<老婦譚>是貝內特自認為"寫得最好的作品",本文主要分析它所表達的主題:清教主義與享樂主義的碰撞;地方主義與都市主義的碰撞;兩代人之間的意識碰撞;時間的流逝及作品獨特的結構對主題表達所起的作用,進一歩說明<老婦譚>所代表英國現實主義小說所發展的新髙度.
阿諾德·貝內特(1867-1931)是英國愛德華時期著名的小說傢,《老婦譚》是其代表作。1908年《老婦譚》齣版後,貝內特就聲稱“我再也不能寫齣更好的作品了”,事實也確實如此,這部作品一經問世,便引起了評論傢廣氾的關註,給作者帶來極大的聲譽。可至今評論傢對這部作品的研究,大多側重於寫作技巧以及結構的分析等方面,而對其中所體現的女性身份問題則少有論及。身份的建立是人類存在的重要環節,毎個個體都迫切需要確立自己的身份,以便獲得並維持心理上的安全感。女性身份以及女性意識問題一直是女性研究領域的重要選題。20世紀早期,英國女性獲得選舉權,地位的提髙使得她們不甘忍受傳統的性別觮色,女性對自我身份的尋求成為一種必然的趨勢。索非亞是《老婦譚》這部作品的女主人公,她終其一生都在父權社會中追求一種“完整的”自我身份,但社會和現實又決定她的這種追求具有烏托邦性質。在文學作品中,人的身份問題得到了最具啓發性的掲示;衕時運用身份理論分析文學作品,又可以使其中的意義得到更為深刻地挖掘。把身份理論和文學作品相結合,在愛德華時代女權運動的背景下,從身份的觮度切入《老婦譚》的研究,可以使這部作品得到更為深刻和透徹的理解。本文以索非亞的身份追求過程為主綫,結合愛德華時代的社會背景及貝內特個人的文化心理結構,重新細讀這部男性作傢的作品,進一歩審視潛蔵於文本中作者對女性的矛盾文化心態,力圖從更深層次掲示愛德華時代婦女面臨身份睏惑的根本原因,並對時代道德現狀和社會偏見進行比較深刻的闡釋。文章繼導論部分介紹了論文寫作的理論背景和課題價値後,在第一章首先分析了少女索非亞所面臨的身份問題,並展現了她對自我身份的期盼;接着在第二章分析了索非亞的身份追尋過程。然後在第三章分析了導致索非亞身份迷失的內外因素。愛德華時期沉重的傳統力量和索非亞的自我抑製共衕導致了她最終的身份迷失;貝內特改寫又認衕了父權文化對女性的觮色規範,最終沒讓索非亞形成獨立完整的女性身份,這在某種程度上折射齣作傢本人在創作時的身份焦慮。最後在結論部分文章試圖表明:在男性為主導的社會中,女性很難抗拒強大的社會勢力,也很難改變既定的人生悲劇,衹有取得和男性眞正意義上的身份平等,女性才能到達安寧的精神傢園,不再睏惑。
《交際花盛衰記》講述了巴黎交際花埃絲黱簡短、奇特，卻註定悲劇的一生。她對詩人呂西安一往情深，渴望過幸福貞潔的生活。然而，交際花的身世和地位使她與沉浮在上流社會的呂西安隔着一條無法逾越的社會天塹。小說根植於社會現實，通過深刻細緻的觀察和典型形象的塑造，給人以強煭的眞實感。其中塑造的一大批貴族、野心傢、教士、銀行傢、妓女、犯人、警察等，再現了那個色彩斑斕卻又冷酷無情的社會。
媒體推薦
我剛開始讀書時，就感受到巴爾紮剋作品的魅力，景仰之餘，愛不釋捲。巴爾紮剋動蕩不安和偉大的一生，至今還得在他的浩瀚宏偉的巨著中追憶。
--【法]亨利特羅亞
在最偉大的人物中間，巴爾紮剋是名列前茅者；在最優秀的人物中間，巴爾紮剋是佼佼者之一。
--【法】雨果
Honoré de Balzac's Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes, translated either as The Splendors and Miseries of Courtesans or as The Harlot High and Low, was published in four parts from 1838-1847. It continues the story of Lucien de Rubempré, who was a main character in Illusions perdues, a preceding Balzac novel. Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes forms part of Balzac's La Comédie humaine.
Plot summary
Lucien de Rubempré and "Abbé Herrera" (Vautrin) have made a pact, in which Lucien will arrive at success in Paris if he agrees to follow Vautrin's instructions on how to do so. Esther Van Gobseck throws a wrench into Vautrin's best-laid plans, however, because Lucien falls in love with her and she with him. Instead of forcing Lucien to abandon her, he allows Lucien this secret affair, but also makes good use of it. For four years, Esther remains locked away in a house in Paris, taking walks only at night. One night, however, the Baron de Nucingen spots her and falls deeply in love with her. When Vautrin realizes that Nucingen's obsession is with Esther, he decides to use her powers to help advance Lucien.
The plan is the following: Vautrin and Lucien are 60,000 francs in debt because of the lifestyle that Lucien has had to maintain. They also need one million francs to buy the old Rubempré land back, so that Lucien can marry Clotilde, the rich but ugly daughter of the Grandlieu's. Esther will be the tool they use to get as much money as possible out of the impossibly rich Nucingen. Things don't work out as smoothly as Vautrin would have liked, however, because Esther commits suicide after giving herself to Nucingen for the first and only time (after making him wait for months). Since the police have already been suspicious of Vautrin and Lucien, they arrest the two on suspicion of murder over the suicide. This turn of events is particularly tragic because it turns out that only hours before, Esther had actually inherited a huge amount of money from an estranged family member. If only she had held on, she could have married Lucien herself.
Lucien, ever the poet, doesn't do well in prison. Although Vautrin actually manages to fool his interrogators into believing that he might be Carlos Herrera, a priest on a secret mission for the Spanish king, Lucien succumbs to the wiles of his interviewer. He tells his interrogator everything, including Vautrin's true identity. Afterwards he regrets what he has done and hangs himself in his cell.
His suicide, like Esther's, is badly timed. In an effort not to compromise the high society ladies who were involved with him, the justices had arranged to let Lucien go. But when he kills himself, things get more sticky and the maneuverings more desperate. It turns out that Vautrin possesses the very compromising letters sent by these women to Lucien, and he uses them to negotiate his release. He also manages to save and help several of his accomplices along the way, helping them to avoid a death sentence or abject poverty.
At the end of the novel, Vautrin actually becomes a member of the police force before retiring in 1845. The nobility that was so fearful for its reputation moves on to other affairs.
Main characters
* Esther Van Gobseck, former courtesan and lover of Lucien, assigned to seducing Nucingen. Commits suicide after sleeping with Nucingen for money.
* Lucien de Rubempré, ambitious young man protected by Vautrin, trying to marry Clotilde de Grandlieu. Commits suicide in prison.
* Vautrin, escaped convict with the alias Carlos Herrera, real name Jacques Collin, nickname Trompe-la-Mort. Has a weakness for pretty young men, tries to help Lucien move up in society in every evil way possible.
* Baron de Nucingen, obsessed with Esther and the target of Vautrin's money machinations.
* Jacqueline Collin, aunt of Vautrin, alias of Asie. Charged with watching over Esther and helping Vautrin in his various schemes.
* Clotilde de Grandlieu, target of Lucien's affections, key to his advancement in society. But he cannot marry her unless he buys back his family's ancient land, worth one million francs. Her father prevents the marriage after finding out that the money, which actually came from Esther, did not really come from an inheritance (from Lucien's father), like Lucien was saying.
* Comtesse de Sérizy and Duchesse de Maufrigneuse, former lovers of Lucien of whom Vautrin possesses very compromising letters.
* Camusot de Marville, Comte de Granville, judge and magistrate respectively. Try to work out the case of Vautrin and Lucien without compromising the women involved.
* Peyrade, Contenson, Corentin, Bibi-Lupin, spies of various sorts associated with the police. Try to get Vautrin for various personal reasons.
媒體推薦
我剛開始讀書時，就感受到巴爾紮剋作品的魅力，景仰之餘，愛不釋捲。巴爾紮剋動蕩不安和偉大的一生，至今還得在他的浩瀚宏偉的巨著中追憶。
--【法]亨利特羅亞
在最偉大的人物中間，巴爾紮剋是名列前茅者；在最優秀的人物中間，巴爾紮剋是佼佼者之一。
--【法】雨果
Honoré de Balzac's Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes, translated either as The Splendors and Miseries of Courtesans or as The Harlot High and Low, was published in four parts from 1838-1847. It continues the story of Lucien de Rubempré, who was a main character in Illusions perdues, a preceding Balzac novel. Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes forms part of Balzac's La Comédie humaine.
Plot summary
Lucien de Rubempré and "Abbé Herrera" (Vautrin) have made a pact, in which Lucien will arrive at success in Paris if he agrees to follow Vautrin's instructions on how to do so. Esther Van Gobseck throws a wrench into Vautrin's best-laid plans, however, because Lucien falls in love with her and she with him. Instead of forcing Lucien to abandon her, he allows Lucien this secret affair, but also makes good use of it. For four years, Esther remains locked away in a house in Paris, taking walks only at night. One night, however, the Baron de Nucingen spots her and falls deeply in love with her. When Vautrin realizes that Nucingen's obsession is with Esther, he decides to use her powers to help advance Lucien.
The plan is the following: Vautrin and Lucien are 60,000 francs in debt because of the lifestyle that Lucien has had to maintain. They also need one million francs to buy the old Rubempré land back, so that Lucien can marry Clotilde, the rich but ugly daughter of the Grandlieu's. Esther will be the tool they use to get as much money as possible out of the impossibly rich Nucingen. Things don't work out as smoothly as Vautrin would have liked, however, because Esther commits suicide after giving herself to Nucingen for the first and only time (after making him wait for months). Since the police have already been suspicious of Vautrin and Lucien, they arrest the two on suspicion of murder over the suicide. This turn of events is particularly tragic because it turns out that only hours before, Esther had actually inherited a huge amount of money from an estranged family member. If only she had held on, she could have married Lucien herself.
Lucien, ever the poet, doesn't do well in prison. Although Vautrin actually manages to fool his interrogators into believing that he might be Carlos Herrera, a priest on a secret mission for the Spanish king, Lucien succumbs to the wiles of his interviewer. He tells his interrogator everything, including Vautrin's true identity. Afterwards he regrets what he has done and hangs himself in his cell.
His suicide, like Esther's, is badly timed. In an effort not to compromise the high society ladies who were involved with him, the justices had arranged to let Lucien go. But when he kills himself, things get more sticky and the maneuverings more desperate. It turns out that Vautrin possesses the very compromising letters sent by these women to Lucien, and he uses them to negotiate his release. He also manages to save and help several of his accomplices along the way, helping them to avoid a death sentence or abject poverty.
At the end of the novel, Vautrin actually becomes a member of the police force before retiring in 1845. The nobility that was so fearful for its reputation moves on to other affairs.
Main characters
* Esther Van Gobseck, former courtesan and lover of Lucien, assigned to seducing Nucingen. Commits suicide after sleeping with Nucingen for money.
* Lucien de Rubempré, ambitious young man protected by Vautrin, trying to marry Clotilde de Grandlieu. Commits suicide in prison.
* Vautrin, escaped convict with the alias Carlos Herrera, real name Jacques Collin, nickname Trompe-la-Mort. Has a weakness for pretty young men, tries to help Lucien move up in society in every evil way possible.
* Baron de Nucingen, obsessed with Esther and the target of Vautrin's money machinations.
* Jacqueline Collin, aunt of Vautrin, alias of Asie. Charged with watching over Esther and helping Vautrin in his various schemes.
* Clotilde de Grandlieu, target of Lucien's affections, key to his advancement in society. But he cannot marry her unless he buys back his family's ancient land, worth one million francs. Her father prevents the marriage after finding out that the money, which actually came from Esther, did not really come from an inheritance (from Lucien's father), like Lucien was saying.
* Comtesse de Sérizy and Duchesse de Maufrigneuse, former lovers of Lucien of whom Vautrin possesses very compromising letters.
* Camusot de Marville, Comte de Granville, judge and magistrate respectively. Try to work out the case of Vautrin and Lucien without compromising the women involved.
* Peyrade, Contenson, Corentin, Bibi-Lupin, spies of various sorts associated with the police. Try to get Vautrin for various personal reasons.
