions in the Huainan region by Sima Zhao and Sima Shi reduced any opportunity of Wu influence. The fall of Shu signalled a change in Wei politics. After Liu Shan surrendered to Wei, Sima Yan (grandson of Sima Yi), overthrew the Wei emperor and proclaimed his own dynasty of Jin in 264, ending forty-six years of Cao dominion in the north. After Jin's rise, Emperor Sun Xiu of Wu died, and his ministers gave the throne to Sun Hao. Sun Hao was a promising young man, but upon ascension he became a tyrant, killing or exiling all who dared oppose him in the court. In 269 Yang Hu, Jin commander in the south, started preparing for the invasion of Wu by ordering the construction of a fleet and the training of marines in Sichuan under Wang Jun. Four years later, Lu Kang, the last great general of Wu, died leaving no competent successor. The planned Jin offensive finally came in the winter of 279. Sima Yan launched five simultaneous offensives along the Yangzi River from Jianye to Jiangling whilst the Sichuan fleet sailed downriver to Jing province. Under the strain of such an enormous attack, the Wu forces collapsed and Jianye fell in the third month of 280. Emperor Sun Hao surrendered and was given a fiefdom on which to live out his days. This marked the end of the Three Kingdoms era, and the beginning of a break in the forthcoming 300 years of chaos.
Population
The Sanguo Zhi contains population figures for the three kingdoms. As with many Chinese historical population figures, these numbers are likely to be less than the actual populations, since census and tax records went hand in hand, and tax evaders were often not on records.
Three Kingdoms Period Populations Year Households Population Note
Eastern Han Dynasty, AD 156 10,679,600 56,486,856
Shu Han, AD 221 200,000 900,000
Shu Han, AD 263 280,000 1,082,000 At Shu's demise, the population contained 102,000 armed soldiers and 40,000 various officials.
Wu, AD 238 520,000 2,567,000
Wu, AD 280 530,000 2,535,000 At Wu's demise, the population had 32,000 officials, 230,000 soldiers, and 5,000 imperial concubines.
Cao Wei, AD 260 663,423 4,432,881
Western Jin, AD 280 2,495,804 16,163,863 After reuniting China, the Jin Dynasty's population was greatest around this time.
From Zou Jiwan (Chinese: 鄒紀萬), Zhong Guo Tong Shi - Wei Jin Nan Bei Chao Shi 中國通史·魏晉南北朝史, (1992).
While it is clear that warfare undoubtedly took many lives during this period, the census figures do not support the idea that millions were wiped out solely from warfare. Other factors such as mass migration out of China must be taken into account.
Economy
In economic terms the division of the Three Kingdoms reflected a reality that long endured. Even in the Northern Song, seven hundred years after the Three Kingdoms, it was possible to think of China as being composed of three great regional markets. (The status of the northwest was slightly ambivalent, as it had links with the northern region and Sichuan). These geographical divisions are underscored by the fact that the main communication routes between the three main regions were all man-made: the Grand Canal linking north and south, the hauling-way through the Three Gorges of the Yangzi linking southern China with Sichuan and the gallery roads joining Sichuan with the northwest. The break into three separate entities was quite natural and even anticipated by such political foresight as that of Zhuge Liang .
The Three Kingdoms in popular culture
Numerous people and affairs from the period later became Chinese legends. The most complete and influential example is the historical fiction Romance of the Three Kingdoms, written by Luo Guanzhong during the Ming dynasty. Fictional accounts of the Three Kingdoms, mostly based on the Romance, play a significant role in East Asian popular culture. Books, TV serials, movies, cartoons/anime, games, and music on the topic are still regularly produced in China, Taiwan, South Korea and Japan.
Han split 184 years of Eastern Han Dynasty the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out. Emperor Ling of Han to address the Yellow Turban Rebellion was established mok system, which lead to local separatism, the world is split. 189, Emperor Ling of Han died, Liu argued to the throne was established as a young emperor. Governing how to contact Queen Mother's brother He Jin Yuan Shao, killing the eunuch Jian Shuo. Shao, into the other eunuchs plotting to kill to do, and call into Luoyang to aid Dong Zhuo. When the eunuchs to kill He Jin, and Shao and without mercy when the eunuch, Zhuo shuaibing into Luoyang, and embrace the affairs of state. He deposed the young emperor, Liu separate agreement for the emperor, the Emperor Xian of Han. Han Zhuo's tyrannical aroused opposition from courtiers and local Mushou, causing large-scale civil war. Zhuoru Luo Yang, the Shao fled Jizhou, the bridge toward the Tingsan Gong Mao under the guise of the name, requires gun Xingbing crusade Zhuo, Kanto-gun have responded. They key points Tuen, pushing for the chief Shao, Zhuo camera attack. 190 years, to avoid the Kanto soldiers Zhuo Feng, held hostage by Emperor Xian westward Chang, Han court has collapsed. Kanto coalition with each other fraud annexation, and soon fall apart a. 193 Chang'an mutiny, Cho killed off in endless confusion. After a fierce melee later, to 196 years, the formation of many national separatist region: Yuan Shao occupy Ji, blue, and three states, operating occupy Yan, Yu-two states, Han Sui, Maarten occupy Liangzhou, Zan's Liaodong, Tao Qian, Liu Bei, Lu Bu has occupied Xuzhou, Yangzhou Huainan occupy part of Yuan Shu, Liu Biao take Jingzhou, Liu Zhang occupy Yizhou, Sun Ce occupies part of Yangzhou Koto, who occupy the cross-state sup. In addition, Zhang Lu to Paul, according to Taoist forms of organization in Hanzhong region, home Jijiu to cure people. In these separatist who, forces the strongest and most active of which is Yuan Shao and Cao Cao. Zhuoru Luo Yang, Cao Cao fled chenliu, together against the soldiers, as in a Kanto coalition. He Jibei lure into surrender Yellow Turban army thirty Peoples, the election of its elite, soldiers prepared for the Green Island; and gradually incorporate some of the tyrannical landlord armed. Jian first year, he moved to Emperor Xian Hui County, made that did not minister to Fengtian trend; Mita continued funding. 200 years, Cao, Yuan armies to the Battle of Guandu, speaks David and Goliath, the main army to wipe out the Yuan; and captured the contradiction between the use of Shaoer Zi Ye Yuan of the city have been occupied by blue, Hebei, quiet, and the land of four states , the unification of the northern most. 207 years, Cao Lulong plug out and defeated the North Wuhuan intrusion. Battle of Red Cliff third prototype of the situation map 208, Cao Cao army uniform rate after the north southward to attack Jingzhou, Liu Biao at this time and died, then place second son Liu Cong surrendered to the parade, Liu Bei Seeing this, decided to leave the new field, south of Gangneung, on the way to catch up by Cao defeated, fled to the summer population. Lu Su at this time to prepare the case at snooping, Zhuge Liang also sent envoys to prepare Koto, the alliance of anti-Cao. Sun and Liu to win with fewer forces, defeat Cao at Chi Bi, Cao returned to force the Central Plains. Promote the formation of the Three Kingdoms situation. Sun Quan, the two sides began to prepare their fight Jingzhou. Jingnan prepared to put pressure on the success of forced down Jingnan four counties; and the Ministry of the right to Nelson Yu also sent troops to Jingzhou, spent a long time, and ultimately overcome Nelson. Right to prepare for the show is good, prepare to marry their sister. The right to development forces occupied the cross state. Subsequently, Yizhou Yu wanted to send troops to attack, but died en route. Lu Su to succeed in its place, and Nelson prepared to lend. The operation failed war in the south, west transfer development, operation want to attack Zhang Lu in Hanzhong, Xiliang various warlords suspect it will attack their own, revolted in 211 years, were pushing Ma Chao, Han Sui as the leader, led his army to suppress the operation, successfully area close to the Northwest Territory. Three Kingdoms Liu Bei Liu Zhang invited by the Lord of Yizhou, Shu Zhang Lu to help defend Zhang, Cao Cao's invasion, prepare an oral promise, but continue to buy after the Shu people's minds, the two sides in the 212-year break to prepare for troop movements directed at the Chengdu Chang, although Pang Tong died in military advisor during the flow vector, but in 214 years of success to force the surrender Zhang, Yizhou prepared successfully entered, leaving the defense of Jingzhou, Guan Yu. Meanwhile, the parade was attacked south of Sun Quan, and finally the two sides retreat. 215 years, speaks quickly get Hanzhong, while two began to fight Jingzhou Liu and Sun have the right to the fighting, the two armies against each other. However, note that exercise equipment was Hanzhong, Shu safety hazard, they and the right to split Jingzhou, Yizhou return in triumph, but the relationship has deteriorated. 216 years of operation became king, one year after the attack Hanzhong equipment, and operation of defender internal rebellion, the right to also attack Hefei, Hanzhong success fall into the hands of equipment, operating Though led his army to take back, but without success. 219 years, prepare self-styled Hanzhong. In the same year, Gong Wei Yu rate Jingzhou army north, but the main battle, just take the place of Lu Lu Su Jingzhou raid and sack Yu. 220, speaks death, Cao Pi came to the throne, and forced Emperor Xian of Han demise, Wei Jianguo Road; and in 221 years to prepare for the emperor in Chengdu, the country of the Han; right to Wei to concede defeat, and Pi-right closure for the king, plus nine tin. In the same year, prepare to report the name of revenge Yu conquests right, the right to send replacement Lu Meng Lu Xun against. The results available to defeat, and soon died in the White Emperor. 223, Liu Shan came to the throne, re-alignment Han Wu, Wei Han Wu Sanguo Dingli situation eventually formed. 229 years, the king became the emperor the right to establish Wu. Three return Jin
Translated by Google
About three
Wei With the Chinese prime minister Cao Cao's unification of North and Tun Tianzhi, rent modulation implementation, society tends to stabilize the North, production gradually recovered. Government repair roads, build water conservancy, transport and facilitated transport tank. Recovery smelting iron industry, the water discharge has been promoted, silk industry also flourished. Commodity exchange is beginning to pick, Emperor Ming re-awarded coins. Luoyang, Ye City are growing more prosperous. Cao Cao after the enactment of the lease entered Jizhou modulation. Jian twenty-year, Cao said the king, both Ye, Wei established. 220 the first month, Cao dead; October, son Cao Pi became the emperor, the country Wei, Luoyang, Chien-yuan Huang Chu. Wei was the north. Home Secretary Wei, Yu, Yan, Qing Xu, cool, Yong, Ji, quiet, and, Jing, Yang and other states. Qi Zhong Liangzhou protect Western leaders Wujijiaoyu; You state to up in the Liaodong territory; Qinling Southern States generally, Huai and Han, respectively, connecting Wu, Wei sixty-six million households have a population of more than four hundred forty million; Wei Jianli soon, the regime began to corruption. Qi Wangfang Colonial occurred during the reign of the imperial clan Cao Shuang and Sima Yi Qiu power struggle. Cao Shuang reuse celebrities three dogs and Li Sheng, Bi-rail, and others, Gaiyi toward the Code, the exclusion of Yi. Sima's family since the Eastern Han Han, Yi I and full of strategy, frequently military medals. 238, he led his army to put down Gongsun Yuan, Wei territory included in the Liaodong. 249 years, but also by the city of Luoyang, Cao Shuang Ye Feng Qi Wangfang high chance pingling coup, forcing the yield cool, and cool and the gang were killed, affairs of state monopoly, known as high pingling incident. Later, Yi and son Sima Shi, Sima Zhao has since gradually flatten from Huainan, Wang Ling (251 years), Wu Qiu Jian (255 years), Zhuge Dan (257 years) of military rebellion and resistance of other courtiers, consolidated Sima's rule. Bamboo Grove, represented by a group of celebrities on Sima's metaphysics a negative attitude against which the Sima Ji Kang was a non-destruction and want to help Norm Wu Qiu Jian murder charges for the chaos. Most of them early in the Wei and Jin are gradually return service at Sima. When the resistance forces have been eliminated after Sima's time to take advantage of meritorious service, to send troops off in 263 years, Han. Two years later, Sima Yan to accept the demise in the name of, on behalf of Wei as Jin. Five Emperors calendar, a total of forty-six years. Emperor Cao Pi Cao Rui Cao Fang Cao Huan Cao bang Temple name posthumous title reign name No high and the emperor without Cao Teng Cao Song emperor no no too Cao Cao Dynasty Emperor Wu Wei Wang (Wei founder, 216 years of kings, reigned 4 years) Ancestor Emperor Wen Wei Wang Pi (Wei creator, 220 became the emperor, reigned 7 years) Liezu Ming emperor plain Wang Caorui (226-year reign, the reign of 13 years) No public Cao Fang Ai Zhaoling County (239-254 reign of 15 years) No Emperor Fei Cao bang Gaoguixianggong (254-260 reign 6 years) No emperor Liu-Wang Cao Huan Yuan (260-265 reigned 6 years) Shu 188 years, the Han imperial clan as Liu Yan Yi-mok. Yan dead, son Zhang successor. Yan, Zhang have been pressed flat against the local despots. 207, Liu Bei, Zhuge Liang was invited to his assistant, that "Longzhong" strategic thinking. 211 Shu Liu Bei Zhang invited, so hit the protection, according to Zhang Lu in Hanzhong. 214 years, the equipment occupies Yizhou; 219, stationed in Hanzhong, Hanzhong Wang claimed. This year, Sun Quan was staying in Jingzhou, Guan Yu Army Xisha. 221, prepared in Chengdu became the emperor, the country of Han, known as Shu, also known as Shu, Wu Chien-Yuan Zhang. Han _set_ Yizhou, as South Africa and from the Qinling Mountains. There are two hundred and eighty thousand households, population nine hundred and forty thousand, officials forty thousand, more than 100,000 soldiers; prepare for the battle lost the Jingzhou, in the following year, the Gap, the Battle of Yiling, defeated Shu, Bai Di died. Liu Chan following the legislation. Prepare to die, light auxiliary Liu Shan. Weak and small countries in difficult circumstances. And Yi rebellion after another. Yi Yong-Kai Executive Prefecture tyrannical gun, find attached Wu. Ewe praise Zhu Ke prefect, prefect of the high capital in response to the more Xi Yong Kai, South Africa and to expand regional turmoil. 225, the light had mishaps, light forces more Xi Xi-Ping, Ma Zhongjun Dongping ewe Ke, Li Hui and his troops were with the middle refers to interest-gun. At this point, according to Meng Huo has been the county on behalf of Yong Kai. Light was lost, according to Ma Su 'hearts and minds "of Meng Huo seven escapement seven vertical, so that by the end of hearts, South Africa and put down. Off the barbarians, Sheb displacement official in Chengdu, the South China Youth Qiang prepared for the military, and allows for the most common surname attract the barbarians-steps; south of the cattle owned specialty enrich the Chinese military. And Yi people blocking state region, from change. South African War, Han Wu alliance is also a successful outcome. 227 light years his troops stationed in Hanzhong, Wei started competing with Guanlong the battle. In the case of bright eager Qiuzhan Yizhou tired, on the one hand trying to consolidate the Northern Expedition to "Xing Fu Han Dynasty, also the old are" the orthodox position; on the one hand places the offensive, to survival. 228, Zhuge Liang began the Northern Expedition. After three years, off and repeated the Northern Expedition, are as bad rations, no results. 234 again in the Northern Expedition, into the Wei River south Wuzhangyuan, died in the military, Han withdrew, the Northern Expedition to a halt. Liang's death, Chiang bowl, fee Yi, Dong Yun, who have for the phase, traditional Conservative only. 258 years later, the eunuch good at the right of political corruption. Jiang Wei Northern Expedition, fruitless. 263 years, Wei Mieshu war began, in the winter off Han. Li Yi Tai, a total of forty-three years. Emperor Temple name posthumous title reign name No Chinese Zhaolie Di Shu Liu Bei first primary (founding emperor of the 2-year reign 221-223) No Emperor Huai Xiao Shu LIU Chan (223-263 reigned 41 years) Soochow Yellow Turbans, the Sun Jian Zhu Jun to central suppression with the Yellow Turbans, after he moved to southern Zhu Jun Liang Zhou and Jingzhou. Dong chaos, the firm participated in the Kanto coalition crusade against Dong Zhuo, under Yuan Shu, in Huainan activities, Kennedy died, the Ministry of minority sub-policy command, about 194 Jiangdong began to develop. Zhou Yu and others to get help, the expulsion of Liu Yao, forced down wanglang. 196 years after Emperor Xian Xu moved, refused surgery and joint policy Cao Cao, a glimpse of Wu Hou. 199 years, making break Lujiang Prefecture Liu Xun, the annexation of the department and the county to get Yu Zhang. 200 dead in policy, public policy younger brother Sun Quan system. 208 Wu re_set_tlement by the government the right to the capital. Planning Battle of Red Cliff, forces up to Jingzhou; 210 years Xie brothers move with disabilities to obtain the southeast Banbi. 211-year rule Moling re_set_tlement right, next year, change Moling for the APB. The right to break 219 years of Guan Yu, Jingzhou possession throughout. Victory in the Battle of Yiling, limiting the possibility of the development of Chinese out of Gap. 229 years, the right to the emperor, moved the capital to Jianye, the establishment of Wu. With Yang, Jing, pay Tri-State. There are families fifty-two million, 2.3 million population, three thousand officials, soldiers, $ 230,000. The right of the remaining difficulties, one more mountain to deal with the restless, one in the lake region to resist the pressure of Wei. The more south-east of the mountain people mountain gun, stop dangerous separatist, and even North Union Wei, Sun Quan forces against the expansion of the mainland to the south. The more power and Hill had numerous wars, the award-win, 234 Mountain Danyang Zhu Gege his troops attack the more, the three-year siege, thousands of people out of the mountains more mountains to surrender, in which forty thousand Dingzhuang up soldiers, the rest become a _set_tled. Sun Wu ruled for decades, the mountain the more people in general tend to integrate with the Han Chinese. The right of the main military activities in Huainan. War of Red Cliff, Cao Cao's forces repeatedly attack Hefei, both sides are winning. Jiangbei residents to cross the river, near River County as the number of empty areas. Death of Zhuge Liang, Wei Han war to stop, Huainan of Wu Wei strengthen the attack. Wu troops in addition to the Governor _set_ up along the river, over the _set_ Bongsudae outside, still in Chaohu South Side building dock Ru Xu, tight defense. Wei navy limited attack hard work, Wei Wu phase hold years. The right to rule, Jiangdong significant economic development. People south to north, mountains beyond home ground, labor increased. Yangtze River region has Mita area, which Piling Mita area. Hueiji County agricultural production is more developed. Ancient cultivated itself into another canal in eastern Zhejiang and the southern canal played a navigation benefits of Sun Wu. South Canal Yunyang to Jingkou through the mountains for some, inconvenient transport, has not been repaired. Yunyang break open the west ditch Gang, Qin Huai River and South Canal to China Unicom, the three Wu Jianye convenient to waterways. Silk industry began to rise in the south, but the weaving technology is not high, Silk Brocade has become an important input materials. Metallurgy has inherited the size of the development of the law of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Eastern Han Dynasty celadon glazed pottery manufacturing industry is also based on the maturity. Because the transportation needs of Hohai, shipbuilding industry is booming, ships often Northern Liaodong, Nantong China Sea Asian countries. 230 million people in the fleet to Da Yi Island, which is linked to the mainland and Taiwan, the earliest records, envoy Wu Zhu Ying, Hong Thai Asia Standard to Linyi, help South Asian countries. Lin Yi Qin merchants and envoys have arrived Jianye. Southern culture increased, there has been a number of well-known by scientists and literature and history scholar. Buddhism began to spread in the south, lay Zhi Qian from the south of Luoyang, the native will be later in the Tianzhu Kang Monk north from Cochin. They pass laws in our health scriptures, a lot of influence. Taoism continued to spread in the south folk. Sun Wu Zhu Jiang private soldiers to battle with Sun, Sun Wu repeatedly given the state Dianke hero, the hero often has a number of multi-county pension as Yap, which gradually formed the hereditary generals lead the troops of the system. Meanwhile, the South has emerged as Wu Jun Gu, Lu, Zhu, Zhang as the possession of large areas of land and servants, and their own house style, native high of Han. The generals who led troops and the hereditary right with the Sun Wuzheng main pillars. Right after the death of Wu increasingly weak, while Sima Wei eliminated in the Huainan region after three increasingly powerful military rebellion. Sima to be the first to take off after Han Wu as a national policy, and in off the Han, Wei and later engaged in a new generation of Korean custom, the interim regime continues Wu. 269 years, life Wang Jun Yang Hu Yizhou build the navy, and military strategy of pre-attack Wu. 279 Winter, Conquest of Wu Jin war began, 280 Jianye capture in March, down Sun Hao, Wu death. Calendar four emperor, a total of five years. Emperor Sun Quan Sun Liang Sun Hao Sun Closed Temple name posthumous title reign name High Zuwu Lie Emperor Wu Sun Jian Hou Cheng No waiting in Changsha Huan Wang Wu Sun Ce Dynasty king Sun Quan great emperor (AD 229 the emperor, the establishment of Wu. Reigned 23 years) No Sun No Huiji Wang Liang (252-258 reigned 6 years) No Sun King Emperor Taizong Hugh (258-264 reigned 6 years) No waiting Sun Hao Wu Cheng (reigned 17 years 264 - 280)
Translated by Google
Main Battle
Wancheng war: Both operations: Cao Zhang Xiu Eastern Emperor Xian of Han Jian years, Cao Cao Zheng Jingzhou, to Wan Cheng, Zhang Xiu Ying drop. Cao Cao very joyous. But Cao Cao satisfied its Shusao Chow, Zhang Xiu Jia Xu then use the plan for a successful attack on Cao, Dian Wei love will lead to Cao Cao's eldest son Cao Ang, Cao Anmin nephew, who died, military forces suffered heavy losses. Battle of Yi Jing: Both operations: Zan Yuan Shao Yuan Shao north, in Beijing to meet You state easily, easy to Beijing, the outbreak of war, Zan lost, and ultimately strangled children and wife had their own fire, burning himself, will You state hand over to Yuan Shao, Yuan Shao quiet possession, Hebei, and, Qingzhou, in the second year of the war launched by Yuan Caoguan crossing. Guandu war: Both operations: Cao Cao Yuan Shao AD 199, Yuan Shao pick elite thousands, ugly as a general life Yanliang Wen, Ju Shou as advisors to Wuchao the granary, stationed Yang Li, and Cao Chujiao loss, change fight a protracted war, Cao exhausted. However, due to the defection of troops from Yuan Xu You (Cao Cao fellow) help, Cao turn defeat into victory, victory. After the fall of Jizhou, destroy Huanglong, Yuan Shao wiped out the forces, the basic unity of the north. Changbanpo war: Both operations: Cao Cao Liu Bei Occurred in China three times, locations in the vicinity of ChangBanPo Dangyang Jingzhou, Liu Bei and Cao Cao is fighting both sides. After Cao Cao since been Jingzhou, all the way south, almost equal to the new field, fled without a fight Liu Bei, Cao Cao sent day and a night light cavalry three hundred years, in Nagasaka and Liu Bei defeated Liu Bei to catch up. Battle of Red Cliff: Both operations: Cao Cao, Sun Liu coalition (Sun Quan Liu Bei) AD 208, Cao Cao put down the north, south to win Jingzhou, Liu Biao died, the second son of Liu Cong's reign, but was Cai Mao, Quine and others to incite more, gave Jingzhou, Cao Cao obtaining the ship hundreds of thousands of infantry, three months after the break, and south in an attempt to destroy the regime Jiangdong Sun. The Sun Quan and Liu Bei form coalition, called the "Sun Liu coalition forces." Then, after another in terms of Cao Cao, Liu and Sun coalition forces in Red Cliff was defeated, fled panic Xuchang. Since then, Cao Cao's forces, and have not be extended to the River. Tongguan war: Combat both sides: Ma Chao Cao Against Ma Chao, Han Sui and other Xiliang hero, to consolidate the rear forces, Ma Chao fled to Hanzhong. Cao Cao truly unified North. Battle of Hefei: The two sides battle: Sun Quan Cao Battle of Wu Wei, Zhang Liao results Morimasa fighting, so Sun Quan defeated, he was nearly captured, but later Cao Cao Wu had never been to. Battle of Ru Xu Kou: The two sides battle: Sun Quan Cao In the Battle of Hefei Sun Quan after the Battle of Cao Cao, Cao Cao Ru Xu Kou results beat Sun Quan. Battle of Yiling: Both operations: Liu Bei Sun Quan As Liu Bei's wrong actions, making the Fire will be Lu Xun, a big decline in emerging national Shu, and the inability to regain Jingzhou, Three Kingdoms to form the final shape. Zhuge Liang, Jiang Wei Northern Expedition: Both operations: Zhuge Liang / Sima Yi Jiang Wei / Deng Ai, Zhong will Result of the war both sides are winning, while national consumption leading to Shu, Shu indirectly lead to subjugation. Wei Mieshu war: Both operations: Sima Zhao Liu Shan Shu LIU Chan for corruption and incompetence, without resistance makes Shu perish. And after the war, Deng Ai, Zhong will, leaving Chen Shu Jiang Wei and some were killed in the war. Conquest of Wu Jin Battle: Both operations: Sima Yan Sun Hao Jin Conquest of Wu, Sun Wu demise of the Three Kingdoms era ended, the Western Jin Dynasty unified China.