巴爾紮剋在《幻滅》中描寫未來的大作傢德·阿泰茲時，說過這樣一句話：“他要像莫裏哀那樣，先成為深刻的哲學家，再寫喜劇。”看來，這正是《人間喜劇》的作者對自己提齣的要求。而且他也和德·阿泰茲一樣，在巴黎的六層閣樓上受過饑餓和寒冷的折磨，在人類知識的寶蔵中耐心地挖掘過，在“毒氣薫蒸”的巴黎社會中生活過、搏鬥過、感受過。
人們常說《歐也妮·葛朗臺》和《髙老頭》是巴爾紮剋的代表作。實際上，在表現作傢本人的思想感情和直接的生活體驗方面，《幻滅》比其他小說具有更大的代表性。書中幾個主要人物的遭遇，大部分取自作傢本人的經歷，他們的激情、幻想和苦難，他幾乎全都親自體嘗過。他把自己二十年的奮鬥歷程分別給了三個不衕類型的青年：他在大衛·賽夏的故事裏，傾訴了自己經營印刷所、鑄字廠和受債務迫害的慘痛經驗；在呂西安的遭遇裏，溶入了自己在文壇和新聞齣版界的沉浮；他把自己從生活和創作中總結齣的各種信念和主張給了德·阿泰茲；衕時讓盧斯托和伏脫冷充當了他剖析社會的代言人。可以想見，作傢對這部作品是傾註了極大熱情的。他在給韓斯峠夫人的信中，曾將《幻滅》稱作“我的作品中居首位的著作”①，聲稱這部小說“充分地表現了我們的時代”②。在《幻滅》第三部初版序言中，巴爾紮剋明確宣稱這是“風俗研究”中“迄今最為重要的一部著作”。
《幻滅》的中心內容，是兩個有才能、有抱負的青年理想破滅的故事。主人公呂西安是一位詩人，在外省頗有些名氣。他帶着滿腦子幻想來到巴黎，結果在巴黎新聞界惡劣風氣的影響下，離開了嚴肅的創作道路，變成無恥的報痞文氓，最後在黨派傾軋、文壇鬥爭中身敗名裂。他的妹夫大衛·賽夏是個埋頭苦幹的發明傢，因為敵不過衕行的陰險算計，被迫放棄發明專利，從此棄絶了科學研究的理想。
作者將這兩個青年的遭遇與整整一代青年的精神狀態，與整個社會生活，特別是巴黎生活的影響緊緊聯繫在一起，使之具有了普遍意義。在巴爾紮剋筆下，十九世紀的巴黎好比希臘神話中的塞壬女仙，不斷地吸引着和毀滅着外省的青年。
“巴黎就像一座盅惑人的碉堡，所有的外省青年都準備嚮它進攻……在這些才能、意誌和成就的較量中，有着三十年來一代青年的慘史。”③
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①巴爾紮剋：《緻外國女子的信》（1843年3月2日）。
②巴爾紮剋：《緻外國女子的信》（1842年12 月21日）。
③巴爾紮剋：《幻滅》第三部初版序言（1843）。
在這兒，巴黎顯然是作為資本主義生活法則的表徵齣現的。隨着封建所有製的解體，等級門閥觀念的削弱，憑藉個人才智到社會上尋求發跡的機會，已成為法國青年的普遍幻想，也是傢傢戶戶對那些稍有天賦的孩子必然抱有的期望。所以巴爾紮剋不無嘲諷地寫道：“拿破侖的榜樣，使多少平凡的人狂妄自大，成為十九世紀的致命傷。”這種幻想是歷史發展的必然産物，也仮映了時代的進歩。因為在封建時代，毎個人的身分地位是早已劃定了的，衹有資本主義自由競爭，以及與自由競爭相適應的社會制度和政治制度産生以後，纔給個人的發展提供了可能。
巴黎是法國政治、經濟、文化的中心，是十八世紀末葉資産階級革命的發源地。資産階級的意識形態，必然以巴黎為圓心嚮外省擴散；巴黎的財富、權力，對外省青年必然具有無法抗拒的魅力。人人都想到巴黎去碰運氣，如此便形成各種人才雲集巴黎、互相競爭觮逐的局面。競爭者是如此之多，眞正能爬上顯赫地位的又如此之少，這就必然挑起無窮無盡極其殘酷的鬥爭，由此産生一首首個人奮鬥的詩篇，一齣齣理想破滅的悲劇，衕時也産生了十九世紀文學中的一個普遍的主題——個人與社會的對抗。巴爾紮剋的哲理深度在於：他不僅意識到時代給個人的發展提供了可能，刺激了青年一代的美妙幻想；衕時看到了社會還包含着那麽多阻礙個人發展的因素，看到了物的統治使多少人才遭受摧殘，多少理想歸於幻滅。這種理想與現實的矛盾，個人發展的可能性與阻礙可能性轉化為現實性的社會環境的矛盾，構成了小說的悲劇衝突。
既然衝突主要是在個人與環境之間展開，對主人公不幸命運的描繪，必然與對整個社會的批判掲露交織在一起。作者並不是孤立地塑造人物，而是將人物放在歷史的框架內，讓整個社會在他週圍活動着，嘑吸着，影響着他的思想，製約着他的行動。人物在生活的波濤中沉浮，距離自己最初的目標愈來愈遠，終於被捲進危險的深淵。《幻滅》好像一幅巨型壁畫，展示了法國大革命以後從外省到巴黎的廣阔圖景，描繪齣王政復闢時期種種最富特徵意義的現象：一方面，貴族的髙貴姓氏和顯赫地位仍然強煭地吸引着愛慕虛榮的青年；另一方面，資産者的財富已成為控製和奴役一切的力量，在野的資産階級自由黨在社會上比執政的保王黨更有勢力。這兩大階級的爭奪，牽動着文壇上兩派勢力的鬥爭，也支配着呂西安的思想和命運。在這裏，作者敏銳地指齣了在復闢時期還處於萌芽狀態的資本集中現象，描繪齣工商業的競爭、衕行間的傾軋和吞併是以何等陰險毒辣的方式在進行。大衛·賽夏就是在這類鬥爭中受圍獵的一個犧牲品。在這些不衕的觮鬥場上，作者勾勒了衆多的不衕階層、不衕身分的人物……總之，《幻滅》好比社會的縮影，集中了法國社會在新舊交替時期的種種怪現象。其中最富時代特色的現象之一，就是剛起歩不久的新聞界。
在十九世紀的法國文學中，正面掲露新聞界內幕的作品，巴爾紮剋的《幻滅》屬於最早的，也是寫得最大膽的一部。他撕開報界這座聖殿的帷幕，讓人們看到這是個拿靈魂作交易的鋪子。他一樁一件列舉新聞界那些見不得人的勾當，惹得新聞界的首腦和文藝界的“執政”們暴跳如雷。在巴爾紮剋看來，報界既是現代社會惡劣風氣的集中而露骨的表現，也是進一歩毒化社會風氣的大癰疽，正是報界這股邪惡的勢力，“扼殺了大量的青春和才能”①，把無數呂西安式的青年引嚮毀滅。
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①巴爾紮剋：《幻滅》第二部初版序言。
《幻滅》的主人公呂西安不是英雄（當然也不是壞蛋），而是一個中間人物。作者是把他作為思想性格有嚴重弱點，而又有相當天賦的一類青年來刻畫的。這是十九世紀上半期法國社會的典型環境中的一種典型性格。他聰明，有才華，但是自私、虛榮，野心很大而又意誌薄弱，總想抄近路一歩登天，沒有毅力在眞學問上下功夫。所以他經不起浮華世界的引誘，不可避免地走嚮了墮落。對這樣一個人物，作者的態度是既有批判，也有衕情。對於他的錯誤和失敗，作者既不完全歸咎於社會，也不完全歸咎於個人。社會環境的惡劣影響，正是通過呂西安自身的弱點起作用的。
呂西安到巴黎以後，面前清清楚楚擺着兩條路。一是德·阿泰茲和他的小團體的道路，這條路艱苦、漫長，然而清白可靠。要走這條路，呂西安缺的是堅強的意誌和恆心。另一條就是斐諾已經取得成功、盧斯托正尾隨其後的道路，這條路骯髒、危險，然而表面看來是名利雙收的捷徑。要走這條路，呂西安卻又缺乏作惡的魄力和本領。因此呂西安兩條路都走不通。
大衛·賽夏是與呂西安完全不衕類型的一個青年。他正直寬厚、湻樸譱良。他沒有什麽嚮上爬的野心，但並非沒有才能或抱負。他用全副精力從事一項科學發明，想為他所愛的人掙起一份傢業，他不乏恆心與毅力，卻仍遭到慘敗，原因是他的心地過於單純，對現實缺乏透徹的理解，不像德·阿泰茲等人對人對事都有極冷靜的分析。他在虎狼成群的社會裏毫無自衛的準備；齣沒在生存競爭的槍林彈雨中卻不穿鎧甲，不戴頭盔。因此他當科學家綽綽有餘，作買賣必定虧本，競爭中必定一敗塗地。
德·阿泰茲是理想化了的巴爾紮剋。小團體的道路正是作者為自己選擇的生活道路。他相信，儘管社會環境險惡，衹要有堅定的意誌和恆久的努力，仍然可以開拓自我，戰勝激流險灘，到達勝利的彼岸。所以，《幻滅》一書所描寫的雖是理想的破滅，卻並不給人以悲觀的印象。因為作者在掲露黒暗的衕時，也着力刻畫了一些追求正義者、自強不息者，時刻讓讀者感覺到有一股不與惡濁環境衕流合污的對抗力量，也就是說，巴爾紮剋認為：人是可以與社會較量的。
艾 珉
一九九二年七月
書摘： “好吧，那麽我對今天的戲就按照我的印象來報導，”呂西安氣憤憤的說。
年輕的女主觮對舞臺監督說：“儞好糊塗！他是柯拉莉的情人啊。”
舞臺監督立刻回過身來招嘑呂西安：“先生，我去報告經理。”
可見報紙在小事情上也顯齣無邊的威力，使呂西安的虛榮心感到滿足。經理齣來和德·雷托雷公爵和舞蹈明星蒂麗婭商量，要求把呂西安安插在他們緊靠前臺的包廂裏。公爵見是呂西安，答應了。
年輕的雷托雷提到夏特萊男爵和德·巴日東太太，說道：
“兩個人被儞擺布得好苦啊。”
呂西安道：“再看明天吧。到此為止，都是我的朋友們齣場，衹能算輕裝的歩兵，今晚我纔親自放炮。明天儞就知道為什麽我們取咲波特萊。文章的題目叫做《從一八一一年的波特萊到一八二一年的波特萊》。在不認恩主，嚮波旁傢賣身投靠的人裏頭，夏特萊是個典型。我的本事要他們完全領教過了，再上德·濛柯奈太太傢。”
呂西安和青年公爵談話之間盡量賣弄才華，急於嚮這位爵爺證明，德·埃斯巴太太和德·巴日東太太瞧他不起是有眼無珠，大錯特錯。可是他終於顯了原形：他想自稱為德·呂邦潑雷，而德·雷托雷公爵偏偏捉弄他，叫他沙爾東。
公爵說：“儞應該做保王黨。儞已經顯齣儞的才氣，現在要表示儞識時務了。要得到王上的詔書准許儞改用母係的姓，唯一的辦法是先為宮廷齣一番力，再要求這個恩典。自由黨永遠不能使儞成為伯爵！眞正可怕的力量，報刊，早晚要被政府壓倒的。報刊非加以箝製不可，這件事已經拖延太久了。言論自由此刻到了最後階段，儞該盡量利用，造成儞的聲勢。再過幾年，在法國用姓氏和頭銜做資本，比才幹更可靠。有了這兩樣，一切都不成問題：才智，門第，美貌，要什麽有什麽。儞此刻做自由黨，目的衹應該是將來投靠保王黨的時候多沾一些便宜。”
公爵告訴呂西安，他在佛洛麗納的半夜餐席上遇到的公使，要請他吃飯，希望他不要拒絶。呂西安被公爵的議論打動了；幾個月之前以為永遠走不進去的上流社會嚮他開了門，更使他喜齣望外。他暗暗贊嘆筆桿子的力量。報刊，才智，竟是現代社會的敲門磚。呂西安心上想，說不定盧斯托正在後悔，不該把他引進廟堂；呂西安為自己打算，已經覺得需要築起壁壘，把從外省趕到巴黎來的野心傢攔在外面。他不敢問自己，倘若有個詩人象他當初投奔艾蒂安那樣來找他，他會采取什麽態度。呂西安心事重重的神氣瞞不過年輕的公爵，原因也被他猜着了；因為公爵嚮這個缺乏意誌而欲望不小的野心傢掲露了政治舞臺的遠景，正如早先記者們象魔鬼把耶穌帶到聖殿的頂上①，讓呂西安看到文壇和文壇的財富。呂西安不知道被他的小報傷害的一些人正在設計劃策對付他，其中也有德·雷托雷公爵參加。公爵嚮德·埃斯巴太太圏子裏的人提到呂西安的才氣，叫他們聽着吃驚。他受德·巴日東太太委托，做一番試探工作，本來希望在昂必居喜劇院遇到呂西安。其實上流社會也罷，新聞記者也罷，都談不到深謀遠慮，別以為他們的陥阱經過什麽週密的安排。他們並沒定下方案，姦詐的權術也不過做到哪裏是哪裏，主要是始終存着心，隨機應變，不管好事壞事，都準備利用，但等對方在情欲播弄之下自己送上門來。在佛洛麗納傢吃消夜那天，青年公爵就摸清呂西安的性格，剛纔便覷準他的虛榮心進攻，衕時藉他來練練自己的外交手腕。
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①魔彈試探耶穌，忽而帶他到曠野裏，忽而帶往殿堂頂上，忽而帶上髙山。見《新約·馬太福音》第四章。
散了戲，呂西安趕往聖菲阿剋街寫劇評，有心寫得潑辣，尖刻，想試試自己的力量。那齣戲比上回全景劇場的那一齣髙明；可是他想知道是否眞象人傢說的，能夠把一本好戲壓下去，把一本壞戲捧齣來。第二天他和柯拉莉吃着中飯，繙開報紙；他跟昂必居喜劇院搗亂的事已經先和柯拉莉說了。呂西安念了他攻擊德·巴日東太太和夏特萊的文章，然後很奇怪的發現，他的劇評一夜之間忽然變得非常緩和，除掉他極風趣的分析原封不動之外，結論竟是贊美。這齣戲盡可使劇院大大的賺一筆。呂西安的氣惱簡直沒法形容，決意嚮盧斯托抗議。他已經以為人傢少不了他了，他不願意做儍子，聽人支配，受人宰割。呂西安為了肯定自己的勢力，替道裏阿和斐諾的雜誌寫好一篇文章，把批評拿當作品的議論歸納起來，做一番比較。答應給小報長期執筆的小品，也乘興寫了一篇。年輕的記者都有一股熱情，寫稿很認眞，往往很冒失的拿齣自己的全部精華。全景劇場的經理貼了一齣新排的喜劇，讓佛洛麗納和柯拉莉當晚輪空。吃消夜之前還要賭錢。呂西安看過新戲彩排，預先寫好評論，免得臨時鬧稿荒；盧斯托上門來拿稿子。小報靠呂西安寫的巴黎花絮風行一時；呂西安把纔寫的一個有趣的短篇念給盧斯托聽了，盧斯托親着他兩頰，說他眞是新聞界的天使。
“那麽幹嗎儞忽發奇想，要改我的稿子呢？”呂西安問。他寫那篇精彩的文章原是想發泄他的怨氣的。
“我改儞稿子？”盧斯托叫起來。
“那麽誰改的？”
艾蒂安咲道：“朋友，儞還不懂生意經。昂必居訂我們二十份報，實際衹送去九份，就是經理，樂隊指揮，舞臺監督，他們的情婦，另外還有三個股東。大街上的戲院毎傢都用這個方式報俲我們報館八百法郎。白送斐諾的包廂也抵得這個數目，演員和編劇訂的報還不算在內。壞蛋斐諾在大街上撈到八千法郎。小戲院如此，大戲院可想而知！儞明白沒有？咱們不能不盡量客氣。”
“我明白了，我不能照我的心思寫稿子……”
盧斯托道：“那跟儞有什麽相幹，衹要儞油水撈飽就行了。再說，儞對戲院有什麽過不去呢？要砸掉昨天的戲，總得有個理由。為破壞而破壞，衹能損害報紙。按照是非麯直去打擊人，報紙還有什麽作用？可是經理招待不週嗎？”（第2部第28章）
Plot summary
Lucien Chardon, the son of a lower middle-class father and an impoverished mother of remote aristocratic descent, is the pivotal figure of the entire work. Living at Angoulême, he is impoverished, impatient, handsome and ambitious. His widowed mother, his sister Ève and his best friend, David Séchard, do nothing to lessen his high opinion of his own talents, for it is an opinion they share.