Translated by Google
Timeline
184 February Yellow Turbans. October inclination died. The main failure of the November Uprising 189 April Lingdi soldier, came to the throne Prince Liu debate. Empress Ho Lin Chao, a large general He Jinbing government. He Jin eunuch August Heaven, so and so killed by Zhang. Yuan Shao Jin Zhu eunuch. Dong Beijing. September Dong Liu Shao Di waste debate is Hongnong Wang, Liu-Wang Liu Li-year-old Association for the emperor, for the Emperor Xian. Operation in December called for a total of towns and princes from the crusade against Dong Zhuo. 190 years January dysfunction revolted against Cho. Zhuo Wang Hongnong so poisoned Ru, Death 15. February Zhuo burned Luoyang, moved the capital Chang'an and Luoyang, the ancient capital broken. Degree of independence for the Liaodong Gongsun Hou. Sun Jian-breaking 191 years of excellence, cut Hua Xiong. Han Fu Yuan Shao won the Reign of Jizhou, since the lead-mok. Cao Ren Ōita Prefecture. 192 Wang Yun in April _set_ up a chain of dollars, Lu Bu to kill Dong Zhuo. June Jue, Bom Wai Chang, Yun-kill, defeat cloth. Qingzhou defeat the Yellow Turban army operation, incorporated as the "Green Island soldiers' strength and growth. Kennedy hit the table, died. 193 years of operation Crusade Xuzhou, Tao Qian defeated. 194 years of fabric hit parade. Qian died and prepare collar Xuzhou animal husbandry. 195 years February Li Jue, Guo Si phase attack. Emperor Xian Li Jue hijacking, Guosi seizure or poor. July Emperor Xian Changan East go out, Li Jue, Guo Si led troops to recover it. Yanzhou led operation in October, animal husbandry. Jiangdong attack Sun Ce defeated Liu Yao. 196 July Emperor Xian, who escorted back to the Yang Feng Chang. September parade Siheung Mita, the hijacking to Emperor Xian Xu. Cloth attack Liu Bei, Liu Bei vote operation. 197 Zhang Xiu cutting operation in January, defeated. Yuan Shu in Shouchun emperor. September, Cao Cao attack Yuan Shu, defeated. 198 years September cloth prepared to attack, breaking Xiao Pei. December parade sack cloth. Married with Zhou Yu Xiao Qiao. 199 March, Ji Yuan Shao Gongsha Zan occupation, quiet, green, and four states. June device crusade, surgery died. November embroidered drop operation. Dong Cheng conspired with Prince and other services in addition to exercise. Policy Xiqu Lujiang, defeat Liu Xun. 200 years January, bearing exercise such as Heaven. Policy was assassinated, Sun Quan to the throne. Chen Linzhuan write operation to discuss call to arms, Guandu war begin. October parade attack Wu Chao. In April 201 in warehouse operations defeat Shao Ting. Prepare Ben Liu Biao. 202 May Shao disease death. Minority carrier still Siwei. September attack Cao Cao Yuan Tan, Yuan Shang save Tan, defeated. 203-year crusade against the right to Huang. 204 years of operation put down Jizhou. Liaodong Gongsun degree dead, child health Gongsun throne. 205 years of operation put down Qingzhou. 206 years of operation of pacification and state. 207 years of operation in August Wuhuan big break, destroy the remnants of Yuan, a unified North. Please prepare Highlighting wise. Operation from the Huns redemption Wenji. 208 Labeled speaking Chinese prime minister in June. July parade Nanzheng table. Died Aug. table. Operation to kill Jung. Liu Cong in September drop operation. November Battle of Red Cliff, Sun Liu coalition operation was defeated. In October 209 the right equipment and the sister get married. 210 years of operation into Tongquetai. Yu death. Maidenhair maidenhair mold removal Kang, Han Bing Fa Xing Zhang open, etc., Wei, built with square gun. Ma Chao was speaking to break 211. Prepare Sichuan. 212 years May Cao Cao to kill Maarten. October offensive operations south of Ru Xu Kou. Equipment stationed Jia Meng Guan. Right-shift rule Moling, renamed Jianye. 213 years of operation in May for the Emperor Xian Feng Wei Gong, plus Jiuxi. 214 May the right to break Wancheng. The right to attack in July, Hefei, are Zhang Liao defeated. October Xiahou Yuan put down Longyou. November Emperor Xian, V V after ten feet and the National plotted in addition to finished speaking, something to vent, speak Heaven's crowd. Liu Zhang drop preparation, prepared from the collar Yi-mok. Liu Bei Ma Chao drop. 215 Zhang Lu Zheng July parade. November Lu drop operation. Xiaoyaojin war. Exercise the right of Ru Xu defeated. 216 Cao Cao himself king. Winter, Sun Quan, Cao Cao had mishaps. Offensive operations in February 217 Ru Xu Kou, power failure. 218 January Shofu Geng Ji, Wei Huang straight Division, imperial ringgit are equal in the uprising against Cao Xu, failure killed. Cao Zhang defeated the Wuhuan military, Xianbei tribe surrendered, in northern Binh Dinh. 219 Liu Bei into soldiers Dingjun January, hit the cut Xiahou Yuan Huang. March Cao Cao to Hanzhong, and Liu Bei stalemate for months, and also retired military. Hanzhong Liu Bei said in July. Guan Yu Shuiyanqijun. October feather loss of Jingzhou was right to harm. 220 January parade disease death. July Mengda down the Cao Shu. October Pi became the emperor, built Wei. December Wei Luoyang as the capital, Chang'an, Qiao, Xuchang, Ye City, Luoyang five are. 221 Prepared in April became the emperor. Wu cutting equipment in July. Zhang Fei was killed. 222 years of power, said the king. June Battle of Yi Ling, Lu Xun Huoshaolianying, defeated equipment. Wu Wei attack in September, according to Wu's. December Sun Quan and Liu Bei sent envoys flak. 223 Died April Baidicheng equipment, Zen following the throne. August Pi-cutting Shu Rd. Wu Shu rebuilt and good. Yong Kai rebellion. 224 Jun Gong Wu Pi rate to Guangling, Riverside and also. 225 light years Nanzheng. Liang Meng Huo seven escapement seven vertical, put down the southern Sichuan. 226 Pi-disease death, beware the throne. December Rui Cao Sima Yi is 骠骑大将军 closed. Jiangxia siege right, defeat. Letter to the Northern Expedition 227 light years. Cutting off a 228-year Central Plains. Jiang Wei Shu down. Ma Su loss of Jie Ting. Wei Zhou bream Zhajiang induced attack Wu, Lu Xun defeat Cao Xiu. Cutting off two Central Plains. 229 years of rights proclaimed himself emperor. Cutting off three Central Plains. Wu Wen Wei sent 230 years, direct sea to Zhuge Yi Island. Light four cutting the Central Plains. Cao Zhen disease death. 231 light years of the fifth cutting the Central Plains. 232 years of Liaodong prefect Gongsun Yuan Wei Wu emissary to concede defeat. Gong Wei Wu Hefei massive 233 years. Luan Cong attack the whole removal general, neither grams and still. 234 light years, six Qishan. 8 Moon died in Wuzhangyuan. Gong Wei Wu Road, Hefei, Emperor Ming himself to save his troops, Wu get away. 235 Cao Rui Feng Yi in January for the Grand Tutor. Ian Ma Jun manufacturing vehicles and water transfer 100 plays. 237 years of independence for the Liaodong Gongsun Yuan Yan Wang. 238 May are Diqian Liu Xin Wei Ming, with a fresh take on the Si side, the music wave August, the Liaodong Yi-Ping, killing Gongsun Yuan. Japan Yamatai Queen Himiko sent a messenger to Wei, Wei Feng Himiko "pro-Wei Wo Wang." 239 dead in January Cao Rui Cao Fang throne. 240 years in Shu Zhang Yi put down the barbarians of the chaos. Wei compliance with removal of ladder side prefect Jun went to the bow Japanese. 241 years of building water conservancy projects in the Huaihe River Wei. 242 years, sent troops to attack the right of Hainan Island. Goguryeo palace throne Dongchuan rebel, Kou Xian-ping. 244 years of troops to attack Cao Shuang Shu disadvantage suffered heavy casualties. August quiet provincial governor Wu Qiu Jian starting attack Goguryeo from Xuantu September Baekje Chen Chi Xi Qu Lelang border residents, the return after the deterrence Prefecture Liu Maowei October pills have captured Wei Jun, Dong Chuan Wang Ben Waugh ju Wu Qiu Jian November to chase pour Wang Qi Dong Lou sector, Liu Mao, do not bow to comply with removal cutting Wei 245 years Wutai Zi Lu Sun and Sun-Pa with a power struggle, due to Lu Xun implicated Anger died. May Jun Wei Goguryeo military conquest are the brightest victory, no Ji Qiu Jian Gong Stele and triumph. Wu Qiu Jian 246 two-year break of Goguryeo. 247 out of the dimension Longyou Gong Wei Shu, collusion with Shu Qiang, Hu tribe. Qi Wang succeeded with side Prefecture, sent to bring government edict Zhang, Huang went to Japanese and other buildings. Yi labeled 248 years the prime minister. 249 killed in January Yi-gang Cao Shuang. Xiahou Ba Shu down. Victoria Fawei. 250 years and for the common people the right to waste Sun, Lu Sun-Prince in Pa, Li Sun Liang as Prince. WEI Xi-Ping Wei attack failed. 251-year conspiracy to mutiny Weitai Yu Ling Wang, Yi was put down. July Yi death. Eldest son of Sima Yi 252 years for large general division. The right to die, Sun Liang throne. Sima Zhao Wu attack, failed. 253 years of Zhuge Ke Wei attack, without success. Failed attack Wei Di Road, Victoria. Wu Ke Sun Jun Heaven. 254 years Cao Fang waste division in September. October Cao bang to the throne. Sun Ying Sun Jun Wu unsuccessful murder. 255 years of General Wu Qiu Jian Town Yangzhou thorn Shiwen Qin crusade with teachers. Teacher dead. Zhao for large general. Dimensional attack Wei Di Road, the first defeat after victory. 256-year-dimensional Fa Wei Deng Ai was defeated. Sun Jun Wu died, brother Wu Sun Lin designed the government. Sun Chen kill Teng Yin et al. 257 years of combined revolted against birth and Sun Wu Wei. April, Zhao crusade Zhuge Dan. Gu Gong Wei Luo Wei of failure. 258 Wei Jun broken Shouchun, chopped Festival. Sun Chen Sun Liang Emperor Wu of waste as Huiji Wang, Li Langyawang Sun closed for the Emperor. Designed to kill off Sun and Ding Feng Chen. 260 years May Jia Chong, Cao bang into economic killing. Cao Huan to the throne in June. In October 262, Victoria Gong Wei, Deng Ai was defeated again and again in Tuitun. 263 three-way cutting Shu Zhao, Shu death. 264 killed in Zhonghui Wei plot failed. Zhao said Jin Wang. Sun off death, Sun Hao throne. 265 August Zhao death, his son Sima Yan successor Jin Wang. Wu Wuchang Modi moved the capital in September. December for the Liu-Yan Wang Huan waste, claiming to be Emperor Wu established Jin, Wei death. 266 Zhu Jun of China in Yangzhou Wu Wuchang upstream supply, heavy labor, complaining. Dec Wu Modi also have Jianye. 271 years out of Bing Gong Wu Hao Jin, because the soldiers hate full length. Yang Zhao Yan was sent 272, Yang Hu and other strategic locations to support his troops Xiling. Pokeweed defeated Yang Chao, kill step illustrates. 276 years February Dongyi naturalized Eight Dongyi seventeen in July with domestic 277-year break XianBei mandarin duck Jin-Wen. Yang Hu dead 278 years, stationed Du Yu Xiangyang. February Dongyi six countries to offer 279 years of military forces to attack Western Jin Wu Six Road. 280 Conquest of Wu Jin, Hao drop, Wu death.