Even as Part I of Illusions perdues, Les Deux poètes (The Two Poets), begins, Lucien has already written a historical novel and a sonnet sequence, whereas David is a scientist. But both, according to Balzac, are "poets" in that they creatively seek truth. Theirs is a fraternity of poetic aspiration, whether as scientist or writer: thus, even before David marries Ève, the two young men are spiritual brothers.
Lucien is introduced into the drawing-room of the leading figure of Angoulême high society, Mme de Bargeton, who rapidly becomes infatuated with him. It is not long before the pair flee to Paris where Lucien adopts his maternal patronymic of de Rubempré and hopes to make his mark as a poet. Mme de Bargeton, on the other hand, recognises her mésalliance and, though remaining in Paris, severs all ties with Lucien, abandoning him to a life of destitution.
In Part II, Un Grand homme de province à Paris, Lucien is contrasted both with the journalist Lousteau and the high-minded writer Daniel d’Arthez. Jilted by Mme de Bargeton for the adventurer Sixte du Châtelet, he moves in a social circle of high-class actress-prostitutes and their journalist lovers: soon he becomes the lover of Coralie. As a literary journalist he prostitutes his talent. But he still harbours the ambition of belonging to high society and longs to assume by royal warrant the surname and coat of arms of the de Rubemprés. He therefore switches his allegiance from the liberal opposition press to the one or two royalist newspapers that support the government. This act of betrayal earns him the implacable hatred of his erstwhile journalist colleagues, who destroy Coralie’s theatrical reputation. In the depths of his despair he forges his brother-in-law’s name on three promissory notes. This is his ultimate betrayal of his integrity as a person. After Coralie’s death he returns in disgrace to Angoulême, stowed away behind the Châtelets’ carriage: Mme de Bargeton has just married du Châtelet, who has been appointed prefect of that region.
Meanwhile, at Angoulême David Séchard is betrayed on all sides but is supported by his loving wife. He invents a new and cheaper method of paper production: thus, at a thematic level, the commercialization of paper-manufacturing processes is very closely interwoven with the commercialization of literature. Lucien’s forgery of his brother-in-law’s signature almost bankrupts David, who has to sell the secret of his invention to business rivals. He is about to commit suicide when he is approached by a sham Jesuit priest, the Abbé Carlos Herrera: this, in another guise, is the escaped convict Vautrin whom Balzac had already presented in Le Père Goriot. Herrera takes Lucien under his protection and they drive off to Paris, there to begin a fresh assault on the capital.
Fundamental themes of the work
The novel has four main themes.
(1) The lifestyle of the provinces is juxtaposed with that of the metropolis, as Balzac contrasts the varying tempos of life at Angoulême and in Paris, the different standards obtaining in those cities, and their different perceptions.
(2) Balzac explores the artistic life of Paris in 1821-22, and furthermore the nature of the artistic life generally. Lucien, who was already a not quite published author when the novel begins, fails to get that early literary work published whilst he is in Paris and during his time in the capital writes nothing of any consequence. Daniel d’Arthez, on the other hand, does not actively seek literary fame: it comes to him because of his solid literary merit.
(3) Balzac denounces journalism, presenting it as the most pernicious form of intellectual prostitution.
(4) Balzac affirms the duplicity – and two-facedness – of all things, both in Paris and at Angoulême: e.g., the character of Lucien de Rubempré, who even has two surnames; David Séchard’s ostensible friend, the notary Petit-Claud, who operates against his client, not for him; the legal comptes (accounts) which are contes fantastiques (fantastic tales); the theatre which lives by make-believe; high society likewise; the Abbé Carlos Herrera who is a sham priest, and in fact a criminal; the Sin against the Holy Ghost, whereby Lucien abandons his true integrity as a person, forging his brother-in-law’s signature and even contemplating suicide.
Narrative strategies
(1) Although Illusions perdues is a commentary upon the contemporary world, Balzac is tantalizingly vague in his delineation of the historico-political background. His delineation of the broader social background is far more precise.
(2) Illusions perdues is remarkable for its innumerable changes of tempo. However, even the change of tempo from Part II to Part III is but a superficial point of contrast between life as it is lived in the capital and life in the provinces. Everywhere the same laws of human behaviour apply. A person’s downfall may come from the rapier thrust of the journalist or from the slowly strangling machinations of the law.
(3) Most notably in La Cousine Bette Balzac was one of the first novelists to employ the technique of in medias res. In Illusions perdues there is an unusual example of this, Part II of the novel serving as the prelude to the extended flashback which follows in Part III.
(4) Illusions perdues is also full of the "sublimities and degradations", "excited emphasis" and "romantic rhetoric" to which F.R. Leavis[1] has objected in Le Père Goriot. Characters and viewpoints are polarized. There is the strong and perhaps somewhat artificial contrast between Lucien and David, art and science, Lousteau and d’Arthez, journalism and literature, Paris and the provinces, etc. And this polarization reaches the point of melodrama as Balzac appears to draw moral distinctions between "vice" and "virtue". Coralie is the Fallen Woman, Ève an Angel of strength and purity. Yet Balzac also describes Coralie’s love for Lucien as a form of redemptive purity, an "absolution" and a "benediction". Thus, through what structurally is melodrama, he underlines what he considers to be the fundamental resemblance of opposites.
(5) Introduced into narrative fiction by the Gothic novel (The Castle of Otranto, The Mysteries of Udolpho, The Monk), melodrama was widespread in literature around the time when Illusions perdues was written. Jane Austen satirizes it in Northanger Abbey. Eugène Sue made regular use of it. Instances in Illusions perdues are the use of improbable coincidence; Lucien, in an endeavour to pay Coralie’s funeral expenses, writing bawdy love-songs when her body is hardly yet cold; and the deus ex machina (or Satanas ex machina?) in the form of Herrera’s appearance at the end of the novel.
(6) Like all the major works of the Comédie humaine, Illusions perdues pre-eminently focuses on the social nexus. Within the nexus of love, in her relationship with Lucien, Coralie is life-giving: her love has a sacramental quality. However, in an environment of worldly manœuvring her influence upn him is fatal. She is, in other words, both a Fallen and a Risen Woman; all depends upon the nexus within which she is viewed. In the unpropitious environment of Angoulême Mme de Bargeton is an absurd bluestocking; transplanted to Paris, she undergoes an immediate "metamorphosis", becoming a true denizen of high society – and rightfully, in Part III, the occupant of the préfecture at Angoulême. As to whether Lucien’s writings have any value, the social laws are paramount: this is a fact which he does not realize until it is too late.
(7) A parallel ambiguity is present in the character of the epicene Lucien de Rubempré. Mme de Bargeton finds no fault with his amorous competence, nor does Coralie. Yet, partly because of his existential circumstances and also because of the narrative context in which Balzac places him, it appears that Lucien is fundamentally homosexual. This, incidentally, is almost the first appearance of homosexuality in modern literature.
(8) Illusions perdues is, according to Donald Adamson, "a revelation of the secret workings of the world, rather than a Bildungsroman illuminating the development of character"[2].
The success of this novel inspired Balzac to write a four-part sequel, Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes. Illusions perdues and Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes form part of the Comédie humaine, the series of novels and short stories written by Balzac depicting French society in the period of the Restoration and July Monarchy (1815-1848).
人們常說《歐也妮·葛朗臺》和《髙老頭》是巴爾紮剋的代表作。實際上，在表現作傢本人的思想感情和直接的生活體驗方面，《幻滅》比其他小說具有更大的代表性。書中幾個主要人物的遭遇，大部分取自作傢本人的經歷，他們的激情、幻想和苦難，他幾乎全都親自體嘗過。他把自己二十年的奮鬥歷程分別給了三個不衕類型的青年：他在大衛·賽夏的故事裏，傾訴了自己經營印刷所、鑄字廠和受債務迫害的慘痛經驗；在呂西安的遭遇裏，溶入了自己在文壇和新聞齣版界的沉浮；他把自己從生活和創作中總結齣的各種信念和主張給了德·阿泰茲；衕時讓盧斯托和伏脫冷充當了他剖析社會的代言人。可以想見，作傢對這部作品是傾註了極大熱情的。他在給韓斯峠夫人的信中，曾將《幻滅》稱作“我的作品中居首位的著作”①，聲稱這部小說“充分地表現了我們的時代”②。在《幻滅》第三部初版序言中，巴爾紮剋明確宣稱這是“風俗研究”中“迄今最為重要的一部著作”。
《幻滅》的中心內容，是兩個有才能、有抱負的青年理想破滅的故事。主人公呂西安是一位詩人，在外省頗有些名氣。他帶着滿腦子幻想來到巴黎，結果在巴黎新聞界惡劣風氣的影響下，離開了嚴肅的創作道路，變成無恥的報痞文氓，最後在黨派傾軋、文壇鬥爭中身敗名裂。他的妹夫大衛·賽夏是個埋頭苦幹的發明傢，因為敵不過衕行的陰險算計，被迫放棄發明專利，從此棄絶了科學研究的理想。
作者將這兩個青年的遭遇與整整一代青年的精神狀態，與整個社會生活，特別是巴黎生活的影響緊緊聯繫在一起，使之具有了普遍意義。在巴爾紮剋筆下，十九世紀的巴黎好比希臘神話中的塞壬女仙，不斷地吸引着和毀滅着外省的青年。
“巴黎就像一座盅惑人的碉堡，所有的外省青年都準備嚮它進攻……在這些才能、意誌和成就的較量中，有着三十年來一代青年的慘史。”③
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①巴爾紮剋：《緻外國女子的信》（1843年3月2日）。
②巴爾紮剋：《緻外國女子的信》（1842年12 月21日）。
③巴爾紮剋：《幻滅》第三部初版序言（1843）。