Translated by Google
Three cultures
Academic Han and Jin on the occasion of the dramatic changes in academic thinking, mainly due to traditional thinking about change and political struggle, the former component Ju. Make friends by the still, heavy goods algae, reactionary and become real to Name, attributed to Shen Han. Name of business because of the hypocrisy is still reactionary and a natural, straightforward, to the Lao. As the political corruption of the late Eastern Han Dynasty, the situation is chaotic. Cao Cao and Zhuge Liang using famous or Legalist thought to restore social order. Cao Cao Xinshangbifa promote and advocate the rule of law. That "merit" concept to break the door first or Norm standards. Zhuge Liang also promote the rule of law, Shu Xiu-ming after the legal system, law enforcement fair. That "the country should be, virtuous works in the" proposal would apply to either. He also attached importance to military law, such as the Jie Ting Su violation of military orders and the horses were beheaded, he self-deprecating third class. Han Chu-Jiang Wei after the name of law Metaphysics thought this idea provides the foundation for the Ming Shiji dark focus of political law by the name of the specific issues to metaphysics of abstract speculation. After school, the Han Zheng Xuan's already rather highly regarded by the school. However, in the Wei and Jin Dynasties of the world, Wang Su father's footsteps by learning and note their views on the classics and Zheng Xuan different, then there Zheng, Wang factions split each other hard. Wei Dynasty, Sima Wei as Jin usurp. The political darkness, the minds of intellectuals tend to reactionary, depression and no way out. Cao who mostly tend to lose power scholar, criticized the way to talk politics, stand naturally. Tendency Sima who stands for the maintenance of Norm, the Confucian style becoming divisive. By Wang Su as Emperor Wu grandson, was thus established an official school, and sometimes dismiss Shen Zheng Wang, so Wang Xuecheng as sovereign. "Bamboo Grove and Rong Qi period," Southern big Muzhuan painting. Top to bottom, left to right are the Spring and Autumn period and the hermit Wing Kai Bamboo Grove Ruan Xian, Liu Ling, the show, Ji Kang and Ruan Ji, Shan Tao, Rong. Wei-Jin period, the most prominent thought of metaphysics. The basic doctrine of "I", "Zhuang Zi" and "Book of Changes", collectively known as San Xuan. Kuromasa metaphysicians talk about, talk about mundane affairs, called the talk, popular in Wei and Jin Dynasties. In the 240 years -248 years of brewing, He Yan and Wang Bi, represented by. Metaphysicians that the thing you need to understand the principle behind the "this" can only understand the normal appearance seen "the end", and thus to promote the "end of the system" theory. And as "the" to "Road", there is no physical analogy for the "no" (Principles, trends), as "the end" for the actual phenomenon of the "yes" and that "all things are derived from nothing." Wei Jin to Sima Yan usurped the throne after the date. By Ruan Ji, Ji Kang and other representatives of the Bamboo Grove is that they shift the focus to life by the ideological and theoretical issues. The political darkness, Sima depression scholar, and decorated with respect for Norm since. Ruan Ji and Ji Kang, who then claim repression Confucian rites and hypocrisy of human nature, emphasizing the liberation of humanity and nature in good faith. They take the lead in achieving this theory, the formation of an atmosphere of liberation of personality. To the Western Jin Dynasty, the talk of the wind to spread to the political arena, also holds the power of the Sheriff's influential talk Kuromasa, showing a group of elite born alive You Yu. Fei Wei on the "natural" amendment, advocated "a theory of worship" to correction "virtual birth of the disadvantages." Guo Xiang's further evidence of "Norm" that is "natural" development of this point will ever be the end of metaphysics. Literature Zhengshi literary period, because the political situation at that time controlled by Sima, scholars highly suppressed, it is difficult to directly face the reality. Contemporary writers have the Bamboo Grove and Yan, Xiahou Xuan, Wang Bi and other "Zhengshi celebrities." Zheng Shi Lao writers mostly through good metaphysics, for social reality, as persistent as a writer Chien, adopted a more dilute attitude. Ji Kang and Ruan Ji's prose <Yonghuai poem> Shangji Cheng "Chien strength of character," the courage to face the Sima power, its literature, has distinct characteristics. "Wen Xin Diao Long" refers to "Zheng Shi Ming, poetry miscellaneous cents heart. He Yan, who, rates and more superficial. Zhiqing but Jun Ji, Ruan Zhi away deep, and it could mark Yan." Ruan Ji and Ji Kang shows are all Zhengshi literature on behalf of the poet. Religion This period is the period of development of Buddhism and Taoism. As natural disasters continue, people are seeking spiritual solace of religion, so that can develop. South Africa and various Yizu of primitive religion, witch has a very strong wind. Worship of nature is a myth, with many gods, worship of the natural features. In the Southwest have a long history, the early formation of the primitive religion. Eastern Han Dynasty a popular school of Taoism, Chang Tao-ling inclination to establish the Peace Avenue and the establishment of the Five Pecks of Rice Road, is the prototype of Taoism, to the Western Jin Dynasty is called Taoism. The inclination of the Peace Avenue, in the heavier aspects of Taoism, "keep one." The "Great Peace" as the main classic, also known as "Pacific blue collar book." Cumbersome, "his words yin and yang, the five acts to home, and more witch wizard hybrid language." Both its social and ideological interests of the ruling class to maintain the part, but also called for fair, some people sympathetic to the poor. Inclination of a vast public education, the rate of his brother in the late Eastern Han Zhang Liang, Zhang and Zhang Mancheng subordinates initiated the "Yellow Turban Rebellion," and finally defeated by the Eastern Han court and eventually decline. Chang Tao-ling, when the Han Shundi into Sichuan Hemingshan, artificial character book, create Five Pecks of Rice Road. The Huang-Lao school education may be the integration with the local religion, most of the source to the rune Prachuab witchcraft. Five Pecks of Rice Road and Pacific doctrine of Taoism is basically the same reason, ministry school of Taoism. Zhang Lu to teach in "Ji Jiu" learning chanting "I five thousand text", "moral" has become one of the major classics. "I would like to Seoul Note" reflects the early Taoism "I five thousand text" explanation. By his son Zhang Heng (Taoist), his grandson Zhang Lu spread popular in Sichuan and the Hanzhong area. Zhang Lu surrendered to Cao Cao, the Five Pecks of Rice Road from Pakistan, spread to the southern area of Han. Back in the early Eastern Han Dynasty that Buddhism came to China, but it was Confucianism flourished, the development of small, three to the rear and development. Mahayana Buddhism was spread by the impact of the Kushan Empire around. Western influenced, Khotan, Kucha and other places of Buddhism flourished. Tan Ke Jialuo Tianzhu after another, to write down and rest tan armor and other monks to Kangju Monk classic translation of Luoyang, the Mahayana Buddhism spread to China. Tan Ke Jialuo promote discipline, which is a Chinese monk precepts ordained the beginning of future generations of its ancestors for the Lvzong. Tan to write down the translation of "Tan without virtue (possession of France) Karma" by ZHU, who quit defensive line, usually as a Chinese monk monks beginning. Scripture translation is not good because at that time, ZHU seeking behavior after the original study, in 260 years starting from the Yongzhou to Khotan, became the first law of Chinese monks seeking westbound. He write "Great product Wisdom," the Fan Ben, after the disciples returned to Luoyang in 282 years, and finally by the Zhu Shulan translated as "Wisdom shine through." Development, financing was in the late Eastern Han Dynasty board under tiles on roof Jiangdong Daxing temple. Three Kingdoms period of Buddhist city, mainly north of Luoyang, the South was Jianye. Buddhist Emperor Ming Hing Wei, Cao Zhi also like reading scriptures and chanting creation. Sun Wu, the when Zhi Qian, Wu Kang Monk will have income, esteem and support the development by Sun Quan. Sun Hao became the emperor, this Buddhist temple to be destroyed, because Kang Monk would say probation, and finally give up. In the Shu Han, Buddhism is not very prosperous, and size. Art Three in the arts, Sun Wu specializes in a variety of art there are many celebrities, when called Wu Eight absolutely. Of Wu Fan, Liu Dun, Zhao Dagong, Yan Wu, Wong elephant, Cao fashion, life, and Song Zheng woman and others. For example, Yan Wu good at chess, no one can win their peers, the "grandmaster" said. As CAO of fashion is good at drawing, like emperor is good at calligraphy. Unrest in the late Eastern Han Dynasty bear, many paintings were destroyed or lost, resulting in the loss. The development of Buddhism, Buddhism began to emerge as a theme in painting. Three Kingdoms period of painting, because of political instability, social chaos and no greater success. Before the three countries, primarily painting, "hundreds of hands of the Court," the technical occupations, not art, this period began to appear practical subject matter content is also publicized by the ethics of ancestors, "works" Vimalakirti map "," release Muni Buddha Preaching ", etc. He once fifty feet silk together, painting a portrait, the heart that the grassland, transition to the religious propaganda of the period. painters from the Central Plains regions of the Yellow River to the Yangtze River, when the famous The painters Cao out of fashion, Ms. Wu Wangzhao, there are other good painting Huan Fan, Yang, Wei Di Cao bang, Zhuge Zhan et al. Sun Wu Cao out of fashion, good paint and painted Buddhist paintings, known as "Buddha painting brush is made. The full three-dimensional works, the world has "Cao clothing outlet," said No. "Cao-like." Ms. Wu Wangzhao Sun Wu, Wu Chengxiang Zhao Yuan's sister, good at calligraphy and landscape painting, when the people as "needle must." She painted for the national mountain topography Sun Quan, the first real open landscape. Han Yang Hsiu According to legend, "Xijing map" painted. Cao Weihuan good Dan Fan, Wei Di Cao bang painting figures facts. Shu Zhuge Zhan also work painting. Technology Jun Ma specializes in mechanical applications, improve production, produce water transfer guide 100 plays and lost car, won the "world in the name of clever" in the world. He improved Ling Han weaving machine, so a three-dimensional weave pattern, comparable with the brocade. Bi Lan Han keel modified car, the invention of the keel water tankers to irrigate farmland bit higher. Now part of the terraces still in use. He also made stone car transformed into Rotary made stone car, hit the volume and speed to enhance the throw. Zhuge Liang in the mountains along the cliff in order to facilitate transportation, invention "wooden ox." Its structure is different ancient literature, scholars generally recognized as a wheelbarrow and four-wheel vehicles, there are no exact answers. His invention launched ten consecutive arrows Liannu, also known as "Yuan Rong." In addition, it is said from the wise design, used to pass the signal lanterns, is recognized as the ancestor of a hot air balloon; According to the "things Jiyuan" contains, Zhuge Liang is also the first to create a prototype of guns, rifles gradually replaced the spear end. Liu Hui for the mathematician, a child he was interested in mathematics, study of ancient Chinese mathematics draconian "Nine Chapters on Arithmetic." After four years older Caowei Jing Yuan (263 years) of the "Nine Chapters on Arithmetic Note" through by their own comments, it is easy to understand. Liu Hui and after the book "Nine Chapters on Arithmetic Note" vol. X, that is, "re-poor" (later known as "considered by the island"), which makes Chinese surveying reached its pinnacle. On other technologies, astronomy, have served as Sun Wu and Chen Zhuo Jin Taishi orders. He collected information about the parties, improve the Chinese official system of stars, and draw star charts, followed by future generations. Pei Xiu's "drawing six body" in the history of the map of China occupies an important position. Pu Yuan good Duanlian iron, he Xiegu (now Mei County, Shaanxi Province, south-west) as Zhuge Liang knife. The knife can be split bamboo tube filled with iron beads, as the Shen Dao. As the Sun Wu in the south region, water development, shipbuilding technology developed. Some up and down five of its warships, and some can accommodate three thousand soldiers. Shu rich well salt, the use of local natural gas to boil the salt, improving productivity.
Translated by Google
Three Military System