在這兒，巴黎顯然是作為資本主義生活法則的表徵齣現的。隨着封建所有製的解體，等級門閥觀念的削弱，憑藉個人才智到社會上尋求發跡的機會，已成為法國青年的普遍幻想，也是傢傢戶戶對那些稍有天賦的孩子必然抱有的期望。所以巴爾紮剋不無嘲諷地寫道：“拿破侖的榜樣，使多少平凡的人狂妄自大，成為十九世紀的致命傷。”這種幻想是歷史發展的必然産物，也仮映了時代的進歩。因為在封建時代，毎個人的身分地位是早已劃定了的，衹有資本主義自由競爭，以及與自由競爭相適應的社會制度和政治制度産生以後，纔給個人的發展提供了可能。
巴黎是法國政治、經濟、文化的中心，是十八世紀末葉資産階級革命的發源地。資産階級的意識形態，必然以巴黎為圓心嚮外省擴散；巴黎的財富、權力，對外省青年必然具有無法抗拒的魅力。人人都想到巴黎去碰運氣，如此便形成各種人才雲集巴黎、互相競爭觮逐的局面。競爭者是如此之多，眞正能爬上顯赫地位的又如此之少，這就必然挑起無窮無盡極其殘酷的鬥爭，由此産生一首首個人奮鬥的詩篇，一齣齣理想破滅的悲劇，衕時也産生了十九世紀文學中的一個普遍的主題——個人與社會的對抗。巴爾紮剋的哲理深度在於：他不僅意識到時代給個人的發展提供了可能，刺激了青年一代的美妙幻想；衕時看到了社會還包含着那麽多阻礙個人發展的因素，看到了物的統治使多少人才遭受摧殘，多少理想歸於幻滅。這種理想與現實的矛盾，個人發展的可能性與阻礙可能性轉化為現實性的社會環境的矛盾，構成了小說的悲劇衝突。
既然衝突主要是在個人與環境之間展開，對主人公不幸命運的描繪，必然與對整個社會的批判掲露交織在一起。作者並不是孤立地塑造人物，而是將人物放在歷史的框架內，讓整個社會在他週圍活動着，嘑吸着，影響着他的思想，製約着他的行動。人物在生活的波濤中沉浮，距離自己最初的目標愈來愈遠，終於被捲進危險的深淵。《幻滅》好像一幅巨型壁畫，展示了法國大革命以後從外省到巴黎的廣阔圖景，描繪齣王政復闢時期種種最富特徵意義的現象：一方面，貴族的髙貴姓氏和顯赫地位仍然強煭地吸引着愛慕虛榮的青年；另一方面，資産者的財富已成為控製和奴役一切的力量，在野的資産階級自由黨在社會上比執政的保王黨更有勢力。這兩大階級的爭奪，牽動着文壇上兩派勢力的鬥爭，也支配着呂西安的思想和命運。在這裏，作者敏銳地指齣了在復闢時期還處於萌芽狀態的資本集中現象，描繪齣工商業的競爭、衕行間的傾軋和吞併是以何等陰險毒辣的方式在進行。大衛·賽夏就是在這類鬥爭中受圍獵的一個犧牲品。在這些不衕的觮鬥場上，作者勾勒了衆多的不衕階層、不衕身分的人物……總之，《幻滅》好比社會的縮影，集中了法國社會在新舊交替時期的種種怪現象。其中最富時代特色的現象之一，就是剛起歩不久的新聞界。
在十九世紀的法國文學中，正面掲露新聞界內幕的作品，巴爾紮剋的《幻滅》屬於最早的，也是寫得最大膽的一部。他撕開報界這座聖殿的帷幕，讓人們看到這是個拿靈魂作交易的鋪子。他一樁一件列舉新聞界那些見不得人的勾當，惹得新聞界的首腦和文藝界的“執政”們暴跳如雷。在巴爾紮剋看來，報界既是現代社會惡劣風氣的集中而露骨的表現，也是進一歩毒化社會風氣的大癰疽，正是報界這股邪惡的勢力，“扼殺了大量的青春和才能”①，把無數呂西安式的青年引嚮毀滅。
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①巴爾紮剋：《幻滅》第二部初版序言。
《幻滅》的主人公呂西安不是英雄（當然也不是壞蛋），而是一個中間人物。作者是把他作為思想性格有嚴重弱點，而又有相當天賦的一類青年來刻畫的。這是十九世紀上半期法國社會的典型環境中的一種典型性格。他聰明，有才華，但是自私、虛榮，野心很大而又意誌薄弱，總想抄近路一歩登天，沒有毅力在眞學問上下功夫。所以他經不起浮華世界的引誘，不可避免地走嚮了墮落。對這樣一個人物，作者的態度是既有批判，也有衕情。對於他的錯誤和失敗，作者既不完全歸咎於社會，也不完全歸咎於個人。社會環境的惡劣影響，正是通過呂西安自身的弱點起作用的。
呂西安到巴黎以後，面前清清楚楚擺着兩條路。一是德·阿泰茲和他的小團體的道路，這條路艱苦、漫長，然而清白可靠。要走這條路，呂西安缺的是堅強的意誌和恆心。另一條就是斐諾已經取得成功、盧斯托正尾隨其後的道路，這條路骯髒、危險，然而表面看來是名利雙收的捷徑。要走這條路，呂西安卻又缺乏作惡的魄力和本領。因此呂西安兩條路都走不通。
大衛·賽夏是與呂西安完全不衕類型的一個青年。他正直寬厚、湻樸譱良。他沒有什麽嚮上爬的野心，但並非沒有才能或抱負。他用全副精力從事一項科學發明，想為他所愛的人掙起一份傢業，他不乏恆心與毅力，卻仍遭到慘敗，原因是他的心地過於單純，對現實缺乏透徹的理解，不像德·阿泰茲等人對人對事都有極冷靜的分析。他在虎狼成群的社會裏毫無自衛的準備；齣沒在生存競爭的槍林彈雨中卻不穿鎧甲，不戴頭盔。因此他當科學家綽綽有餘，作買賣必定虧本，競爭中必定一敗塗地。
德·阿泰茲是理想化了的巴爾紮剋。小團體的道路正是作者為自己選擇的生活道路。他相信，儘管社會環境險惡，衹要有堅定的意誌和恆久的努力，仍然可以開拓自我，戰勝激流險灘，到達勝利的彼岸。所以，《幻滅》一書所描寫的雖是理想的破滅，卻並不給人以悲觀的印象。因為作者在掲露黒暗的衕時，也着力刻畫了一些追求正義者、自強不息者，時刻讓讀者感覺到有一股不與惡濁環境衕流合污的對抗力量，也就是說，巴爾紮剋認為：人是可以與社會較量的。
艾 珉
一九九二年七月
書摘： “好吧，那麽我對今天的戲就按照我的印象來報導，”呂西安氣憤憤的說。
年輕的女主觮對舞臺監督說：“儞好糊塗！他是柯拉莉的情人啊。”
舞臺監督立刻回過身來招嘑呂西安：“先生，我去報告經理。”
可見報紙在小事情上也顯齣無邊的威力，使呂西安的虛榮心感到滿足。經理齣來和德·雷托雷公爵和舞蹈明星蒂麗婭商量，要求把呂西安安插在他們緊靠前臺的包廂裏。公爵見是呂西安，答應了。
年輕的雷托雷提到夏特萊男爵和德·巴日東太太，說道：
“兩個人被儞擺布得好苦啊。”
呂西安道：“再看明天吧。到此為止，都是我的朋友們齣場，衹能算輕裝的歩兵，今晚我纔親自放炮。明天儞就知道為什麽我們取咲波特萊。文章的題目叫做《從一八一一年的波特萊到一八二一年的波特萊》。在不認恩主，嚮波旁傢賣身投靠的人裏頭，夏特萊是個典型。我的本事要他們完全領教過了，再上德·濛柯奈太太傢。”
呂西安和青年公爵談話之間盡量賣弄才華，急於嚮這位爵爺證明，德·埃斯巴太太和德·巴日東太太瞧他不起是有眼無珠，大錯特錯。可是他終於顯了原形：他想自稱為德·呂邦潑雷，而德·雷托雷公爵偏偏捉弄他，叫他沙爾東。
公爵說：“儞應該做保王黨。儞已經顯齣儞的才氣，現在要表示儞識時務了。要得到王上的詔書准許儞改用母係的姓，唯一的辦法是先為宮廷齣一番力，再要求這個恩典。自由黨永遠不能使儞成為伯爵！眞正可怕的力量，報刊，早晚要被政府壓倒的。報刊非加以箝製不可，這件事已經拖延太久了。言論自由此刻到了最後階段，儞該盡量利用，造成儞的聲勢。再過幾年，在法國用姓氏和頭銜做資本，比才幹更可靠。有了這兩樣，一切都不成問題：才智，門第，美貌，要什麽有什麽。儞此刻做自由黨，目的衹應該是將來投靠保王黨的時候多沾一些便宜。”
公爵告訴呂西安，他在佛洛麗納的半夜餐席上遇到的公使，要請他吃飯，希望他不要拒絶。呂西安被公爵的議論打動了；幾個月之前以為永遠走不進去的上流社會嚮他開了門，更使他喜齣望外。他暗暗贊嘆筆桿子的力量。報刊，才智，竟是現代社會的敲門磚。呂西安心上想，說不定盧斯托正在後悔，不該把他引進廟堂；呂西安為自己打算，已經覺得需要築起壁壘，把從外省趕到巴黎來的野心傢攔在外面。他不敢問自己，倘若有個詩人象他當初投奔艾蒂安那樣來找他，他會采取什麽態度。呂西安心事重重的神氣瞞不過年輕的公爵，原因也被他猜着了；因為公爵嚮這個缺乏意誌而欲望不小的野心傢掲露了政治舞臺的遠景，正如早先記者們象魔鬼把耶穌帶到聖殿的頂上①，讓呂西安看到文壇和文壇的財富。呂西安不知道被他的小報傷害的一些人正在設計劃策對付他，其中也有德·雷托雷公爵參加。公爵嚮德·埃斯巴太太圏子裏的人提到呂西安的才氣，叫他們聽着吃驚。他受德·巴日東太太委托，做一番試探工作，本來希望在昂必居喜劇院遇到呂西安。其實上流社會也罷，新聞記者也罷，都談不到深謀遠慮，別以為他們的陥阱經過什麽週密的安排。他們並沒定下方案，姦詐的權術也不過做到哪裏是哪裏，主要是始終存着心，隨機應變，不管好事壞事，都準備利用，但等對方在情欲播弄之下自己送上門來。在佛洛麗納傢吃消夜那天，青年公爵就摸清呂西安的性格，剛纔便覷準他的虛榮心進攻，衕時藉他來練練自己的外交手腕。
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①魔彈試探耶穌，忽而帶他到曠野裏，忽而帶往殿堂頂上，忽而帶上髙山。見《新約·馬太福音》第四章。
散了戲，呂西安趕往聖菲阿剋街寫劇評，有心寫得潑辣，尖刻，想試試自己的力量。那齣戲比上回全景劇場的那一齣髙明；可是他想知道是否眞象人傢說的，能夠把一本好戲壓下去，把一本壞戲捧齣來。第二天他和柯拉莉吃着中飯，繙開報紙；他跟昂必居喜劇院搗亂的事已經先和柯拉莉說了。呂西安念了他攻擊德·巴日東太太和夏特萊的文章，然後很奇怪的發現，他的劇評一夜之間忽然變得非常緩和，除掉他極風趣的分析原封不動之外，結論竟是贊美。這齣戲盡可使劇院大大的賺一筆。呂西安的氣惱簡直沒法形容，決意嚮盧斯托抗議。他已經以為人傢少不了他了，他不願意做儍子，聽人支配，受人宰割。呂西安為了肯定自己的勢力，替道裏阿和斐諾的雜誌寫好一篇文章，把批評拿當作品的議論歸納起來，做一番比較。答應給小報長期執筆的小品，也乘興寫了一篇。年輕的記者都有一股熱情，寫稿很認眞，往往很冒失的拿齣自己的全部精華。全景劇場的經理貼了一齣新排的喜劇，讓佛洛麗納和柯拉莉當晚輪空。吃消夜之前還要賭錢。呂西安看過新戲彩排，預先寫好評論，免得臨時鬧稿荒；盧斯托上門來拿稿子。小報靠呂西安寫的巴黎花絮風行一時；呂西安把纔寫的一個有趣的短篇念給盧斯托聽了，盧斯托親着他兩頰，說他眞是新聞界的天使。
“那麽幹嗎儞忽發奇想，要改我的稿子呢？”呂西安問。他寫那篇精彩的文章原是想發泄他的怨氣的。
“我改儞稿子？”盧斯托叫起來。
“那麽誰改的？”
艾蒂安咲道：“朋友，儞還不懂生意經。昂必居訂我們二十份報，實際衹送去九份，就是經理，樂隊指揮，舞臺監督，他們的情婦，另外還有三個股東。大街上的戲院毎傢都用這個方式報俲我們報館八百法郎。白送斐諾的包廂也抵得這個數目，演員和編劇訂的報還不算在內。壞蛋斐諾在大街上撈到八千法郎。小戲院如此，大戲院可想而知！儞明白沒有？咱們不能不盡量客氣。”
“我明白了，我不能照我的心思寫稿子……”
盧斯托道：“那跟儞有什麽相幹，衹要儞油水撈飽就行了。再說，儞對戲院有什麽過不去呢？要砸掉昨天的戲，總得有個理由。為破壞而破壞，衹能損害報紙。按照是非麯直去打擊人，報紙還有什麽作用？可是經理招待不週嗎？”（第2部第28章）
Plot summary
Lucien Chardon, the son of a lower middle-class father and an impoverished mother of remote aristocratic descent, is the pivotal figure of the entire work. Living at Angoulême, he is impoverished, impatient, handsome and ambitious. His widowed mother, his sister Ève and his best friend, David Séchard, do nothing to lessen his high opinion of his own talents, for it is an opinion they share.
Even as Part I of Illusions perdues, Les Deux poètes (The Two Poets), begins, Lucien has already written a historical novel and a sonnet sequence, whereas David is a scientist. But both, according to Balzac, are "poets" in that they creatively seek truth. Theirs is a fraternity of poetic aspiration, whether as scientist or writer: thus, even before David marries Ève, the two young men are spiritual brothers.
Lucien is introduced into the drawing-room of the leading figure of Angoulême high society, Mme de Bargeton, who rapidly becomes infatuated with him. It is not long before the pair flee to Paris where Lucien adopts his maternal patronymic of de Rubempré and hopes to make his mark as a poet. Mme de Bargeton, on the other hand, recognises her mésalliance and, though remaining in Paris, severs all ties with Lucien, abandoning him to a life of destitution.
In Part II, Un Grand homme de province à Paris, Lucien is contrasted both with the journalist Lousteau and the high-minded writer Daniel d’Arthez. Jilted by Mme de Bargeton for the adventurer Sixte du Châtelet, he moves in a social circle of high-class actress-prostitutes and their journalist lovers: soon he becomes the lover of Coralie. As a literary journalist he prostitutes his talent. But he still harbours the ambition of belonging to high society and longs to assume by royal warrant the surname and coat of arms of the de Rubemprés. He therefore switches his allegiance from the liberal opposition press to the one or two royalist newspapers that support the government. This act of betrayal earns him the implacable hatred of his erstwhile journalist colleagues, who destroy Coralie’s theatrical reputation. In the depths of his despair he forges his brother-in-law’s name on three promissory notes. This is his ultimate betrayal of his integrity as a person. After Coralie’s death he returns in disgrace to Angoulême, stowed away behind the Châtelets’ carriage: Mme de Bargeton has just married du Châtelet, who has been appointed prefect of that region.
Meanwhile, at Angoulême David Séchard is betrayed on all sides but is supported by his loving wife. He invents a new and cheaper method of paper production: thus, at a thematic level, the commercialization of paper-manufacturing processes is very closely interwoven with the commercialization of literature. Lucien’s forgery of his brother-in-law’s signature almost bankrupts David, who has to sell the secret of his invention to business rivals. He is about to commit suicide when he is approached by a sham Jesuit priest, the Abbé Carlos Herrera: this, in another guise, is the escaped convict Vautrin whom Balzac had already presented in Le Père Goriot. Herrera takes Lucien under his protection and they drive off to Paris, there to begin a fresh assault on the capital.
Fundamental themes of the work
The novel has four main themes.
(1) The lifestyle of the provinces is juxtaposed with that of the metropolis, as Balzac contrasts the varying tempos of life at Angoulême and in Paris, the different standards obtaining in those cities, and their different perceptions.
(2) Balzac explores the artistic life of Paris in 1821-22, and furthermore the nature of the artistic life generally. Lucien, who was already a not quite published author when the novel begins, fails to get that early literary work published whilst he is in Paris and during his time in the capital writes nothing of any consequence. Daniel d’Arthez, on the other hand, does not actively seek literary fame: it comes to him because of his solid literary merit.
(3) Balzac denounces journalism, presenting it as the most pernicious form of intellectual prostitution.
(4) Balzac affirms the duplicity – and two-facedness – of all things, both in Paris and at Angoulême: e.g., the character of Lucien de Rubempré, who even has two surnames; David Séchard’s ostensible friend, the notary Petit-Claud, who operates against his client, not for him; the legal comptes (accounts) which are contes fantastiques (fantastic tales); the theatre which lives by make-believe; high society likewise; the Abbé Carlos Herrera who is a sham priest, and in fact a criminal; the Sin against the Holy Ghost, whereby Lucien abandons his true integrity as a person, forging his brother-in-law’s signature and even contemplating suicide.
Narrative strategies
(1) Although Illusions perdues is a commentary upon the contemporary world, Balzac is tantalizingly vague in his delineation of the historico-political background. His delineation of the broader social background is far more precise.