Wei's Central Army, the Army and foreign military sub. "'The military' is a 'foreign armies' comes in the difference between foreign military formation in the era of the Han Jian (196 - 220), to Wei Huang Dynasty period (220-226 years) captaincy system established in the distinction between foreign military and foreign The name of the military will officially established. Jian before Cao Cao separatist group, but the situation was under one of the warlords. Emperor Xian Ying Cao Cao are many, Emperor to the princes, especially in the Guandu war, defeated Yuan Shao, Ji made, and , blue states are gaining, he's becoming a country ruled areas was the size. big time situation, no longer as in the past, to lead an army (although not all is the most) everywhere expedition, they had to stay consequent Tuen way. put down a place that is part of the armed forces remain stationed there, one person appointed by the commander, unifying the area armies. This Liutun system, the following fact that the prevalence of military Wei's captaincy armies partition system marked the beginning. this situation, Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shao possession occurred in Hebei, and states were then, to the Red Cliff after the war, the formation of three Dingzhi situation would gradually fixed as a system, and the captaincy for the subsequent development of the system. both national army In fact, sub-internal and external, internal and external name followed naturally formed Liutun outstanding captaincy of the leading generals and soldiers, called the foreign military; UTs army, called in the army. " "History Military System," describes Weizhong Jun's development: "first, Tso home Bue camp in Xiangfu to leader Lord. And _set_ in operation by the Emperor, so there Bue, the second battalion of the barrier, leading to general and five of the school system. "Bue camp is closest Wei Su Wei Jin Bing Group, which _set_ the time," added Chi Three soldiers, "said Jian thirteen years in the (208 AD). Cao Cao then just do relative to the country, will be in Xiangfu home Bue camp. The Jinbing handi number was already small, and under the control of Cao Cao, Bue camp was established, Xiang Fu Wei is the weight Palace. Bue battalion commander was originally Xu Chu, office of Bue Zhonglang Jiang, then moved to Bue general. Wei Cao Wei Zuowu general, are very close to the emperor's person. Wendi in the base _set_, the backbone of the second battalion, owned by the leading commander of the Emperor Ming has _set_ Xiaoqi, guerrilla two camps. "Ancient military system" referred only to Bue, in base two camps, some omissions. "Bue, the second battalion of the barrier, leading to the unification of general and five schools," is not true. In fact, WU Wei Wei has _set_, the base, backbone, Xiaoqi, and other new five guerrilla camp, owned by the leading commander; Han Army Tuen riding since the North, the infantry, shoot the sound, the more riding, long water five battalions, Wei period still exists, but soldiers have been pitiful, the status of the five schools have been so general as Bue, Bue is no longer possible to commander, and other new entrants in the base. Liutun over foreign military started to compile a very inconsistent, often temporary commander appointed by the central and replacement. To Wendi, the situation has changed. "Ancient military system": "yellow early years, special states are gaining military captaincy home, look for signs four towns plus four generals of the number, and home and foreign armies captaincy generals, bit Qiu on." Wei's captaincy states were military, is behalf of the Central Executive of the military stationed all over, the collar is different from the central army soldier gun. The so-called four signs four towns, is Zhengdongqiangjun, general levy the south, General Zheng Xi, Zheng and Town North General General General Town, Town, General Town General and so on, in addition to the so-called four general safety Siping the title, these are not fixed military, but the temporary closure of the gift the title. From these titles may also know that those states are gaining military captaincy general, on behalf of the Central line to suppress the right of conquest. That the army and foreign armies and foreign armed forces, "General captaincy large home and foreign armies," is based on the national commander of the Central Army major general, major general became the highest military commander of the Wei. Cao Wei was replaced by the Eastern Han Dynasty and the establishment of start is still the highest military and political Qiu Executive, _set_ after the great general, Qiu most important power is divided, so Chen Fu-liang said General "bit Qiu on." In summary, Wei central military system is: | - The military - leaders, Hujun - all school camp will Central Army - major general - | | - Foreign military - military states are gaining captaincy In addition to the military and foreign armed forces, Cao Wei as well as local soldiers gun soldiers. Han Guangwu Babing raised disabilities, gun forces are very weak. To the Eastern Han Dynasty, some states Mayor separatist rule the roost, a stronger force, the majority of gun forces are eliminated one by one or merger. Cao Cao unified the north, large and small separatist armed or eliminated, or incorporated, the gun is often only Liuzhun north central army, and no place armed. Secretary Malang was the prime minister suggested that the main book are the establishment of local gun armed, to "prepare Shii outside, inside Wei against the law." "Ancient military system": "Since the Secretary is satisfied that the words of Malang, re-make gun Code soldiers, then do not _set_ lieutenant, prefect or the provincial governor and handsome cover." Gun for the soldiers to garrison the post-gun, if necessary, should be transferred off. Soldiers in the army than the gun position, low foreign armies, "not with the gun captaincy ... ... Gou with foreign armed forces in the military case, although the power will be the next Hou; as in the gun, though not sealed high power" ("Book of Jin. Section burning Biography "), but local gun Executive's power to greatly inflated. Therefore, the "ancient military system" that the Cao Wei's "military power outside together in the Reign, and Qiu attributed by the Great General." Subsequently, the memorial was Emperor Ming the lifting rim gun provincial governor, prefect of the right led troops, in addition to sending generals to guard, to prevent the provincial governor, prefect led the soldiers are "concentrate on military merit, not handling civil," not "independent repair service The of the industry "(" Three Kingdoms. Wei Zhi Du Shu Chuan "). Cao Weibing system, there Mita soldier is worth mentioning, but Chen Fu-liang has oversight of this. Wei's Mita points damintun and Bingtun two, is the way to the Han Dynasty mandarin and Bien Dist Mita rental promotion. Damintun management style is: by the Secretary for Agriculture in charge of a large national damintun, Jeonnong Zhonglang Jiang responsible for a gun of damintun, Commandery responsible for a typical agricultural county units damintun, Tuen Sima responsible for a production unit - - a Tun. Tun Mita each have fifty people off. Damintun task is to grow rice, millet, mulberry, hemp, 50% to 60 harvest paid to the Government. Mita customer does not perform military service, but the Ministry of Le-style management to implement martial law, military system should be included in scope of the study. Chien Dynasty began Mita, this is bound to displaced persons in the provision of extensive land and the lease to be banished; to the end of Jin Wei early rulers to the interests of aristocratic families, often split Mita, Mita divided off, Mita system was to the devastation. Bingtun start later than damintun, generally maintain the existing military establishment, _set_ up in the Shu and Wu border confrontation between the two countries, so that the soldiers and the tenant and keep. Wei Dong Wu is also broadly similar with the soldiers. Military System and Wei Shu roughly the same, it has its characteristics. Shu's Central Army, "ancient military system", said: "Shu home five forces its left, right, General, Governor, retaining one person, one teacher, monitor, protect, code, join the army of one, his former teacher, generals, prison, nursing , military governor, who will then Governor, General, and one whose slightly as the Chinese school. "five forces that front, back, left, right, in the military. In the Army and Su Wei Wei is also the same forces; front, back, left and right a little mean Si-Jun Wei's foreign military. Shu army, division, center, General military _set_ one or two, the country's highest military commander. Five Army organizational system is not exactly the same, the Army Hujun, Jianjun, military advisor, all care, leading, typical of a military man; before and after the Army Hujun, Jianjun, military advisor, leader, typical of a military man; left, Youjun have Hujun, Jianjun, all care of one person. According to the "Three Kingdoms. Shu Chi. Shut Ma Huang Chao Chuan", front, back, left, commander Youjun are a former general, after the generals, generals left and right, General, only the military commander is Hujun; According to Wang, Liu Min, Jiang Wei and other transmission, front, back, left, right, the Fourth Army and often Hujun or Jianjun for their own commander in chief. Thus, the former generals and other official number, what is said or into another Hujun said, or at different times of the Officials, to be further examined. Shu grass-roots army, there are many different titles. "Ancient military system": "Soldiers will have sudden, without prior (lower case on the shell) old man, young Qiang, San Qi, Wu riding between them, cover with Shu is also incomplete." "Liu Zhang, the Sansuke shed tens of thousands of close that the soldiers, soldiers, Eastern states. "cited here is not yet complete, according to Wang Xinfu" Three soldiers make records, "Statistics, Shu army of grass-roots following title: song length, Han and Song of the establishment of a Ministry, Sichuan has a long song, the song still in some of the military establishment. Tuen will, Shu Tuen will have, there Tuen establishment. Conflict will be, the Emergency Unit of generals, then Shujun often have a special striker team. No prior, no when, and they may fine the same courage as a team. Flying Army to Qiang's a - young Qiang mainly divided into five. Tiger-step, fine brave infantry team. Tiger riding, fine brave cavalry force, in addition to San Qi, Wu and other cavalry riding. White (head hair) by the white minority composition of feathers for decoration. (The case under the shell) old man, from the (lower case on the shell) people (Hunan, Sichuan area minority) composition. There are also barbarian soldiers, composed of ethnic minorities by the Jingzhou area. These can be seen from the title, the regime not only Xiu Han Shu army, and a large number of soldiers outside the family, composed of military flying, blue Qiang, White (head hair), (the case under the shell) Sou, Yi Bing and other alien forces . The case of soldiers from the East can be seen that the state, Shu also displaced to form into a foreign army. Soochow military system more messy, and Wei is also generally no different. The military characteristics, such as "ancient military system," said: "Wu multiple s Strategy, the business school a little different from the Han." Dong Wu Liguo south, north of the Yangtze natural barrier, southeast East China Sea, South China Sea, the Mainland and more lakes Mizusawa, many waters natural conditions, especially the rich natural resources and a developed economy, the decision of its navy is stronger than Wei, Shu, resulting in several times to defeat s Strategy to attack Cao Wei Dajun. Wu's like only large volume, quantity, and there Beirut Chong, fighting ship, ship building, Fei, cover the sea, Red Dragon, CMZ, Chang, big ship, big (flat boat), Dragon warships, such as mallard morning number name. According to "Wu Shu" records, was able to _set_ the pretty horse eighty boats ("The Three Kingdoms. Wu. Quan Biography" two note cited Golden Harvest). Also under the "Jinyang Autumn", Conquest of Wu Jin, the five thousand ships to receive their boats ("The Three Kingdoms. Wu. Sun Hao Chuan 'note cited), including tankers and warships, transport ships, a significant part of the military forces for water transport are used. In this way, though we can not know Soochow navy vessels specific figures, but the scale is easy to imagine that. S Strategy at Soochow navy patrol the Yangtze River is not only time a natural barrier, and cruise the vast waters. Soochow navy navy commander for the captaincy. Wu's Central Army and Wei, Shu Han same, there are front, back, left, right, in the five military, army generals have Hujun, leader, Code of Army, military Sima and so on. Once _set_ viceroy Consul General of five war army, the military governor and other home department. Most of Soochow army composed by the more the mountain to mountain more for the soldiers, found only in recorded no less than ten million. West Jinmie Dong Wu, received the Army $ 230,000. Soochow army there are many different name. "Ancient military system": "soldiers solvable trouble, Too Late two, under the car tiger who, Danyang Qing Jin, righteous and athletes to cross the state, the non-weapons fire one dispatch also the most can not." Here are also far from complete . According to Wang Xinfu "Three soldiers make records," Statistics, Soochow army the following name: Yulin, palace Guard troops. Tiger riding, surround and protect the capital of the cavalry. Too Late, solutions trouble, no difficulty, free horse are fine brave troopers, multisection about two, each with left and right of the Department of the Governor Governor to lead the troops. Five battalions, five schools, each with five battalions soldiers, five battalions of five camps the Governor to lead the troops, five schools, five school governor to lead the troops. L City, around the accounts, external, camp under the charge of, all about the team outside of the cantonment in the capital, belonging to the front and rear, left, right, the Fourth Army. Hu Shi also under the car, Danyang Qing Jin, pay the state righteous, athletes, courage, fire officials and other tiger name where soldiers. From the righteous, athletes and other name speculation, where teams may be mostly thick raised Soochow Gentry army generals. "Three Kingdoms. Wu. Canning Biography": "thick can support athletes, athletes are happy to Yongming." Evidently, these teams and their very special relationship between the hereditary generals.
Translated by Google
Three economic
Wei economic After Emperor Xian Ying Cao Cao in Xuchang, in order to "_set_ the country husband the art is strong enough soldiers food" for the policy, implemented in the near Xuchang Mita. The results "raise people Mita promised, was Gok Gu million." Therefore, the operation _set_ the field officer in the gun, the recruitment of displaced persons Mita, the Tun Tianzhi be promoted in order to change the Eastern Han Dynasty warlord made, "bones exposed in the wild, thousands of miles without crowing" situation. Because of the success of Tuntian Zhi, place into "agricultural field officers and men, just a few kilometers of the sound, and aerial phase is a" reason to take Mita measures to shift the North's social stability, and finally up to the "conquest four, no and transportation of workers, and then off Qunzei, g and the world. " Shu economic Wu economic
Translated by Google
Administrative region
Han thirteen states (three administrative regions) Sili Xiaowei Department: Seat Henan (now Luoyang East) area, this central Shaanxi, Qin Yu southwest and west. Known as the "State Secretary." Yuzhou: Seat Qiao (qiáo, Anhui mm counties) area, this southern Henan, eastern, northern Anhui, Shandong, Susie and the southwest corner of North Point. Yanzhou: Seat Changyi (Shandong Jinxiang this northwest) area, this southwestern Shandong, Henan and the eastern North Susie. Xuzhou: Seat Tan (tán, Lu Tancheng southwest) area, this southeastern Shandong, Jiangsu and Anhui and northern part of the northeast corner. Qingzhou: Seat Pro Zi area, this northern and Jidong Lu West corner. Liangzhou: Seat Long (Gan Clearwater North) area, the Ministry today Gandong Dong. And State: legacy Jinyang (Taiyuan West) Northern Division today, and most of Inner Mongolia of a Qin. Jizhou: Seat-ho (hào) (Hebei Baixiang County North) area, this southwestern Hebei. You state: Seat thistle (jì, southwest of Beijing). This area north of Hebei, Liaoning, Jilin and the phone. Yangzhou: legacy of Li Yang (Wan and County, then moved to Shouchun) Southern Division this area, central and southern Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian and Jiangxi provinces. Jingzhou: Seat Hanson (Hunan Changde East) area, this southwestern Henan, Hubei, Hunan provinces and two Guizhou, Guangxi and Guangdong provinces edge. Yizhou: Seat Luo (luò, Sichuan Guanghan, after Mianzhu, then Chengdu) area today Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan provinces most, Shaanxi and Hubei, Gansu each corner. Cross-state: legacy Guangxin (Gui Wuzhou).
Translated by Google
中国历史
Sanguo-Liangjin-Nanbeichao huihua三国-两晋-南北朝绘画paintings of Three Kingdoms, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties 中国从三国鼎峙开始至隋王朝建国为止的绘画艺术。这一时期,上起三国曹魏,中历西晋、东晋、十六国，下迄南北朝至隋统一,历时369年。此间的绘画，在整个中国绘画发展历程中占有特殊重要的地位。 这一时期大部时间陷于战乱，国土长期分裂，朝代频繁更迭，世族地主的统治极端腐朽，生产力不断遭受战争的严重破坏，人民生活陷于深重苦难之中，阶级矛盾与民族矛盾十分尖锐。但另一方面，儒家名教失去它原有的维系人心的力量，玄学思想风靡一时，外来的佛教在中国土地上获得广泛传播和狂热信仰，因此又成为中国历史上一个少有的思想活跃的时代。处在纷争不息、动荡不安的社会之中的士人阶层，不论他们出身于世族或寒门，由于普遍对现实世界感到绝望，而竞相崇尚放达，追求享乐。他们寻求各种精神寄托，或则清谈玄学，或则寄情山水,或则企慕神仙,或则恣意声色。还有一部分人则喜欢染指于艺术的创作、鉴赏和品评等活动。多种多样的精神享乐，无拘无束的个性发展，无疑会给这一时期绘画艺术的空前发展造成有利条件。 绘画的发展及其社会背景 这一时期绘画的主流，仍沿着两汉时期强调绘画的“鉴戒”作用，三国时曹植认为:“是知存乎鉴戒者,图画也”（《历代名画记》）；何晏说:“图像古昔,以当箴规”（《景福殿赋》）。齐梁时谢赫主张“图绘者，莫不明劝戒，著升沉”（《画品》）。这些关于绘画社会功能的论断，与东汉时“图像之设，以昭劝戒”，“图像百城，以励风俗”（均见《后汉书》）的主张完全一脉相承。当时的壁画和卷轴画，以古圣先贤、忠臣烈女为题材者不胜枚举。例如三国时魏国的几处宫殿之内，或则画“历象贤圣”的壁画(《魏都赋》)，或则画姜后、孟母、樊姬、钟离春、班婕妤等列女故事的壁画（《景福殿赋》）。两晋及南北朝时，西凉李于敦煌靖恭堂画“圣帝明王、忠臣孝子、烈士贞女”(《晋书》)；北魏太和(477～499)年间于平城皇信堂画“古圣、忠臣、烈士之容”（《水经注》）。此外像《列女图》、《孝经图》、《孔子十弟子图》之类，一直是当时极其流行的题材。另一方面，由于当时佛教在中国北方和南方，得到了一批统治者的大力支持和提倡,起到了巩固封建统治的强大精神支柱的作用,佛教为充分发挥它那“为形象以教人”的作用，便不遗余力地借助绘画直观具体的感人形象，以作为它有力的宣传手段。这一时期大规模出现的佛教寺塔、石窟壁画和为数更多的佛教行像、卷轴画，其所画佛、菩萨像以及佛传图、佛本生故事图之类，莫不是为了宣扬佛陀的普渡众生、佛法无边广大。通过图画形象，使人们相信佛教教义，以期最终达到有如南朝宋文帝所说的“若使率土之滨，皆纯此化（指佛教化），则吾坐致太平，夫复何事”的目的。道教绘画虽不如佛教绘画兴盛，但其地位也不容忽视。从姚最《续画品》有“画有六法，真仙(即道像)为难”之说，和这一时期道教题材的绘画作品有卫协《神仙画》、史敬文《黄帝升仙图》、谢赫《安期先生图》、梁元帝萧绎《芙蓉湖醮鼎图》之类作品来看，可知当时道像画已成为一个独立的画科。 随着这一时期文人士大夫们对精神生活愈来愈高的追求和各个文化种类之间的互相影响，绘画题材种类在原有的基础上日益扩大，并开始向分科发展。人物画方面,出现了后人所谓的“晋尚故实”的情况。故实画,除了描写“鉴戒”作用的两汉以来的传统题材外，还有的取材于文学作品，如卫协画《诗·北风图》，顾恺之画《木雁图》、《洛神赋图》,史道硕画《酒德颂图》,戴逵画《南都赋图》等。肖像画在这一时期已很发达，重要画家莫不以擅长肖像画而名噪当时。如顾恺之的传神写照，就特别注重揭示对象的精神意向和表现对象的特定性格，肖像画中注重描写人物的品格风度，无疑是与当时盛行的品藻人物的风气相一致的。此外，作为齐梁时上流社会奢华侈靡的生活在绘画上的反映，也出现了谢赫“丽服靓妆，随时变改，直眉曲鬓，与世事新”和稽宝钧、聂松的“赋彩鲜丽，观者悦情”一类的新题材和新风格。北齐时萧放受后主高纬之命，采录“近代轻艳诸诗以充图画”（《北齐书·文苑传序》），显然与当时文学上流行香艳的宫体诗如出一辙。刘的绘画以“妇人为最”，沈粲“专工罗绮”，都是时代风尚的产物。值得特别指出的是在南朝刘宋之际，与诗歌中的山水诗相互伴随，出现了以王微、宗炳为代表所创作的山水画。山水画不再仅仅作为人物画的背景，而已成为一个独立的画科。而且他们画山水是要借此寄托其“山水之好”，并作为一种“畅神”的手段，其后继者如梁代萧贲，也是抱着“学不为人，自娱而已”的态度，因此山水画一开始出现，便已显示出它具有不同于其他画科的特殊地位。在刘宋时一种专以蝉雀为题材的绘画也颇为流行，这显然是取义于中国古代“螳螂捕蝉，岂知黄雀在后”的寓言，使中国花鸟画摆脱自古以博物多识为目的的《本草图》、《尔雅图》式的说明性，而被赋予某种寓意性。东晋顾恺之在《论画》中谈及“凡画，人最难，次山水、次狗马，台榭一定器耳，难成而易好”，可见依题材而区分画科，在东晋时实已初具雏形。此后南北朝时期有以善画鬼神著称者,有以善画马著称者,有以善画蝉雀著称者，绘画题材划分愈益趋向细致和画家技能的愈益变得各有专长，是这一时期绘画飞跃发展的明显标志之一。 绘画的艺术表现形式和手段手法在这一时期也有了显著的发展。西晋时的卫协被谢赫评为“古画皆略，至（卫）协始精”，他是使绘画技巧空前提高的一个具有里程碑性质的画家。东晋顾恺之继起，在解决绘画创作一系列技巧问题上，更是取得了划时代的成就。他将中国哲学上引人争论的形、神这一对范畴运用到绘画的理论和创作上，主张绘画要做到传神，要表现神气，使中国绘画从此出现了高层次的美学追求。构图、用笔、着色等绘画表现技法，也于这一时期被画家们不断加以丰富和改革。如顾骏之赋彩制形，皆创新意，毛惠远位置经略，尤难比俦，毛善于布置，陆绥一点一拂，动笔皆奇，稽宝钧、聂松赋彩鲜丽，都是其例。特别是六法论的提出，不但为绘画批评，而且也为绘画创作总结出一整套的艺术性标准，足可说明这一时期中国绘画的全面技巧已经被提到条理化的高度，为画家们所自觉掌握。尤其是用笔，被后人称为密体的顾恺之、陆探微所创造的“紧劲联绵，循环超忽”和“精利润媚”的一种笔致，与被后人称为疏体的张僧繇所创造的“笔才一二，象已应焉”、“笔不周而意周”的另一种笔致，成为各极其趣的鲜明对比。北齐曹仲达画佛像，其体稠叠而衣服紧窄贴体，被后人称之为“曹衣出水”，也于此时异军突起，对后世中国画皆具有深远的历史影响。随着佛教美术的不断传入，对于来自印度、犍陀罗和中亚其他各国的外国绘画技法也曾加以不同程度的吸收。如张僧繇采用天竺遗法在建康乘寺门上画出有凹凸感的花朵，因而轰动一时，足以说明这一点；敦煌莫高窟所留下的大量北朝壁画,其吸收外来画法之处,至今犹令人们历历可考。在山水画方面，出于发挥山水画审美功能的需要，王微有针对性地强调山水画艺术必须严格地区别于图经，必须讲求“容势”，而不应与图绘那种“案城域，辨方州，标镇阜，划浸流”的用途相混淆。宗炳为了更好地表现山水的“自然之势”，做到能使像、阆、嵩、华那样高大的山形“可得之于一图”，“不以制小而累其大”，他将朴素的透视学原理应用于山水画法。 著名画家 在中国绘画史上，有可靠记载的知名画家相继出现，是从三国两晋时开始的。东晋以后，中国长期存在着南北对峙的分裂局面，使南方与北方绘画的发展很不平衡。从现存文献资料和画迹实物来看，无名的工匠之画，北方较之南方毫无逊色；有名的士人之画，则南方远比北方发达。这一时期有姓名、事迹、画艺记载可考的著名画家，多数都是南方画家。三国时吴国的曹不兴，以善画著称当时，与皇象的善书同列为吴国八绝之一。西晋时有着划时代意义的画家是卫协，其次则有张墨、荀勖。卫协与张墨当时曾被葛洪在《抱朴子》中并推为“画圣”。至东晋，出现了更为重要的画家顾恺之。谢安曾给予顾恺之的绘画以“有苍生以来所无”的高度评价。顾恺之对中国绘画的发展有着极其深远的影响，他在道释画、故实画、肖像画等方面均有高度造诣，同时他也是中国最早的绘画理论批评家。戴逵的佛像画与他的佛像雕塑同样有名，在创造足以使中国信徒见之动心的佛像样式上作出过重要贡献。东晋明帝司马绍，也是个善画佛像和故实题材的画家。 南北朝时，南朝刘宋一代的画家，成就最高的是陆探微，画人物创造出秀骨清像的典范，对当时与后世的影响极大,可与顾恺之媲美,因此后世经常将“顾陆”相提并论。陆探微之子陆绥，也被当时称为画圣（庾元威《论书》）。袁倩、顾宝光等都是陆探微的最有成就的追随者。中国最早的山水画家宗炳、王微，也并时出现在刘宋一代。根据《画品》等书对他们二人的品评，大约二人的山水画在意趣上的造诣远比在技法工力上的造诣更值得肯定。此外,顾骏之始画蝉雀,顾景秀、刘胤祖也以善画蝉雀著称；吴、张则在当时也颇有画名。南齐一代的著名画家，有善画妇人的刘，善画马的毛惠远，善画鬼神的姚昙度，善画人马的蘧道愍，以及被称为“中兴（南齐年号）以后，象人莫及”的人物画家谢赫，以善肖像画及时妆仕女擅名于时，他的追随者有沈标。梁代成就最高的画家是张僧繇。他以“善图寺壁”著称，创造了号为“张家样”的佛像楷模，他的具有独创性的绘画风格技法给予了唐代阎立本、吴道子以极大影响。其子张善果以继承其父的画法而享有重名。梁元帝萧绎特别以善画外国和少数民族职贡的题材见称。此外，山水画家萧贲也值得论述。陈代画家有顾野王。北朝画家中，北魏时有兼长建筑、工艺、雕刻、绘画的蒋少游。北齐时有被当时人们号为画圣的杨子华，还有以善画“曹家样”佛像（梵像）著称的曹仲达。北周时有以善画柴车野服著称的田僧亮和以善画塞北风土著称的冯提伽。其他如郑法士、展子虔等皆是由北周入隋的画家，起到承上启下的作用。 [萧绎：《职贡图卷》(宋摹)] 石窟壁画、墓室壁画、砖画等遗迹 这一时期大量附丽在寺塔上的著名壁画，如顾恺之在建康（今江苏省南京市）瓦官寺所画维摩诘像、张僧繇在江陵（今在湖北省）天皇寺所画卢舍那佛像和孔子十弟子像等，其画迹早已随同建筑物荡然无存。现在保存下来的仅有较为僻远之地的石窟壁画，如新疆拜城克孜尔石窟4～6世纪壁画（见彩图[克孜尔石窟第17窟壁画《本生故事》]）、库车库木吐石窟5～6世纪壁画（见彩图[库木吐石窟][第21窟穹隆顶壁画(5～6世纪)]）、甘肃敦煌莫高窟十六国、北魏、西魏、北周壁画、永靖炳灵寺石窟东晋十六国时西秦壁画（见彩图[炳灵寺石窟第 169窟壁画（西秦）]）、天水麦积山石窟北魏壁画等。其中属于这一时期的克孜尔石窟和库木吐石窟壁画，其风格具有龟兹文化特色和中亚佛教美术影响。属于这一时期的莫高窟36个洞窟的壁画，满布于各窟的四壁及窟顶、塔柱各处，除掉少量纯装饰性的题材外，主要题材包括具有情节性构图的佛传故事、佛本生故事、因缘故事，还有大量的菩萨、飞天、伎乐人、药叉等的形象。情节性构图的画幅中,艺术性最高的如第254窟《萨那太子舍身饲虎》、第285窟《五百强盗成佛故事》、第257窟《鹿王本生》、第290窟《佛传故事》等,构思构图都极具艺术匠心。莫高窟早期佛教壁画，在中国汉代绘画传统的基础上接受了较为明显的印度、犍陀罗佛教美术的影响，显示了对外来画法的大胆吸收；而所画狩猎场景等，则又全然呈现出汉画趣味。在笔致、色调的运用上，北魏活泼厚重，西魏以后逐渐趋向文雅，透露出隋唐圆熟画风即将到来的征兆。[麦积山石窟壁画(北魏)] 地下遗存的墓室壁画、砖画、漆器画等遗迹，近年出土日多，为了解这一时期的绘画发展状况提供了大量的实物依据。其中壁画遗迹，如吉林省集安现已发现的20多处4～7世纪时高句丽族王室、贵族墓，多绘有规模较大的壁画。壁画内容除佛教题材和伏羲、女娲、四神等传统题材外，主要为表现高句丽族统治阶级的豪华生活和民族习俗，反映了当时当地民族文化和中原文化的自然融合。在艺术风格上,具有运笔爽利，赋彩单纯,形象明快的特色。砖画遗迹如甘肃嘉峪关魏晋墓出土的嵌砌在墓室墙壁上的画砖，采用一砖一画的形式，用粗放的笔法率意画出生活小品。模印画像砖也有一些艺术性高超之作，如南京西善桥东晋墓出土的拼嵌在墓室两壁上的竹林七贤与荣启期画像砖,形象生动，线纹秀挺,与同时代顾恺之的画风颇相近似。漆画遗迹如山西省大同北魏司马金龙墓出土的漆屏风画，在朱漆底色上用细润的线条画出古烈女故事图，画法已经臻于工致成熟。此外，如甘肃酒泉丁家闸西晋墓壁画、山西太原北齐娄睿墓壁画(见彩图[娄睿墓壁画《出行图》（北齐） 山西太原])、宁夏固原北周李贤墓壁画画像砖等遗迹,皆可说明当时的绘画所已达到的水平。[嘉峪关砖画《牧马图》] [邓县彩色画像砖] 理论著作及其他著作中有关绘画的史料 这一时期随着绘画鉴赏、收藏、品评风气的逐渐开展，有关绘画的理论及史料著作相继出现,并不断有所发展东晋时顾恺之有《论画》、《魏晋胜流画赞》、《画云台山记》3篇著作,见于《历代名画记》的转载。由于经过长期的辗转传抄，3篇文字多有脱误，甚至有些部分不可句读，但它毕竟是中国最古的绘画理论及史料的专著，仍不失其重要的价值。特别是《魏晋胜流画赞》中提出“以形写神”，强调“传神”和“悟对通神”，《论画》中提出“迁想妙得”等，确可算是后世中国画家所拳拳服膺的论画最高准则。南朝刘宋时宗炳《画山水序》及王微《叙画》是中国也是世界上最古的关于山水画的美学专著。除了论述山水画的一些造型性问题之外，还着重阐明自己创作山水画的动机，希图抒发一种高雅的主观情趣和希图借助山水的形质以体现道、神一类的神秘观念。齐梁时谢赫《画品》（一作《古画品录》）是一部以品评古今画家画艺优劣而作的专著，可是此书的意义却远远超出它对具体画家所一一作出的品评，实际上它是一部概括了中国古代绘画的艺术性准则的重要著作。在此书中，谢赫最大的功绩在于他提出了“六法”这个全面衡量绘画艺术性高低优劣的 6条标准。六法论对后世中国绘画的理论与创作产生着不可磨灭的深远影响。梁隋间姚最有《续画品》，是追随谢赫之后，对画家画艺进行品评的又一部专著。还有大约活动在北魏、宋齐时的孙畅之，曾撰有《述画记》一书，多载自汉魏至宋齐时画家的有关传闻。其书惜已久佚，现在仅能在《历代名画记》所摘引的数条文字中窥得其一鳞半爪。此外，其他性质的著作涉及到绘画并具有一定史料价值的著作尚有：西晋时葛洪的《西京杂记》，记录了西汉画工毛延寿、刘敞、刘白、龚宽、阳望、樊育等人的姓名和画艺；刘宋时刘庆义的《世说新语》，对顾恺之、戴逵的绘画艺术有不少记述，为后人作传和谈艺者所转相祖述；梁代庾元威的《论书》，篇末附论书法杂体与绘画相通的诸事例；北魏时郦道元的《水经注》，载及岩画、壁画遗迹多处。所有这些，虽则文字分量不多，但却为后世留下相当可贵的绘画史料。 阮璞
Chinese history
Sanguo-Liangjin-Nanbeichao huihuashilun zhushu Three - Jin - Northern and Southern History of painting writing works of painting history of Three Kingdoms, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties Three Kingdoms, the Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties is the history of Chinese painting on the early stages of development. Prior to this, China has no independent writings on the history of painting, some of the theoretical insights and historical records are scattered in the writings of the philosopher or writer. During this period, with major changes in society, active thinking, the art of painting and further out of the shackles of classical studies to expand the area of the subject matter, attention to the aesthetic performance, improve artistic skills, the artist team also formed; and because of outside painting introduced to stimulate people's thinking, even the literati aesthetic appreciation of artistic beauty as a major part of the activities, so painting theory began to separate from related disciplines, a separate section. Theoretical study of the painting also led to the painting of historical importance. Therefore, in the embryonic stage of the writing on the history of Chinese painting can be created and access to the development. Since the Han and Jin criticized the idea of literary theory, history of treatment methods of the historian, writing books Bibliography style, paintings of this period, compared with the writings on the history provided a useful experience, and contribute to the early history of Chinese painting on the painting showing a writing the following characteristics: ① initially established with the theory of history based on the writings form; ② painter and art history to account for the content of the painting so real history began initiation; ③ bibliographic records works of names began to appear. The paintings of this period, though small writing on the history of macro-length films, but very Chinese characteristics, the author of these writings are mainly educated painters and writers. "On Painting" a separate chapter in the history of art theory, the author Gu Kai. Gu Kai has three paintings on which three paintings on the Tang Dynasty, Zhang Yan Yuan income was "ancient paintings in mind" in the title are "current picture Wei Jinsheng praise", "On Painting" and "painting Yuntaishan mind." "Painting Yuntaishan mind" is actually a portrait of a landscape ideas and techniques of composition written by a design, it does not form part on the nature of painting, but it also reflects the author's understanding of some aspects of Art. Two other problems of its name and the relationship has long been debate undecided, but is recognized as the long-drawn on the writings. The latest view is: known as "Wei Jinsheng current draw praise" and "On Painting" two articles belong Gu Kai "On Painting" in two parts. Part 1 is a drawing assessment, that "ancient paintings in mind" in the "On Painting"; Part 2 is to include copying, including painting, the "ancient paintings in mind" in the "Wei Jinsheng flow draw praise." "On Painting" meter 20, the first total figures difficult to draw out the reasons, the remainder is co-Jin Wei, Dai Kui contemporary portrait painters such as comments; "Wei Jinsheng current draw praise," line a short, special discussion about essentials and copying "to write to God," and so claims. Author of the theory advocated by Neo-Taoism and the people appreciate the impact of stress and vivid, that characterization of the mental outlook and temperament. In the "shape" and "God" of the relationship, do not ignore certain "shape" of reproduction, but more emphasis on "God" is all about. To express the character and demeanor, attaches great importance to describe the eye, but also fully capture the character to see the relationship between the so-called "Awakening of the speaks" importance. In their artistic imagination, but also proposed a "move Imagination," the excellent views, in addition to the use of tools and materials, there are some useful insights. Gu Kai's "On Painting", to adapt to the prevailing aesthetic needs, at the conclusion Han has portraits of creative experience, based on their own creative practice into theory knowledge, and to comment on modern and contemporary painters, created a Chinese painting theory, criticism first of its kind, and save the text on the Jin historical painting. "On Painting" artistic views for thousands of years to produce a wide range of influence for the Chinese painting "vivid" traditional form, laid the foundation. Gu Kai's "On Painting", according to researchers writing in the Eastern Jin Tai Yuen five years (380) before and after the time when the prime author. However, because of long history, and many times removed private copies, since Zhang Yan Yuan incorporated into the "ancient paintings in mind" when found "ancient legend off wrong." The earliest version of the current spread are the Ming Dynasty block-printed edition, the text Chapters, has yet to be further collated. "Landscape Painting order" and "Syria painting" According to literature, Jin Song Chinese landscape painting on the occasion arises. At this point, as people's understanding of the natural beauty to a certain stage of development, with the natural beauty of the landscape up to the artistic beauty of the requirements. Thus, the independent landscape began to appear, and it marked not only the image of the ancient map parted ways, but also figure out the background only as a subordinate position. Subsequently there have been written by the landscape painters of landscape theory. Then the landscape on the one hand, the old village by the Neo-Taoism worship, yet natural effects, it also has been the creation of landscape poetry inspired by the theory of painting Gu Kai claims of the theory to penetrate into the landscape, Zong Bing's "painting landscapes sequence "and Wang Wei's" Syria painting "is a theory of landscape painting during