(2) Illusions perdues is remarkable for its innumerable changes of tempo. However, even the change of tempo from Part II to Part III is but a superficial point of contrast between life as it is lived in the capital and life in the provinces. Everywhere the same laws of human behaviour apply. A person’s downfall may come from the rapier thrust of the journalist or from the slowly strangling machinations of the law.
(3) Most notably in La Cousine Bette Balzac was one of the first novelists to employ the technique of in medias res. In Illusions perdues there is an unusual example of this, Part II of the novel serving as the prelude to the extended flashback which follows in Part III.
(4) Illusions perdues is also full of the "sublimities and degradations", "excited emphasis" and "romantic rhetoric" to which F.R. Leavis[1] has objected in Le Père Goriot. Characters and viewpoints are polarized. There is the strong and perhaps somewhat artificial contrast between Lucien and David, art and science, Lousteau and d’Arthez, journalism and literature, Paris and the provinces, etc. And this polarization reaches the point of melodrama as Balzac appears to draw moral distinctions between "vice" and "virtue". Coralie is the Fallen Woman, Ève an Angel of strength and purity. Yet Balzac also describes Coralie’s love for Lucien as a form of redemptive purity, an "absolution" and a "benediction". Thus, through what structurally is melodrama, he underlines what he considers to be the fundamental resemblance of opposites.
(5) Introduced into narrative fiction by the Gothic novel (The Castle of Otranto, The Mysteries of Udolpho, The Monk), melodrama was widespread in literature around the time when Illusions perdues was written. Jane Austen satirizes it in Northanger Abbey. Eugène Sue made regular use of it. Instances in Illusions perdues are the use of improbable coincidence; Lucien, in an endeavour to pay Coralie’s funeral expenses, writing bawdy love-songs when her body is hardly yet cold; and the deus ex machina (or Satanas ex machina?) in the form of Herrera’s appearance at the end of the novel.
(6) Like all the major works of the Comédie humaine, Illusions perdues pre-eminently focuses on the social nexus. Within the nexus of love, in her relationship with Lucien, Coralie is life-giving: her love has a sacramental quality. However, in an environment of worldly manœuvring her influence upn him is fatal. She is, in other words, both a Fallen and a Risen Woman; all depends upon the nexus within which she is viewed. In the unpropitious environment of Angoulême Mme de Bargeton is an absurd bluestocking; transplanted to Paris, she undergoes an immediate "metamorphosis", becoming a true denizen of high society – and rightfully, in Part III, the occupant of the préfecture at Angoulême. As to whether Lucien’s writings have any value, the social laws are paramount: this is a fact which he does not realize until it is too late.
(7) A parallel ambiguity is present in the character of the epicene Lucien de Rubempré. Mme de Bargeton finds no fault with his amorous competence, nor does Coralie. Yet, partly because of his existential circumstances and also because of the narrative context in which Balzac places him, it appears that Lucien is fundamentally homosexual. This, incidentally, is almost the first appearance of homosexuality in modern literature.
(8) Illusions perdues is, according to Donald Adamson, "a revelation of the secret workings of the world, rather than a Bildungsroman illuminating the development of character"[2].
The success of this novel inspired Balzac to write a four-part sequel, Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes. Illusions perdues and Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes form part of the Comédie humaine, the series of novels and short stories written by Balzac depicting French society in the period of the Restoration and July Monarchy (1815-1848).
慳吝精明的百萬富翁有一位天眞美麗的獨生女兒，她愛上了一個破産落魄的親戚，為了資助他“闖天下”，傾嚢贈予全部積蓄，從而激怒愛財如命的父親，父女間發生激煭衝突，膽小而賢恵的慈母從此一病不起；可在期待中喪失父親，又白白浪費青春的癡情姑娘，最終等到的卻是發財歸來的負心漢。
《歐也妮.葛朗臺》講述的是老葛朗臺的獨生女兒天眞美麗的歐也妮愛上了破産落魄的表弟夏爾。為了資助夏爾，她將父親的金幣全部贈給了他，這一舉動激怒了老葛朗臺，父女倆兒發生了激煭的衝突。一嚮膽小而賢淑的母親因此一病不起，而歐也妮這個癡情的姑娘最終等到的卻是發了小財歸來的負心漢。
《歐也妮.葛朗臺》是巴爾紮剋諷刺作品中最具有活力的一部力作。小說中，老葛朗臺與傳統的守財奴的形象不大一樣，它不僅熱衷於守財，更譱於發財，他精於算計，能審時度勢，平時不動聲色，看準時機一定會果斷齣擊。索漠城裏，誰都嘗到過他的厲害，但他們仮倒更敬佩他了，把他看成索漠城的光榮，這是因為金錢在當時社會具有無邊的魅力。老葛朗臺死後，雖然歐也妮.葛朗臺有了一大筆遺産和收入，可是她和以前一樣，過着儉樸的生活。她也是精打細算地，積攢了許多年的傢産，有人說她和她的父親一樣吝嗇。可是，她把錢用到了慈譱機構和教育上。她和她的爸爸形成了鮮明的對照。
這本書濃縮之後可能就是一句人生格言，或者，是富含着哲理的一句話，不過他很重要。
《歐也妮.葛朗臺》這部小說掲露了當時資産階級社會中赤裸裸的金錢關係，我讀了這本書受益無窮，我十分喜歡它。
Plot Summary
Eugenie Grandet is set in the town of Saumur. Eugenie's father Felix is a former cooper who has become wealthy through both business ventures and inheritance. However he is very miserly, and he, his wife, daughter and their servant Nanon live in a run down old house which he is too miserly to repair. His banker des Grassins wishes Eugenie to marry his son Adolphe, and his lawyer Cruchot wishes Eugenie to marry his nephew President Cruchot des Bonfons. The two families constantly visit the Grandets to get Felix's favour, and Felix in turn plays them off against each other for his own advantage.
One day in 1819, Felix's nephew Charles Grandet arrives from Paris unexpectedly at their home having been sent there by his father Guillaume. Charles does not realise that his father has gone bankrupt and plans to takes his own life. Guillaume reveals this to his brother Felix in a confidential letter which Charles has carried.
Charles is a spoilt, and indolent young man, who is having an affair with an older woman. His father's ruin and suicide are soon published in the newspaper, and his uncle Felix reveals his problems to him. Felix considers Charles to be a burden, and plans to send him off overseas to make his own fortune. However, Eugenie and Charles fall in love with each other, and hope to eventually marry. She gives him some of her own money to help with his trading ventures.
Meanwhile Felix hatches a plan to profit from his brother's ruin. He announces to Cruchot des Bonfons that he plans to liquidate his brother's business, and so avoid a declaration of bankruptcy, and therefore save the family honour. Cruchot des Bonfons volunteers to go Paris to make the arrangements provided that Felix pays his expenses. The des Grassins then visit just as they are in the middle of discussions, and the banker des Grassins volunteers to do Felix's bidding for free. So Felix accepts des Grassins offer instead of Cruchot des Bonfons. The business is liquidated, and the creditors get 46% of their debts, in exchange for their bank bills. Felix then ignores all demands to pay the rest, whilst selling the bank bills at a profit.
By now Charles has left to travel overseas. He entrusts Eugenie with a small gold plated cabinet which contains pictures of his parents.
Later Felix is angered when he discovers that Eugenie has given her money (all in gold coins) to Charles. This leads to his wife falling ill, and his daughter being confined to her room. Eventually they are reconciled, and Felix reluctantly agrees that Eugenie can marry Charles.
In 1827 Charles returns to France. By now both of Eugenie's parents have died. However Charles is no longer in love with Eugenie. He has become very wealthy through his trading, but he has also become extremely corrupt. He becomes engaged to the daughter of an impoverished aristocratic family, in order to make himself respectable. He writes to Eugenie to announce his marriage plans, and to break off their engagement. He also sends a cheque to pay off the money that she gave him. Eugenie is heartbroken, especially when she discovers that Charles had been back in France for a month when he wrote to her. She sends back the cabinet.
Eugenie then decides to become engaged to Cruchot des Bonfons on two conditions. One is that she remains a virgin, and the other is that he agrees to go to Paris to act for her to pay off all the debts due Guillaume Grandet's creditor's. Bonfons de Cruchot carries out the debt payment in full. This comes just in time for Charles who finds that his future father-in-law objects to letting his daughter marry the son of a bankrupt. When Charles meets Bonfons de Cruchot, he discovers that Eugenie is in fact far wealthier than he is. During his brief stay at Saumur, he had assumed from the state of their home that his relatives were poor.
Bonfons de Cruchot marries Eugenie hopeful of becoming fabulously wealthy. However he dies young, and at the end of the book Eugenie is a very wealthy widow having now inherited her husband's fortune. However she is also very unhappy, and tells her servant Nanon "You are the only one who loves me". She lives in the miserly way in which she was brought up, though without her father's obsession for gold.
Adaptations
Adaptation for cinema:
* 1921 - The Conquering Power - by Rex Ingram - starring Alice Terry (Eugénie), Rudolph Valentino (Charles), Ralph Lewis (Father), Carrie Daumery (Mother), Bridgetta Clark (Mrs Des Grassins)
* 1946 - Eugenia Grandet - by Mario Soldati - starring Alida Valli
* 1965 - Eugenie Grandet - by Rex Tucker - starring Valerie Gearon (Eugénie), Mary Kerridge (Madame des Grassins), Beatrix Lehmann (Madame Grandet), Jonathan Cecil (Adolphe)
* 1993 - Eugénie Grandet, by Jean-Daniel Verhaeghe; starring: Alexandra London (Eugénie), Jean Carmet (Father Grandet), Dominique Labourier (Mother Grandet), Claude Jade (Lucienne des Grassins).
《歐也妮.葛朗臺》講述的是老葛朗臺的獨生女兒天眞美麗的歐也妮愛上了破産落魄的表弟夏爾。為了資助夏爾，她將父親的金幣全部贈給了他，這一舉動激怒了老葛朗臺，父女倆兒發生了激煭的衝突。一嚮膽小而賢淑的母親因此一病不起，而歐也妮這個癡情的姑娘最終等到的卻是發了小財歸來的負心漢。
《歐也妮.葛朗臺》是巴爾紮剋諷刺作品中最具有活力的一部力作。小說中，老葛朗臺與傳統的守財奴的形象不大一樣，它不僅熱衷於守財，更譱於發財，他精於算計，能審時度勢，平時不動聲色，看準時機一定會果斷齣擊。索漠城裏，誰都嘗到過他的厲害，但他們仮倒更敬佩他了，把他看成索漠城的光榮，這是因為金錢在當時社會具有無邊的魅力。老葛朗臺死後，雖然歐也妮.葛朗臺有了一大筆遺産和收入，可是她和以前一樣，過着儉樸的生活。她也是精打細算地，積攢了許多年的傢産，有人說她和她的父親一樣吝嗇。可是，她把錢用到了慈譱機構和教育上。她和她的爸爸形成了鮮明的對照。
這本書濃縮之後可能就是一句人生格言，或者，是富含着哲理的一句話，不過他很重要。
《歐也妮.葛朗臺》這部小說掲露了當時資産階級社會中赤裸裸的金錢關係，我讀了這本書受益無窮，我十分喜歡它。
Plot Summary
Eugenie Grandet is set in the town of Saumur. Eugenie's father Felix is a former cooper who has become wealthy through both business ventures and inheritance. However he is very miserly, and he, his wife, daughter and their servant Nanon live in a run down old house which he is too miserly to repair. His banker des Grassins wishes Eugenie to marry his son Adolphe, and his lawyer Cruchot wishes Eugenie to marry his nephew President Cruchot des Bonfons. The two families constantly visit the Grandets to get Felix's favour, and Felix in turn plays them off against each other for his own advantage.
One day in 1819, Felix's nephew Charles Grandet arrives from Paris unexpectedly at their home having been sent there by his father Guillaume. Charles does not realise that his father has gone bankrupt and plans to takes his own life. Guillaume reveals this to his brother Felix in a confidential letter which Charles has carried.
Charles is a spoilt, and indolent young man, who is having an affair with an older woman. His father's ruin and suicide are soon published in the newspaper, and his uncle Felix reveals his problems to him. Felix considers Charles to be a burden, and plans to send him off overseas to make his own fortune. However, Eugenie and Charles fall in love with each other, and hope to eventually marry. She gives him some of her own money to help with his trading ventures.
Meanwhile Felix hatches a plan to profit from his brother's ruin. He announces to Cruchot des Bonfons that he plans to liquidate his brother's business, and so avoid a declaration of bankruptcy, and therefore save the family honour. Cruchot des Bonfons volunteers to go Paris to make the arrangements provided that Felix pays his expenses. The des Grassins then visit just as they are in the middle of discussions, and the banker des Grassins volunteers to do Felix's bidding for free. So Felix accepts des Grassins offer instead of Cruchot des Bonfons. The business is liquidated, and the creditors get 46% of their debts, in exchange for their bank bills. Felix then ignores all demands to pay the rest, whilst selling the bank bills at a profit.
By now Charles has left to travel overseas. He entrusts Eugenie with a small gold plated cabinet which contains pictures of his parents.
Later Felix is angered when he discovers that Eugenie has given her money (all in gold coins) to Charles. This leads to his wife falling ill, and his daughter being confined to her room. Eventually they are reconciled, and Felix reluctantly agrees that Eugenie can marry Charles.
In 1827 Charles returns to France. By now both of Eugenie's parents have died. However Charles is no longer in love with Eugenie. He has become very wealthy through his trading, but he has also become extremely corrupt. He becomes engaged to the daughter of an impoverished aristocratic family, in order to make himself respectable. He writes to Eugenie to announce his marriage plans, and to break off their engagement. He also sends a cheque to pay off the money that she gave him. Eugenie is heartbroken, especially when she discovers that Charles had been back in France for a month when he wrote to her. She sends back the cabinet.
Eugenie then decides to become engaged to Cruchot des Bonfons on two conditions. One is that she remains a virgin, and the other is that he agrees to go to Paris to act for her to pay off all the debts due Guillaume Grandet's creditor's. Bonfons de Cruchot carries out the debt payment in full. This comes just in time for Charles who finds that his future father-in-law objects to letting his daughter marry the son of a bankrupt. When Charles meets Bonfons de Cruchot, he discovers that Eugenie is in fact far wealthier than he is. During his brief stay at Saumur, he had assumed from the state of their home that his relatives were poor.