this period reflected the achievements of two important works. Zong Bing, fewer words text, Nanyang Nirvana Yang (now the County of Henan Province town) people, living in Hubei Jiangling. He specializes in Kuromasa, but also in thrall Buddhism, good poetry and painting, working really cursive. Life is good travel landscape, is reluctant to official hermit. Disease in his decline years, lost traveled the mountains of the conditions, so a lot of creative landscape murals for "lying swim." "Landscape Painting order" that was written in his later years, in addition, He is also the "Ming Buddhist theory", "A Edward book" and so on. "Landscape Painting sequence" is a philosophical theory of the complete landscape. Author thrall Taoist cosmology and ontology, and to understand the universe, to convert to explain the appreciation of natural beauty and landscape creation. Full basic content can be summarized as follows: ① enjoy the natural beauty and landscape creation are intended to "View Road", which is recognized body of the universe; ② "View Road" will be the spirit of freedom, to achieve "smooth God" ; ③ creative landscape in order to produce substitutes for the natural beauty of landscapes; ④ as substitutes must accurately depict the natural landscape: "to write to shape, color appearance with color"; ⑤ To accurately depict the natural does not mean not artistic generalization, and summarized the primary means of artistic control is near the far smaller law perspective. Author argument from the philosophical level, to enjoy the natural beauty of the creation of links with the understanding of landscape, from the unity of truth and beauty on the understanding of landscape functions in both the real and the performance characteristics of both the art of painting landscapes, reveals the importance of the natural laws of reproduction, which has a strong theoretical and systematic, theory of creation and landscape for future generations had a long impact. Wang Wei, the word King Xuan, Linyi, Shandong people. Less eager to learn, look through the book group. Through music, medicine, yin and yang, the number of patients able to book good painting. Although the book was awarded the assistant minister, secretary supervisor gifts, but not keen on official career, most of their lives living a hermit life. Especially love landscape. His "Syria painting" was written in a letter of Yan Yan, which involves a theory of painting, writing time between 443 ~ 453 years. "Syria painting" is a visual landscape painting as a separate lyric section and the importance of the role of landscape painting on the landscape. Full basic elements include the following: ① painting is not just rely on technology to act, it is the same "easy as" a great creation of nature from the same, the same at this point in calligraphy; ② the role of landscape painting is not equal to the image symbol of the map, it can overcome the limitations of seeing the King, with limited physical vividly the vast expanse of the universe naturally; ③ full strokes of the role and made "change vertical cross" of the dramatic effect, this is "art of the letter "; ④ further use of mental state, to" drop the gods 'realm, that is, give full play to artistic imagination, only' drawing of the situation. " "Syria painting" writing a little later than "painting landscapes order", if the former natural beauty of the landscape and landscape art of the United States is basically the same weight as the words, then the latter note that the characteristics of landscape painting as an artistic creation. In the theoretical understanding of the landscape for aesthetic value with the only practical means to illustrate the image of the map, strict distinction between, and attached great importance to the landscape creation features with lyrical imagination gallop, for the characteristics of Chinese landscape painting and lyrical "mood "theory of the formation of the foundation. "Paintings" and "continued paintings" carved on the traditional Chinese painting such as the Southern Review was founded in the genre, the Sheikh of the paintings (the common name "paintings goods recorded") opened its first, most Yao, "continued paintings" ( commonly known as "continued paintings recorded") followed by the heel, and continuously thereafter, be permanently into law. The emergence of Southern paintings, since their style in accordance with both the Han and the assessment and _select_ion grade nine people linked to the system, its also popular with people since the Wei and Jin tasting the atmosphere are closely related. Paintings belonging to comment on the nature, to judge the achievements of painters painting is superior, but the object is present and the previous generation of artists and works of art reflect an objective overview of the history of development, it also has a great history of painting data value. Sheikh into the beam by the Southern Qi painters. Has worked in the palace, good painting figures, ladies, Kim Shin tasting. His "paintings" According to textual research a book on the beam Chase four years (532) after. Versions are now circulating the Ming Dynasty block-printed edition, in two parts, Part 1 for the order, which proposed "Six": "First, Vivid is also; Second, bone is also a pen; three, is also to be pictographic material; 4 , mining is also endowed with the class; five business location is also; six transmission shift mode writing is also. " Part 2 of the achievements of ancient and modern artists Painting tasting, divided into six products, namely, six levels from the three tasting artist Cao out of fashion since the 27, because compiled from Department of posterity, writing off the inevitable mistake. The use of "ancient paintings in mind" to the school, the book by the judge know that the original artist, still should Gu Jingxiu. For the Sheikh "Six" the meaning of the sentence has been read and study, each view not entirely consistent, but generally agreed that "Six" is the Gu Kai "on the painting" based on the ideas, the results of further systematic, is drawing on the previous comprehensive summary of practice has progressive significance. Sheikh's "Six" by the Tang Dynasty, Zhang Yan far expounded on the history and theory of painting had a profound impact. Yao most, the word who will be born in beams, active in the Northern Zhou Dynasty and Sui. Broadcom through history, in particular, good writing, the water in the Northern Zhou Cao Ren Qi Wangxian government to join the army, into the Sui, Prince Edward door to the doctor, moved to Sichuan Palace Sima, author of "After the beam a little" and "name recorded in the book." His "continued paintings" is goes back to "paintings" work. Their writings, no later than the first year when LIANG Cheng San (552) Xiangdong Wang Xiao Yi became the emperor before the legitimate author youth. "Continued paintings," the preface before the book, author statement and theoretical research on the painting's view, that "although the quality along the old-fashioned, but the text change this situation." The proposition that painting should not only inherit the tradition, but also with the update. Gu Kai for the Sheikh to the lower evaluation, expressed strong dissatisfaction. Text by the comments of Sheikh "paintings" in a book after the 20 artists, including three foreign artists. Standard Rengyi tasting "Six", but regardless of the first products to Xiangdong Wang placed first in its various Painting of Judgments is reflected in the wording. "Continued paintings" created not only to Tang's writing is not bad writing "paintings" precedent, and Painting in the comments made by Ben Shaw "Learning is not for others, self-entertainment only", which also have a considerable future impact. "Painted above in mind" and "Liang Taiqing head" of China's earliest recorded art history and painting also appeared in the Northern and Southern Dynasties. At this time the history of painting, the traditional emphasis on history records the story of historical figures and historical impact, but also notes mingled with anecdotes recorded in the culture of the story. The formation of catalog profiles the artist's life, good, work style and characteristics of the story, Sun Chang's "out painting in mind" is such a budding art history. At this time of the bibliographic, the main palace collection of simple painting project is in the library catalog under the influence of learning the product, "Liang Taiqing head" is such writings. Sun Chang's is active in the Northern and Southern Dynasties writing home, writing input on, the "Five Classics miscellaneous justice," "a little surgical arts sequence," "Kabuki patients recorded", etc. "Painted above in mind," the book has Yi, Yu Jianhua, compiled by the modern "theory of Chinese painting class code" from "ancient paintings in mind," featuring a 12, and Li Tao Yuan, "Waterways" have two left in the text, study are known from the left text, the book catalog of the Warring States Period to the Han Dynasty art history and stories the Han, Wei, Jin and Southern Qi dozen artists biography information, have a comment above, materials may vary from, but many taken from the front human history books or notes, in fact, is a catalog with a painting made of the nature of general history books, book information and more writers are removed reference to future generations the history of painting. "Liang Taiqing head" is recorded in the Liang Dynasty Taiqing (547 ~ 549) years, court paintings of the catalog, the book is also compiled at this time when, though the original book has been Lost, book and recording in terms of appearance is unknown, but the Tang Dynasty, Pei Xiaoyuan " Zhenguan record public and private painting "listed in the painting can still learn the purpose of the comment part of the book: Jin Song has 27 recorded more than 100 works by the artist. It is China's first prototype of a state of painting in the record, to understand the spread of paintings Liang Jin Liang and to study the painting among some historical documents preserved. Northern and Southern Dynasties period writings on the history of painting because of the times Miao Yuan, according to legend off very much mistaken. But as to create a work period, not only formed on the characteristics of Chinese painting, Chinese painting history and theory in the preparation of the thick concrete cases, self-made pattern. Its theoretical ideas, writing methods and the accumulation of historical thinking and painting historical paintings, are all offspring had a significant impact. Xue years
Sanguo-Liangjin-Nanbeichao shufa Three - Jin - Southern and Northern Dynasties Calligraphy calligraphy of Three Kingdoms, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties China Three Kingdoms, the Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties is the body of the book cross-development period. At this time, the Eastern Han Dynasty official script has been programmed to go dead end, regular script to mature, cursive into this phase of development by Zhang Cao grass, running in the alternation of Li Kai generated through the process from development to mature, the emergence of a number of well-known calligrapher, resulting in many important theoretical works of calligraphy, the history of a glorious era of Chinese calligraphy. Wei, Western Jin Dynasty Calligraphy from the three countries to the Western Jin Dynasty, official script is still the official passage of the book, most of the inscriptions were written with the official script. Wei famous inscriptions are: "appellation on the monument," "Shouchan table monument", "hole envy monument", "yellow early Canbei", "paradigm monument" (see color pictures, "paradigm" Monument (part San Guowei) ), "Wang Canbei", "stone by the three-body" and so on. "Appellation on the monument" and "Shouchan table monument," Cao Pi became the emperor are standing, is typical of the official official script, calligraphic Founder, bearing solemn, to represent the dignity of the inscription; inscriptions side edges of the sharp corners of strokes are due to over- stress wave pick decorative effect, and therefore artificial, there is little joy of life. A small number such as "yellow early Canbei" style of is beautiful. In addition to majestic stele, there are some free writing and engraved stones, such as "God sent Powell to sit," "Martin donated God sit", "Lee Court Road, bud opening title", etc., similar slips calligraphy style, with natural chic the charm. Zhengshi time (240 - 249) established by the "three-stone by the body", every word written in classical, seal script, official script three-body, the Northern Wei Jiang-style "book on the table" that is written by Handan Chun, Sun Wu in the south during this period Wei carved inscriptions and different, well-known inscriptions as "days of prophecy God sent monument", "Zen Mountains National Monument", "Lang Monument Valley," and so on. "Heaven sent God Prophecy monument" pen is intended to seal, scribe between the guitar body to round Yu Fang, potential risks Bureau width, write, such as cutting off at cut-off, imposing odd one pleases, is the face of unique works of calligraphy. (See color pictures, "Tianfa God Prophecy monument" (part of the Three Kingdoms Wu)). "Monument Valley Long" is the official script of the transition to regular script font, stroke has been to wave pick, but the regular script of the strokes is not yet mature. "Zen Mountains National Monument" for the Seal, vigorous strokes, knot scribe method has similarities with the Department, is very characteristic of the Seal. "Shouchan table monument" (San Guowei) "Cao Zhen monument" (San Guowei) Western Jin Dynasty erected a monument prohibition, giant stone tablet less popular monument, the famous stone "monument off suburbs," "Madame Sun of any city prefect monument", "Qi Taigong Lv," and "orange Shinto Que Yang Yang", "big three Jin emperors Pro circlet monument "are all neat official script. "Great Jin emperor three Pro circlet monument" because unearthed later, new pictures and clear, such as carved, was the official script of the pen can see the face.
Translated by Google
Encyclopedia
Sanguo Three Following the emergence of the Eastern Han Dynasty and the era of the title, due to Wei, Shu and Wu Kingdoms three countries named. Three-generation Han Wei began 220 years, and finally 265 years on behalf of Jin Wei. But historians tend to rely on 190 years of Dong Han Xiandi limit for the three left Luoyang, 280 Conquest of Wu Jin-year limit for the three. The formation of the Eastern Han Dynasty Three Kingdoms situation Zhongping six years (189) Lingdi dead, Liu argued, following up the young emperor. Queen Mother ruling brother He Jin Ho Park, eight contact Captain of the West, one of Yuan Shao, killing Captain commanding eight soldiers eunuch Jian Shuo. Yuan Shao, He Jin and other eunuchs plotting to kill to do, and call and mok Dong into Luoyang to aid. When the eunuchs to kill He Jin and Yuan Shao eunuchs when they do kill, Dong shuaibing into the Luo, and embrace the affairs of state. He deposed the young emperor, Liu separate agreement for the emperor, the Emperor Xian of Han. Eastern Han Dynasty Dong Zhuo's tyrannical courtier and aroused the opposition of local Mushou, causing large-scale civil war. After Dong Zhuo Ruluo, Yuan Shao fled Jizhou, Ōita Prefecture Bridge Mao Han Excellencies fake name, asked Dong-gun Xingbing crusade, Kanto-gun have responded. They key points Tuen, pushing for the chief and Yuan Shao, Dong Zhuo attack the camera. Chu-ping the first year (190), Dong Feng avoid Kanto soldiers, held hostage by Emperor Xian of Han Chang'an westward. Kanto is a coalition of the rabble, another fraud annexation, and soon fall apart a. Chu-ping Chang mutiny three years, Dong Zhuo was killed off in endless confusion. After a fierce melee after the first year of Chien (196), the country formed a number of separatist regions: Yuan Shao occupy Ji, blue, and three states, accounted for Yan Cao, Yu-two states, Han Sui, Maarten occupy Liangzhou, Zan You state occupied, occupied the Liaodong Gongsun degree, Tao Qian, Liu Bei, Lu Bu has occupied Xuzhou, Yangzhou Huainan occupy part of Yuan Shu, Liu Biao take Jingzhou, Liu Zhang occupy Yizhou, Sun Ce occupies part of Yangzhou Koto, who occupy the cross-state sup. In addition, Zhang Lu to Paul, according to Taoist forms of organization in Hanzhong region, home Jijiu to cure people. In these separatist who, forces the strongest and most active of which is Yuan Shao and Cao Cao (see Weiwu Cao Cao). Jian thirteen years, Caojun Nan, the capture of Liu Biao's son Liu Cong by far the Jingzhou. Jingzhou Liu Bei relying on the run south. Koto Lu Su was ordered by Sun Quan and Liu Bei to meet to discuss strategies, but also by Liu Bei, Zhuge Liang's life, in Chaisang (now in Jiujiang, Jiangxi Southwest) alliance with Sun Quan to resist Cao. Sun and Liu to win with fewer forces, defeat Cao navy at Red Cliff (generally considered in this northwest Hubei Puqi, south of the Yangtze), forcing Cao returned to the Central Plains. This is the North-South stalemate decided Battle of Red Cliff. Cao Cao go north after the military forces in the Guanzhong, Longxi, to expand the scope and unity of the entire north. Hubei Xiangfan Gurung Sixteen years Jian, Liu Bei led his troops into Yizhou, and gradually occupied the original Liu Zhang (Liu Yan's son) site. Twenty-four years, won the hands of Liu Bei from Cao Hanzhong, Jingzhou, Guan Yu is also entrenched in the attack Cao, but Sun Quan, Guan Yu Qian Jun Xisha, occupying all of Jingzhou, Liu Bei across the Three Gorges and the military stalemate. Three boundaries, generally have the north Wei, Shu was the southwest, Wu was the Southeast. Wei
Translated by Google
百科 Daquan
Sanguo-liangjin-Nanbeichao gongyi meishu Three - Jin - Northern and Southern Arts and Crafts arts and crafts of Three Kingdoms, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties China Three Kingdoms, the Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties, from 3 to 6 century the century, more than four centuries. Because this period is divided politically, the situation of unrest, arts and crafts in the development of low stage, but all regions has been uneven. Strife-torn northern region more serious; South, especially in large areas of southern, less war, relative social stability, together with the craftsmen of this period has been allowed within a certain range can operate alone, be able to compare the freedom to production technology transformation, therefore, some crafts, such as Porcelain, etc., in the south has been greatly developed. Meanwhile, the rise of the northern border areas and migration of ethnic minorities, between different ethnic groups to promote the economic and cultural aspects of interacting with each other, the development of arts and crafts are also beneficial. This period is widely popular Buddhism and Buddhist art, the religious part of the production of arts and crafts, and arts and crafts theme, artistic style had a significant impact. Buddhist symbol of the lotus pattern as the extensive application of lacquer in the development folder □ statues, metal, jade process produces a large number of statues, arts and crafts of this period one of the characteristics of the times. The most prominent achievements in ceramic technology, others such as embroidery, metal, lacquer, glass and other processes also have different levels of development. Outstanding achievements in ceramic technology is celadon production. This is a major producer of celadon during the southern Zhejiang, Jiangsu and Jiangxi. Particularly among the most famous Zhejiang celadon. Northern Zhejiang, large areas of central and south-east were built kilns. They belong to Yue, Ou kiln, Deqing, Wuzhou kiln kiln and four systems. Yue kilns located in the main system this Yuyao, Zhejiang, Shangyu area, Ou major kilns kiln system located south of Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province in this area, Wuzhou kilns kiln system mainly distributed in central Zhejiang Jinhua in this area, Deqing The main kiln kiln system located in Jiaxing-Huzhou Plain, the western end. Among them, the fastest growing, most widely distributed kilns, porcelain of the highest quality is Yue system. The system of porcelain, the molding method, in addition to increased wheel control technology, but also uses film, print, engraving, carving, and molding methods such as heap, so a wide variety of objects, new style, to achieve a practical combined with the perfection of beauty. Aggravation hard and delicate porcelain, was clear gray, pure glaze, celadon products in this period is the leader. Celadon origin mainly in Jiangsu Yixing County, near the crossing dingshuzhen soup, because of the mountains are not far away from the ground, so that all mountain kiln, the latter part of his time to the Western Jin Dynasty in Soochow. Its production of celadon in the shape and decorative style of the same with Yue, but the variety, quality inferior to Yue. Jiangxi celadon production, began about three times larger than when the development of the Western Jin Dynasty, the main producing area in Jiangxi Fengcheng Lo Wu. Produced celadon shape and decoration are very simple, beautiful products than the same period of Yue. Others such as the Yangtze River, the upper reaches of Sichuan, Hunan, Hubei and other areas, some have begun to _set_ up from the Jin Dynasty celadon kiln firing. Celadon in the south developed based on the northern celadon production has also developed. Archaeological excavations that began in northern celadon about the late Northern Wei Dynasty. Shandong Zibo found so far in addition to the Northern celadon kiln, other regions also rarely found in celadon kiln. However, the tomb, many Northern blue porcelain. Of which the largest number of unearthed in Hebei Province, the highest quality, in 1948 a group of King County Feng Shi tombs unearthed celadon, the earliest found in north China's celadon, it's about from the Northern Wei to Suichu. These celadon mainly household utensils, such as pot, jar, cup, bowl, care cup, tape and so on. The most distinctive is Kaneko's ancestral tomb painting and the four Yang-covered lotus respect, not only the size of tall (up to more than 60 cm), forceful style, and ornate, concentrated use of printed stickers, such as characterization and Duisu artistic, is the northern most representative works of celadon. But the whole northern celadon aggravation rough, tires generally gray, thin enamel layer, multi-chip fine lines, grayish green or yellow-green, some only half of the glaze applied, and not very uniform, technology is not mature enough. As the northern celadon kiln are also found little research on the northern celadon yet further. This period celadon shape and decoration are distinctive, increasingly rich variety and style. The main varieties are Handicap pot, spit pot, pot, pots, bowls, bowls, □ (multiple sub-boxes), spittoon, Yan, aromatherapy, beheaded pots, lamps gained, which reflects the porcelain
Translated by Google
Encyclopedia
Sanguo-Liangjin-Nanbeichao huihua Three - Jin - Northern and Southern Paintings paintings of Three Kingdoms, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties China started from the three countries Dingzhi Zhisui dynasty until the founding of the art of painting. During this period, from the three countries on Wei, Western Jin Dynasty in the calendar, Eastern Jin, 16 States, the next as Southern and Northern Dynasties Zhisui unity, which lasted 369 years. The painting here, in the course of development of Chinese painting holds a special importance. Development and social background painting paintings of this period the mainstream, still along the Han Dynasty paintings emphasize the "warning" role, when the three Cao Zhi said: "The warning is Cunhu know who picture has" ("ancient paintings in mind") ; He Yan said: "The image old time, to when Proverbs regulation" ("Gyeongbokgung Palace Fu"). When Qi Liang Sheikh advocate "illustrations by Mo unknown exhortation, the heave" ("paintings"). The thesis on the social function of painting, with the Eastern Han Dynasty, "the image of the _set_, with Zhao exhortation", "image hundred cities, to encourage customs" (which are the "Han") the idea of completely the same strain. At that time the murals and scroll paintings, the ancient sages, loyal and honest woman who theme abound. For example, several palaces of the Three Kingdoms of Wei, or within the painting "calendar like Xian Sheng," the mural ("Weidu Fu"), or the painting ginger, Meng Mu, Ji Fan, Zhong Li Chun, Jie Yu and other classes row female story mural ("Gyeongbokgung Palace Fu"). Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties, Western Liang Jing Gong Li □ Church painting at Dunhuang, "sage-Ming Wang, loyal and dutiful son, virgin martyrs" ("Book of Jin"); Northern Wei Dynasty (477 ~ 499) years in the imperial letter Pingcheng Church painting " Ancient, loyal, martyr of the content "(" Waterways "). In addition, as "out female figure," "Book of Filial Piety map", "disciples of Confucius ten map" and the like, has been the subject was extremely popular. On the other hand, because of Buddhism in China, North and South, have been a number of rulers of support and advocate, played a consolidation of the feudal rule of the powerful spiritual pillar of the role of Buddhism as it was full "as the image in order to teach people." The role will spare no effort to use a specific painting moving visual image, as it is a powerful propaganda tool. During this period large-scale emergence of the Buddhist Temple, the greater number of murals and Buddhist lines like, scroll painting, they painted the Buddha, Bodhisattva and Buddha mass map, map of the Buddhist Jataka class, could there be to promote the Buddha's salvation, Buddhism boundless majority. By drawing the image, make people believe that Buddhism, with a view to ultimately like the Southern Song Wendi said, "If only the rate of soil Sea, are pure of this (referring to the Buddhist-oriented), then I sit Zhi Taiping, husband re what" the purpose of . Taoism, Buddhism, painting paintings, though not as prosperous, but their status can not be ignored. Most from Yao, "continued paintings" have "painted Six, real cents (ie Road as) difficult," said the Taoist theme of this period and the paintings are Health Association "fairy painting," Shi Jingwen "Yellow Emperor Sheng Xian map "Sheikh" On stage, Mr. Map ", Liangyuan Di Xiao Yi," Hibiscus Lake ritual tripod map "and the like works of view, we can see at Road's like painting has become an independent painting. As the literati of this period are higher and higher on the spiritual life and the pursuit of the various types of interaction between cultures, painting subject matter on the basis of the original species growing, and began development of the Division. Figure painting, the emergence of future generations so-called "Jin is still so real" situation. Therefore, the real draw, in addition to describing the "warning" role of the traditional subject matter since the Han Dynasty, there's drawn from literary works, such as Health Association painting "Poetry north map", Gu Kai painted "wood goose map"
Translated by Google
English Expression
n.: the Three Kingdoms-Wei, Shu Han and Wu, Three Kingdoms, three kingdoms: Wei, Shu, Wu (A.D. 222-265)
v.: the Three Kingdoms--Wei, Shu and Wu--which existed in China proper simultaneously, from A. D. 222 to 265
Thesaurus
Online games it the Three Kingdoms-Wei, Shu Han and Wu
Related Phrases
check
militarist
historical figures
a famous general
Wikipedia Daquan
Cao Cao
Xia Dynasty
Chinese history
history
culture
official conservatory in the Han ynasty (206B.C.-A.D.220) poetry
celebrity
belle
the state of Wu in the Three KIngdom period and the Warring States period
Chibi