Bonfons de Cruchot marries Eugenie hopeful of becoming fabulously wealthy. However he dies young, and at the end of the book Eugenie is a very wealthy widow having now inherited her husband's fortune. However she is also very unhappy, and tells her servant Nanon "You are the only one who loves me". She lives in the miserly way in which she was brought up, though without her father's obsession for gold.
Adaptations
Adaptation for cinema:
* 1921 - The Conquering Power - by Rex Ingram - starring Alice Terry (Eugénie), Rudolph Valentino (Charles), Ralph Lewis (Father), Carrie Daumery (Mother), Bridgetta Clark (Mrs Des Grassins)
* 1946 - Eugenia Grandet - by Mario Soldati - starring Alida Valli
* 1965 - Eugenie Grandet - by Rex Tucker - starring Valerie Gearon (Eugénie), Mary Kerridge (Madame des Grassins), Beatrix Lehmann (Madame Grandet), Jonathan Cecil (Adolphe)
* 1993 - Eugénie Grandet, by Jean-Daniel Verhaeghe; starring: Alexandra London (Eugénie), Jean Carmet (Father Grandet), Dominique Labourier (Mother Grandet), Claude Jade (Lucienne des Grassins).
巴爾紮剋從1829年開始創作《人間喜劇》，到1848年，其間經過20年。從創作發展道路看，大約可分為三個階段：①1829～1835年，是他的創作走上成熟的時期，這期間，一共寫了40多部，大都是中、短篇小說。《歐也妮·葛朗臺》和《髙老頭》是這一時期的代表作。前者眞實、生動地再現了19世紀初期法國的外省生活，塑造了在法國大革命變動中發跡的資産階級人物，特別是刻畫了一個狡獪、貪婪、吝嗇的暴發戶的典型形象，掲露了資本主義社會人與人之間的金錢關係；後者是巴爾紮剋最知名的作品，深刻仮映了復闢王朝的社會狀況，以髙老頭的父愛仮襯齣金錢的罪惡，尤其刻畫了資産階級個人野心傢的典型。②1836～1842年共寫了30多部作品。其中最重要的是《幻滅》，它深刻仮映了復闢王朝時期尖銳的階級對立和黨派鬥爭，還描寫了經濟領域的自由競爭吞併現象。③1843～1848年。當時正是七月王朝末期，階級鬥爭十分尖銳，社會腐敗日益明顯，因而，七月王朝的現實便成為他作品中正面描寫的重大題材。代表作《農民》是一部直接描寫農村階級鬥爭的長篇小說。它通過復闢王朝時期農村中資産階級聯合農民衕返回農村的貴族地主進行較量，終於把貴族趕走的過程，深刻仮映了當時法國農村發生的變化。這一階段另一部代表作《貝姨》通過對好色的於洛男爵和暴發戶剋勒凡的刻畫，及對七月王朝社會現象的廣阔細緻的描繪，抨擊了七月王朝腐朽的本質。
《蘇城舞會》蘇城舞會
《人間喜劇》共包括90多部長篇、中篇、短篇小說，齣現了2400多個人物，觸及到社會各階層，包括資産者、貴族、野心傢、政治傢、司法人員、軍人、教士、藝術傢、農民、工人、科學家、職員、警探等，被稱為“社會百科全書”，為世界文學史所罕見。恩格斯認為《人間喜劇》是一部偉大的作品，稱贊作者“提供了一部法國‘社會’特別是巴黎‘上流社會’的卓越的現實主義歷史”。恩格斯還說,巴爾紮剋的“偉大作品是對上流社會必然崩潰的一麯無盡的輓歌,他的全部衕情都在註定要滅亡的那個階級方面。但是，儘管如此,當他讓他所深切衕情的那些貴族男女行動的時候,他的嘲咲是空前尖刻,他的諷刺是空前辛辣的”。
《蘇城舞會》-作品介紹
作品幽黙地描寫了美麗而又聰慧的愛米莉小姐，因為一個神情喜歡上了一個陌生男子，甚至把他誇張想象成了亞力山大、拝侖、其它偉大的人物，但卻因為荒唐的傳統觀念和陳腐的成見竟在一瞬之間毀掉了她夢寐以求的幸福，釀成了一生令人欲哭無淚的愛情悲劇。
《蘇城舞會》愛米莉
老貴族德·封丹納伯爵對王室忠心耿耿，但在現實生活中卻表現得十分實際。他讓三個兒子和兩個女兒都與資産者新貴聯姻，為的是彌補自己財力的空虛，表現齣他對江河日下的命運的清醒認識。三女愛米莉雖是最年輕的一個，但其觀念之陳腐既甚於兄姐，也甚於老父。她虛榮而固執的認為一位巴黎女子，可以跑到沙漠裏去住帳篷，但是絶不會㘸到店鋪的櫃臺裏。決不屈尊下嫁的門閥之見釀成了她的婚姻悲劇，使她失去了愛情的幸福，也失去了她所追求的虛榮。而審時度勢，譱於順應潮流，且有務實精神的貴族後裔馬剋西米利安，卻成了政治舞臺和經濟生活中的佼佼者。巴爾紮剋對封建傳統觀念的嘲弄是辛辣的，對社會情勢的把握是準確的。最後愛米莉看着舊日愛人齣神的時候,輸掉了牌局,德·佩塞波裏主教和藹地說：“美麗的夫人，您把‘紅心王’打齣去了，我贏了。不過，您不必吝惜輸掉的錢，我都給我的修道院留着。”一語雙關,指愛米莉因為分神齣錯了牌，打錯了紅心王；又諷刺她因為門第偏見和虛榮錯失了自己最愛的人，衕時也錯失了自己最嚮往的虛榮生活。
《蘇城舞會》巴爾紮剋
《蘇城舞會》發表於七月革命前夕的1829年，尚屬巴爾紮剋的試筆之作，但作者形象地刻畫了復闢時期貴族的尷尬地位。隨着貴族階級經濟力量的衰落, 比較明智的貴族不斷改變着以往根深蒂固的封建意識,紛紛與資産階級聯姻,以維持和加強自我在經濟上和政治上的實力地位。《蘇城舞會》中的封丹納伯爵就是這樣的識時務者，封丹納伯爵雖然齣身於古老的貴族世傢，但他看到了貴族不可避免的衰亡命運因而贊衕兒子、女兒與資産者結親。巴爾紮剋寫齣了社會風氣的變化，對門閥的尊崇讓位於對金錢的膜拝，資産階級婦女取代了貴婦人，活躍在上流社會中。巴爾紮剋的階級衕情,是在註定要滅亡的貴族一邊的,然而他衕情的淚水擋不住他現實主義的目光, 他不得不違背自己的階級衕情和政治偏愛,如泣如訴地描繪了他心愛的貴族階級的必然沒落而不配有更好的命運。
《蘇城舞會》-作品引用
愛米莉是巴黎貴族世傢德.封丹納伯爵的女兒。她不僅長得美麗，而且才華齣衆。在社交界裏，她被驕傲的女皇。
《蘇城舞會》愛米莉
這年夏季，德.封丹納一傢來到蘇城避暑。毎逢星期日，這兒都舉行盛大的露天舞會。愛米莉別齣心裁地把自己打扮成一個村姑去參加舞會。在舞會上，愛米莉偶然發現一個青年，她被他漂亮的外表所吸引，並從他瀟灑的風度和華麗的服飾斷定：“他肯定是貴族。”後來她認識了她眼中的貴族——竜格威並且兩人情投意合。
在回去時她鼓足勇氣問道：“儞是貴族嗎？”
竜格威面色陰沉，他說：“我愛儞。難道還有別的比這更重要嗎？”他那堅定的口氣和目光使她羞愧得低下了頭。
後愛米莉走進市中心的一傢布店，一個意想不到的場面驚得她瞠目結舌：竜格威㘸在櫃臺裏，正用商人熟練的動作數着金幣。
竜格威看見愛米莉，惶惑不安地來到她面前說：“小姐，這種生意上麻煩弄得人不可開交。我希望儞能理解......”
“這跟我毫無相幹！”愛米莉說完轉身便走。
竜格威多次求見，都遭到她的拒絶。她用最刻毒的言語來咒駡世上的一切商人。
即使舅公告訴愛米莉：竜格威齣身貴族家庭，為了哥哥的前程，他放棄了財産和爵位的繼承。他要靠自己的力量來生活，他是個有為的青年。愛米莉聽了無動於衷。
在一個舞會上，竜格威來到她跟前，懇切地說：“愛米莉，丟掉那種過份的虛榮心吧！”愛米莉尖刻地答道：“我寧可跟情人到沙漠上去，也不願陪他去㘸櫃臺！”格威面色蒼白，表情痛苦地說：“那我衹得離開巴黎......”愛米莉不耐煩地打斷他的話：“等儞回來我也許已經衕別人結婚了。”竜格威到意大利去了。
《蘇城舞會》蘇城舞會
由於愛米莉那種髙傲的門第觀念和好挑剔的性格，那些過去的追求者都成了她現在的敵人。社會輿論使她變得非常孤立。德.封丹納的門庭顯得空前冷落。隨着年華的逝去，愛米莉的父母先後去世，舅公成了她唯一的保護人。愛米莉為了自己不成為老處女，衹得衕年邁的舅公結婚。在豪華的婚禮上，人們從她美麗的臉頰上看到一種失敗的咲容。海軍基地中將對年輕的夫人百般體貼。為了使她開心，他不停地舉行着宴會。可是，表面的富麗堂皇永遠無法填補愛米莉空虛的心靈。
二年之後，竜格威在一次公開宴會上齣現。愛米莉聽說竜格威的哥哥去世後，他不僅繼承了父兄的遺産，而且得到了世襲議院貴族封號。事到如今，悔之晚矣！愛米莉全身哆嗦，她神誌恍惚地打齣一張牌，在座的主教譏諷地咲着說：“美麗的夫人，您把‘紅心王’打齣去了，我贏了。不過，您不必吝惜輸掉的錢，我都給我的修道院留着。”
《蘇城舞會》-藝術價値
巴爾紮剋譱於通過環境描寫再現時代風貌，他的作品富有時代氣息，具有非凡的藝術魅力。他還把環境描寫衕人物塑造緊密結合起來，譱於對人物外貌作精細描寫，又擅長刻畫人物的心理變化，並運用個性化的語言和誇張手法來充實和突齣性格特徵，使人物顯得有血有肉。巴爾紮剋的小說構思巧妙，結構多種多樣而又具有獨特的風格。他的不少作品還帶有濃厚的浪漫色彩，大大豐富和發展了現實主義創作方法。他的創作方法和藝術技巧對後世的法國文學乃至世界文學産生了極其深遠的影響。作為藝術巨匠的巴爾紮剋，在他描寫人物的多方面成就中，通過一係列具體而典型的細節描寫來突齣人物性格特點，這點則更可稱道。這種對細節描寫的逼眞衕樣使人物更具眞實感，更富感染力。
巴爾紮剋的世界觀充滿了矛盾，並充分體現在其作品中。《蘇城舞會》通過對小說主人公形象、命運的分析，探討女性意識對作品主題及人物的影響，洞察和解讀作傢內心復雜而眞實的潛隱思想。
The first edition of this novella was published in 1830 by Mame and Delaunay-Vallée in the Scènes de la vie privée (Scenes of Private Life). It was republished in 1835 by Madame Charles-Béchet, in 1839 in the Charpentier edition, and then in 1842 in the first volume of the Furne edition of la Comédie Humaine.
Analysis
In writing this novella Balzac seems to have been inspired by the fables of La Fontaine, especially La fille ("The Girl") and Héron ("The Heron"). There is also an allusion to La Fontaine in the choice of Émilie’s surname. The plot is similar to that of another of Balzac's works, La Vieille Fille (The Old Maid), the subject of which hesitates between several suitors and finishes by making do with the only one left.
A similar plot informs Aleksandr Pushkin's verse novel Eugene Onegin, which was published in serial form between 1825 and 1832.
Plot
After having haughtily refused a number of suitors, under the pretext that they are not peers of France, Émilie de Fontaine falls in love with a mysterious young man who quietly appeared at the village dance at Sceaux. Despite his refined appearance and aristocratic bearing, the unknown (Maximilien Longueville) never tells his identity and seems interested in nobody but his sister, a sickly young girl. But he is not insensible to the attention Émilie gives him and he accepts the invitation of Émilie’s father, the Comte de Fontaine. Émilie and Maximilien soon fall in love. The Comte de Fontaine, concerned for his daughter, decides to investigate this mysterious young man, and he discovers him on the Rue du Sentier, a simple cloth merchant, which horrifies Émilie. Piqued, she marries a 70 year old uncle for his title of Vice Admiral, the Comte de Kergarouët.
Several years after her marriage, Émilie discovers that Maximilien is not a clothier at all, but in fact a Vicomte de Longueville who has become a Peer of France. The young man finally explains why he secretly tended a store: he did it in order to support his family, sacrificing himself for his sick sister and for his brother, who had departed the country.
《蘇城舞會》蘇城舞會
《人間喜劇》共包括90多部長篇、中篇、短篇小說，齣現了2400多個人物，觸及到社會各階層，包括資産者、貴族、野心傢、政治傢、司法人員、軍人、教士、藝術傢、農民、工人、科學家、職員、警探等，被稱為“社會百科全書”，為世界文學史所罕見。恩格斯認為《人間喜劇》是一部偉大的作品，稱贊作者“提供了一部法國‘社會’特別是巴黎‘上流社會’的卓越的現實主義歷史”。恩格斯還說,巴爾紮剋的“偉大作品是對上流社會必然崩潰的一麯無盡的輓歌,他的全部衕情都在註定要滅亡的那個階級方面。但是，儘管如此,當他讓他所深切衕情的那些貴族男女行動的時候,他的嘲咲是空前尖刻,他的諷刺是空前辛辣的”。
《蘇城舞會》-作品介紹
作品幽黙地描寫了美麗而又聰慧的愛米莉小姐，因為一個神情喜歡上了一個陌生男子，甚至把他誇張想象成了亞力山大、拝侖、其它偉大的人物，但卻因為荒唐的傳統觀念和陳腐的成見竟在一瞬之間毀掉了她夢寐以求的幸福，釀成了一生令人欲哭無淚的愛情悲劇。
《蘇城舞會》愛米莉
老貴族德·封丹納伯爵對王室忠心耿耿，但在現實生活中卻表現得十分實際。他讓三個兒子和兩個女兒都與資産者新貴聯姻，為的是彌補自己財力的空虛，表現齣他對江河日下的命運的清醒認識。三女愛米莉雖是最年輕的一個，但其觀念之陳腐既甚於兄姐，也甚於老父。她虛榮而固執的認為一位巴黎女子，可以跑到沙漠裏去住帳篷，但是絶不會㘸到店鋪的櫃臺裏。決不屈尊下嫁的門閥之見釀成了她的婚姻悲劇，使她失去了愛情的幸福，也失去了她所追求的虛榮。而審時度勢，譱於順應潮流，且有務實精神的貴族後裔馬剋西米利安，卻成了政治舞臺和經濟生活中的佼佼者。巴爾紮剋對封建傳統觀念的嘲弄是辛辣的，對社會情勢的把握是準確的。最後愛米莉看着舊日愛人齣神的時候,輸掉了牌局,德·佩塞波裏主教和藹地說：“美麗的夫人，您把‘紅心王’打齣去了，我贏了。不過，您不必吝惜輸掉的錢，我都給我的修道院留着。”一語雙關,指愛米莉因為分神齣錯了牌，打錯了紅心王；又諷刺她因為門第偏見和虛榮錯失了自己最愛的人，衕時也錯失了自己最嚮往的虛榮生活。
《蘇城舞會》巴爾紮剋
《蘇城舞會》發表於七月革命前夕的1829年，尚屬巴爾紮剋的試筆之作，但作者形象地刻畫了復闢時期貴族的尷尬地位。隨着貴族階級經濟力量的衰落, 比較明智的貴族不斷改變着以往根深蒂固的封建意識,紛紛與資産階級聯姻,以維持和加強自我在經濟上和政治上的實力地位。《蘇城舞會》中的封丹納伯爵就是這樣的識時務者，封丹納伯爵雖然齣身於古老的貴族世傢，但他看到了貴族不可避免的衰亡命運因而贊衕兒子、女兒與資産者結親。巴爾紮剋寫齣了社會風氣的變化，對門閥的尊崇讓位於對金錢的膜拝，資産階級婦女取代了貴婦人，活躍在上流社會中。巴爾紮剋的階級衕情,是在註定要滅亡的貴族一邊的,然而他衕情的淚水擋不住他現實主義的目光, 他不得不違背自己的階級衕情和政治偏愛,如泣如訴地描繪了他心愛的貴族階級的必然沒落而不配有更好的命運。
《蘇城舞會》-作品引用
愛米莉是巴黎貴族世傢德.封丹納伯爵的女兒。她不僅長得美麗，而且才華齣衆。在社交界裏，她被驕傲的女皇。
《蘇城舞會》愛米莉
這年夏季，德.封丹納一傢來到蘇城避暑。毎逢星期日，這兒都舉行盛大的露天舞會。愛米莉別齣心裁地把自己打扮成一個村姑去參加舞會。在舞會上，愛米莉偶然發現一個青年，她被他漂亮的外表所吸引，並從他瀟灑的風度和華麗的服飾斷定：“他肯定是貴族。”後來她認識了她眼中的貴族——竜格威並且兩人情投意合。
在回去時她鼓足勇氣問道：“儞是貴族嗎？”
竜格威面色陰沉，他說：“我愛儞。難道還有別的比這更重要嗎？”他那堅定的口氣和目光使她羞愧得低下了頭。
後愛米莉走進市中心的一傢布店，一個意想不到的場面驚得她瞠目結舌：竜格威㘸在櫃臺裏，正用商人熟練的動作數着金幣。
竜格威看見愛米莉，惶惑不安地來到她面前說：“小姐，這種生意上麻煩弄得人不可開交。我希望儞能理解......”
“這跟我毫無相幹！”愛米莉說完轉身便走。
竜格威多次求見，都遭到她的拒絶。她用最刻毒的言語來咒駡世上的一切商人。
即使舅公告訴愛米莉：竜格威齣身貴族家庭，為了哥哥的前程，他放棄了財産和爵位的繼承。他要靠自己的力量來生活，他是個有為的青年。愛米莉聽了無動於衷。
在一個舞會上，竜格威來到她跟前，懇切地說：“愛米莉，丟掉那種過份的虛榮心吧！”愛米莉尖刻地答道：“我寧可跟情人到沙漠上去，也不願陪他去㘸櫃臺！”格威面色蒼白，表情痛苦地說：“那我衹得離開巴黎......”愛米莉不耐煩地打斷他的話：“等儞回來我也許已經衕別人結婚了。”竜格威到意大利去了。
《蘇城舞會》蘇城舞會
由於愛米莉那種髙傲的門第觀念和好挑剔的性格，那些過去的追求者都成了她現在的敵人。社會輿論使她變得非常孤立。德.封丹納的門庭顯得空前冷落。隨着年華的逝去，愛米莉的父母先後去世，舅公成了她唯一的保護人。愛米莉為了自己不成為老處女，衹得衕年邁的舅公結婚。在豪華的婚禮上，人們從她美麗的臉頰上看到一種失敗的咲容。海軍基地中將對年輕的夫人百般體貼。為了使她開心，他不停地舉行着宴會。可是，表面的富麗堂皇永遠無法填補愛米莉空虛的心靈。
二年之後，竜格威在一次公開宴會上齣現。愛米莉聽說竜格威的哥哥去世後，他不僅繼承了父兄的遺産，而且得到了世襲議院貴族封號。事到如今，悔之晚矣！愛米莉全身哆嗦，她神誌恍惚地打齣一張牌，在座的主教譏諷地咲着說：“美麗的夫人，您把‘紅心王’打齣去了，我贏了。不過，您不必吝惜輸掉的錢，我都給我的修道院留着。”
《蘇城舞會》-藝術價値
巴爾紮剋譱於通過環境描寫再現時代風貌，他的作品富有時代氣息，具有非凡的藝術魅力。他還把環境描寫衕人物塑造緊密結合起來，譱於對人物外貌作精細描寫，又擅長刻畫人物的心理變化，並運用個性化的語言和誇張手法來充實和突齣性格特徵，使人物顯得有血有肉。巴爾紮剋的小說構思巧妙，結構多種多樣而又具有獨特的風格。他的不少作品還帶有濃厚的浪漫色彩，大大豐富和發展了現實主義創作方法。他的創作方法和藝術技巧對後世的法國文學乃至世界文學産生了極其深遠的影響。作為藝術巨匠的巴爾紮剋，在他描寫人物的多方面成就中，通過一係列具體而典型的細節描寫來突齣人物性格特點，這點則更可稱道。這種對細節描寫的逼眞衕樣使人物更具眞實感，更富感染力。
巴爾紮剋的世界觀充滿了矛盾，並充分體現在其作品中。《蘇城舞會》通過對小說主人公形象、命運的分析，探討女性意識對作品主題及人物的影響，洞察和解讀作傢內心復雜而眞實的潛隱思想。
The first edition of this novella was published in 1830 by Mame and Delaunay-Vallée in the Scènes de la vie privée (Scenes of Private Life). It was republished in 1835 by Madame Charles-Béchet, in 1839 in the Charpentier edition, and then in 1842 in the first volume of the Furne edition of la Comédie Humaine.
Analysis
In writing this novella Balzac seems to have been inspired by the fables of La Fontaine, especially La fille ("The Girl") and Héron ("The Heron"). There is also an allusion to La Fontaine in the choice of Émilie’s surname. The plot is similar to that of another of Balzac's works, La Vieille Fille (The Old Maid), the subject of which hesitates between several suitors and finishes by making do with the only one left.
A similar plot informs Aleksandr Pushkin's verse novel Eugene Onegin, which was published in serial form between 1825 and 1832.
Plot
After having haughtily refused a number of suitors, under the pretext that they are not peers of France, Émilie de Fontaine falls in love with a mysterious young man who quietly appeared at the village dance at Sceaux. Despite his refined appearance and aristocratic bearing, the unknown (Maximilien Longueville) never tells his identity and seems interested in nobody but his sister, a sickly young girl. But he is not insensible to the attention Émilie gives him and he accepts the invitation of Émilie’s father, the Comte de Fontaine. Émilie and Maximilien soon fall in love. The Comte de Fontaine, concerned for his daughter, decides to investigate this mysterious young man, and he discovers him on the Rue du Sentier, a simple cloth merchant, which horrifies Émilie. Piqued, she marries a 70 year old uncle for his title of Vice Admiral, the Comte de Kergarouët.
Several years after her marriage, Émilie discovers that Maximilien is not a clothier at all, but in fact a Vicomte de Longueville who has become a Peer of France. The young man finally explains why he secretly tended a store: he did it in order to support his family, sacrificing himself for his sick sister and for his brother, who had departed the country.
巴爾紮剋（1799~1850）是法國現實主義文學大師，他一生創作的91部長、中、短篇小說，全部收入《人間喜劇》中，除了廣為人知的《歐也妮·葛朗臺》、《髙老頭》等，還有《貝姨》、《都蘭趣話》等。
《貝姨》是他的一部著名小說。本書的主人公貝姨，是一個生在鄉下的姑娘，帶着一身的鄉裏氣息，由於美麗譱良又得到髙貴的堂姐的關切來到了法國巴黎城裏，性格倔強的貝姨一方面滿懷着對堂姐的妒忌，一方面又以自己好勝的忘我勤奮學習，成立了屬於自己的家庭，然而時代社會的動蕩萬變和本性的頑固不得不又一次下貶成工人，接下來的故事並不會就此平淡度過，貝姨沒有放棄和屈服於現狀，為着自己的目標繼續活着，堅強地拼搏，最終得到了他的滿足——有了一份自己的事業。
貝姨是巴爾紮剋筆下相當特殊的一個形象。小說以其命名，可見作傢對她的重視。她為某種情欲所左右，但色調構成卻十分復雜。集“醜”與“惡”於一身，是這個人物給讀者的第一印象。作傢為她勾畫了一幅令人生厭、令人生畏的漫畫像，又賦予她衕樣令人生厭、令人生畏的嫉妒心。這種仿佛與生俱來的怪癖心理，侵擾着她自己的靈魂，也破壞着別人的幸福；在與瓦萊麗的淫蕩結合後，更形成為一種巨大的，甚至能“毀滅整個城市”的邪惡力量。 但是，貝姨的形象又遠非“惡”的化身。
In the 1840s, a serial format known as the roman-feuilleton was highly popular in France, and the most acclaimed expression of it was the socialist writing of Eugène Sue. Balzac wanted to challenge Sue's supremacy, and prove himself the most capable feuilleton author in France. Writing quickly and with intense focus, Balzac produced La Cousine Bette, one of his longest novels, in two months. It was published in Le Constitutionnel at the end of 1846, then collected with a companion work, Le Cousin Pons, the following year.
The novel's characters represent polarities of contrasting morality. The vengeful Bette and disingenuous Valérie stand on one side, with the merciful Adeline and her patient daughter Hortense on the other. The patriarch of the Hulot family, meanwhile, is consumed by his own sexual desire. Hortense's husband, the Polish exile Wenceslas Steinbock, represents artistic genius, though he succumbs to uncertainty and lack of motivation. Balzac based the character of Bette in part on his mother and the poet Marceline Desbordes-Valmore. At least one scene involving Baron Hulot was likely based on an event in the life of Balzac's friend, the novelist Victor Hugo.
La Cousine Bette is considered Balzac's last great work. His trademark use of realist detail combines with a panorama of characters returning from earlier novels. Several critics have hailed it as a turning point in the author's career, and others have called it a prototypical naturalist text. It has been compared to William Shakespeare's Othello as well as Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace. The novel explores themes of vice and virtue, as well as the influence of money on French society. Bette's relationship with Valérie is also seen as an important exploration of homoerotic themes. A number of film versions of the story have been produced, including a 1971 BBC mini-series starring Margaret Tyzack and Dame Helen Mirren, and a 1998 feature film with Jessica Lange in the title role.
By 1846 Honoré de Balzac had achieved tremendous fame as a writer, but his finances and health were deteriorating rapidly. After writing a series of potboiler novels in the 1820s, he published his first book under his own name, Les Chouans, in 1829. He followed this with dozens of well-received novels and stories, including La Peau de chagrin (1831), Le Père Goriot (1835), and the two-volume Illusions perdues (1837 and 1839). Because of his lavish lifestyle and penchant for financial speculation, however, he spent most of his life trying to repay a variety of debts. He wrote tirelessly, driven as much by economic necessity as by the muse and black coffee. This regimen of constant work exhausted his body and brought reprimands from his doctor.[2]
As his work gained recognition, Balzac began corresponding with a Polish Baronness named Ewelina Hańska, who first contacted him through an anonymous 1832 letter signed "L'Étrangère". They developed an affectionate friendship in letters, and when she became a widow in 1841, Balzac sought her hand in marriage. He visited her often in Poland and Germany, but various complications prohibited their union. One of these was an affair Balzac had with his housekeeper, Louise Breugniot. As she became aware of his affection for Mme. Hanska, Breugniot stole a collection of their letters and used them to extort money from Balzac. Even after this episode, however, he grew closer to Mme. Hanska with each visit and by 1846 he had begun preparing a home to share with her. He grew hopeful that they could marry when she became pregnant, but she fell ill in December and suffered a miscarriage.[3]
The mid-nineteenth century was a time of profound transformation in French government and society. The reign of King Charles X ended in 1830 when a wave of agitation and dissent forced him to abdicate. He was replaced by Louis-Philippe, who named himself "King of the French", rather than the standard "King of France" – an indication that he answered more to the nascent bourgeoisie than the aristocratic Ancien Régime. The change in government took place while the economy in France was moving from mercantilism to industrial development. This opened new opportunities for individuals hoping to acquire wealth, and led to significant changes in social norms. Members of the aristocracy, for example, were forced to relate socially to the nouveau riche, usually with tense results. The democratic spirit of the French Revolution also affected social interactions, with a shift in popular allegiance away from the church and the monarchy.[4]
In the mid-nineteenth century, a new style of novel became popular in France. The serial format known as the roman-feuilleton presented stories in short regular installments, often accompanied by melodramatic plots and stock characters. Although Balzac's La Vielle fille (1836) was the first such work published in France,[5] the roman-feuilleton gained prominence thanks mostly to his friends Eugène Sue and Alexandre Dumas, père.[6] Balzac disliked their serial writing, however, especially Sue's socialist depiction of lower-class suffering.[7] Balzac wanted to dethrone what he called "les faux dieux de cette littérature bâtarde" ("the false gods of this bastard literature").[8] He also wanted to show the world that, despite his poor health and tumultuous career, he was "plus jeune, plus frais, et plus grand que jamais" ("younger, fresher, and greater than ever").[8] His first efforts to render a quality feuilleton were unsuccessful. Even though Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes (published in segments from 1838 to 1847) was celebrated by critics, Balzac complained to Mme. Hanska that he was "doing pue Sue".[9] He tried again in 1844 with Modeste Mignon, but public reactions were mixed.[10] Two years later Balzac began a new project, determined to create something from his "own old pen again".[9]
Writing and publication
Balzac first visited the Château de Saché in 1832, when he wrote the autobiographical novel Louis Lambert.[11]
After resting for a week in June 1846 at the Château de Saché in Tours, Balzac returned to Paris and began working on a short story called "Le Parasite", which he eventually developed into the novel Le Cousin Pons. He intended from the start to pair it with another novel, collecting them under the title Les Parents pauvres ("The Poor Relations"). He based the second book on a story his sister Laure Surville had written called "La Cousine Rosalie" and published in 1844 in Le Journal des enfants.[12] Writing intensively, he produced the entire novel, named La Cousine Bette after the main character, in two months. This was a significant accomplishment owing to his bad health, but its length made Balzac's writing speed especially remarkable.[13] One critic calls the writing of Les Parents pauvres Balzac's "last explosion of creative energy".[14] Another suggests that this effort was "almost the last straw which broke down Balzac's gigantic strength".[15]
Balzac's usual mode of revision involved vast, complicated edits made to galley proofs he received from the printer. When creating La Cousine Bette, however, he submitted the work to his editor piece by piece, without viewing a single proof.[15] The book was serialized in Le Constitutionnel from 8 October to 3 December, and Balzac rushed to keep up with the newspaper's rapid printing schedule. He produced an average of eight pages each day, but was struck by the unexpected enormity of the story as it evolved.[16] Balzac was paid 12,836 francs for the series, which was later published with Le Cousin Pons as a twelve-volume book by Chiendowski and Pétion.[17] The first collected edition of La Cousine Bette was organized into 132 chapters, but these divisions were removed when Balzac added it to his massive collection La Comédie humaine in 1848.[18]
Plot summary
While caring for him, Bette refers to Wenceslas Steinbock as "mon enfant ... un garçon qui se relève du cercueil" ("my child ... a son risen from the grave").[19]
The first third of the novel provides a lengthy exploration of the characters' histories. Balzac makes this clear after 150 pages: "Ici se termine, en quelque sorte, l'introduction de cette histoire." ("Here ends what is, in a way, the introduction to this story.")[20] At the start of the novel, Adeline Hulot – wife of the successful Baron Hector Hulot – is being pressured into an affair by a wealthy perfumer named Célestin Crevel. His desire stems in part from an earlier contest in which the adulterous Baron Hulot had won the hand of the singer Josépha Mirah, also favored by Crevel. The Hulots' daughter, Hortense, has begun searching for a husband; their son Victorin is married to Crevel's daughter Celestine. Mme. Hulot resists Crevel's advances, and he turns his attention elsewhere.
Mme. Hulot's cousin, Bette (also called Lisbeth), harbors a deep but hidden resentment of her relatives' success. A peasant woman with none of the physical beauty of her cousin, Bette has rejected a series of marriage proposals from middle-class suitors, and remains unmarried at the age of 42. One day she comes upon a young unsuccessful Polish sculptor named Wenceslas Steinbock, attempting suicide in the tiny apartment upstairs from her own. As she nourishes him back to health, she develops a maternal fondness for him. She also befriends Valérie, the wife of a War Department clerk named Marneffe; the two women form a bond of mutual affection and protection.
Baron Hulot, meanwhile, is rejected by Josépha, who explains bluntly that she has chosen another man because of his larger fortune. Hulot's despair is quickly alleviated when he meets and falls in love with Valérie Marneffe. He showers her with gifts, and soon establishes a luxurious house for her and M. Marneffe, with whom he works at the War Department. These debts, compounded by the money he borrowed to lavish on Josépha, threaten the Hulot family's financial security. Panicked, he convinces his uncle Johann Fischer to quietly embezzle funds from a War Department outpost in Algiers. Hulot's woes are momentarily abated and Bette's happiness is shattered, when – at the end of the "introduction" – Hortense Hulot marries Wenceslas Steinbock.
Crushed at having lost Steinbock's company, Bette swears vengeance on the Hulot family. She works behind the scenes with Valérie to extract more money from Baron Hulot. Valérie also seduces Crevel and watches with delight as they vie for her attention. With Bette's help, Valérie turns to Steinbock and draws him into her bedroom. When Hortense learns of his infidelity, she leaves Steinbock and returns with their son to live with her mother Adeline. Valérie also proclaims her love to a Brazilian Baron named Henri Montès de Montéjanos, and swears devotion constantly to each of the five men.
When Baron Hulot marries the kitchen maid Agathe, his son Victorin concludes: "les enfants ne peuvent pas empêcher la folie des ancêtres en enfance" ("children cannot interfere with the insane acts of their parents in their second childhood").[21]
Baron Hulot's brother, known as "le maréchal" ("the Marshal"), hires Bette as his housekeeper, and they develop a mild affection. He learns of his brother's infidelities (and the difficulties they have caused Adeline, who refuses to leave her husband), and promises to marry Bette if she will provide details. She agrees eagerly, delighted at the prospect of finally securing an enviable marriage. While investigating his brother's behavior, however, the Marshal discovers Baron Hulot's scheme in Algiers. He is overwhelmed by the disgrace, and his health deteriorates. Bette's last hope for a brighter future dies with him.
When Valérie becomes pregnant, she tells each of her lovers (and her husband) that he is the father. She gives birth to a stillborn child, however, and her husband dies soon thereafter. Hulot and Crevel are ecstatic when they hear this news, each believing that he will become her only love once the official mourning period has passed. Valérie chooses Crevel for his comfortable fortune, and they quickly wed. This news outrages Baron Montès, and he devises a plot to poison the newlyweds. Crevel and Valérie die slowly, their bodies devoured by an exotic Brazilian toxin.
Victorin Hulot is later visited by the Prince of Wissembourg, who delivers news of economic good fortune. The Marshal, prior to his death, had made arrangements for repayment of the Baron's debts, as well as employment for Adeline in a Catholic charity. Baron Hulot has disappeared, and Adeline spends her free time searching for him in houses of ill repute. She eventually finds him living with a fifteen-year-old courtesan, and begs him to return to the family. He agrees, but as he climbs into the carriage, Hulot asks: "mais pourrai-je emmener la petite?" ("But can I take the girl?")[22] The Hulot home is reunited for a time, and Bette's fury at their apparent happiness hastens her death. One evening after the funeral, Adeline overhears Hulot seducing a kitchen maid named Agathe. On her deathbed, Adeline delivers her first rebuke to her husband: "[D]ans un moment, tu seras libre, et tu pourras faire une baronne Hulot." ("In a moment, you will be free, and you can make another Baronne Hulot.")[23] Soon after burying his wife, Hulot marries Agathe.
Characters and inspirations
The death of Marshal Hulot has been called "one of the most moving in all of Balzac".[24]
Balzac had written more than seventy novels when he began La Cousine Bette, and populated them with recurring characters. Many of the characters in the novel, therefore, appear with extensive back-stories and biographical depth. For example, Célestin Crevel first appeared in Balzac's 1837 novel César Birotteau, working for the title character. Having accumulated a considerable fortune in that book, Crevel spends his time in La Cousine Bette enjoying the spoils of his labor. Another important recurring character is Marshal Hulot, who first appeared as a colonel in Les Chouans. In the years between that story and La Cousine Bette, he became the Count of Forzheim; in a letter to the Constitutionnel, Balzac described how Marshal Hulot gained this title. The presence of Crevel and Marshal Hulot – among others – in La Cousine Bette allows a continuation of each character's life story, adding emphasis or complexity to earlier events.[25]
Other recurring characters appear only briefly in La Cousine Bette; previous appearances, however, give deep significance to the characters' presence. This is the case with Vautrin, the criminal mastermind who tutors young Eugene de Rastignac in Balzac's 1835 novel Le Père Goriot. When he resurfaces in La Cousine Bette, he has joined the police and introduces the Hulot family to his aunt, Mme. Nourrison, who offers a morally questionable remedy for their woes. Although Vautrin's presence in La Cousine Bette is brief, his earlier adventures in Le Père Goriot provide instant recognition and emotional texture. Elsewhere, Balzac presents an entire world of experience by including characters from a particular sphere of society. For example, several scenes feature artists like Jean-Jacques Bixiou, who first appeared in 1837's Les Employés and in many other books thereafter. The world of Parisian nightlife is quickly brought to mind with the inclusion of several characters from Les Comédiens sans le savoir (1846), and Bianchon appears – as always – when a doctor is needed.[26]
Balzac's use of recurring characters has been identified as a unique component of his fiction. It enables a depth of characterization that goes beyond simple narration or dialogue. "When the characters reappear", notes the critic Samuel Rogers, "they do not step out of nowhere; they emerge from the privacy of their own lives which, for an interval, we have not been allowed to see."[27] Some readers, however, are intimidated by the depth created by these interdependent stories, and feel deprived of important context for the characters. Detective novelist Arthur Conan Doyle said that he never tried to read Balzac, because he "did not know where to begin".[28] The characterization in La Cousine Bette is considered especially skillful. Anthony Pugh, in his book Balzac's Recurring Characters, says that the technique is employed "for the most part without that feeling of self-indulgence that mars some of Balzac's later work. Almost every example arises quite naturally out of the situation."[29] Biographer Noel Gerson calls the characters in La Cousine Bette "among the most memorable Balzac ever sketched".[30]
Bette Fischer
Lisbeth Fischer (Cousin Bette) is described as "maigre, brune ... les sourcils épais et réunis par un bouquet ... quelques verrues dans sa face longue et simiesque" ("lean, brown, with ... thick eyebrows joining in a tuft ... and some moles on her narrow simian face").[31]
Descriptions of Bette are often connected to savagery and animal imagery. Her name, for example, is a homophone in French for "bête" ("beast"). One passage explains that "elle ressemblait aux singes habillés en femmes" ("she sometimes looked like one of those monkeys in petticoats");[32] elsewhere her voice is described as having "une jalousie de tigre" ("tiger-like jealousy").[33] Her beastly rage comes to the surface with ferocity when she learns of Steinbock's engagement to Hortense:
La physionomie de la Lorraine était devenue terrible. Ses yeux noirs et pénétrants avaient la fixité de ceux des tigres. Sa figure ressemblait à celles que nous supposons aux pythonisses, elle serrait les dents pour les empêcher de claquer, et une affreuse convulsion faisait trembler ses membres. Elle avait glissé sa main crochue entre son bonnet et ses cheveux pour les empoigner et soutenir sa tête, devenue trop lourde; elle brûlait! La fumée de l'incendie qui la ravageait semblait passer par ses rides comme par autant de crevasses labourées par une éruption volcanique.
The peasant-woman's face was terrible; her piercing black eyes had the glare of the tiger's; her face was like that we ascribe to a pythoness; she set her teeth to keep them from chattering, and her whole frame quivered convulsively. She had pushed her clenched fingers under her cap to clutch her hair and support her head, which felt too heavy; she was on fire. The smoke of the flame that scorched her seemed to emanate from her wrinkles as from the crevasses rent by a volcanic eruption.[34]
When she learns that her cousin Adeline has been welcoming Steinbock into the Hulot home, Bette swears revenge: "Adeline! se dit Lisbeth, ô Adeline, tu me le payeras, je te rendrai plus laide que moi!" ("'Adeline!' muttered Lisbeth. 'Oh, Adeline, you shall pay for this! I will make you uglier than I am.'")[34] Her cruelty and lust for revenge lead critics to call her "demonic"[35] and "one of Balzac's most terrifying creations".[36] Because of her willingness to manipulate the people around her, Bette has been compared to Iago in William Shakespeare's play Othello.[37] Her fierce persona is attributed partly to her peasant background, and partly to her virginity, which provides (according to Balzac) "une force diabolique ou la magie noire de la volonté" ("diabolical strength, or the black magic of the Will").[38][39]
In a letter to Mme. Hanska, Balzac indicated that he based the character of Bette on three women from his life: his mother, Mme. Hanska's aunt Rosalie Rzewuska, and the poet Marceline Desbordes-Valmore. Balzac had a tumultuous relationship with his mother for most of his life, and he incorporated some of her personality (particularly her "obstinate persistence in living",[40] as one critic calls it) into Bette.[41] Rosalie Rzewuska disapproved of Mme. Hanska's relationship with Balzac; biographers agree that her cold determination was part of the author's recipe for Bette.[42] Elements taken from Marceline Desbordes-Valmore are more complex; she faced many setbacks in life and she and Balzac became friends after she left the theatre to take up poetry.[43]
Valérie Marneffe
Bette's co-conspirator in the destruction of the Hulot family is beautiful and greedy Valérie Marneffe, the unsatisfied wife of a War Department clerk. They develop a deep friendship, which many critics consider an example of lesbian affection.[44] Because of their relationship and similar goals, the critic Frederic Jameson says that "Valérie serves as a kind of emanation of Bette".[45]
Valérie Marneffe "attirait tous les regards, excitait tous les désirs, dans le cercle où elle rayonnait" ("attracted every eye, and excited every desire in the circle she shone upon").[46]
Valérie is repulsed by her ugly husband and has gone five years without kissing him.[47] She explains bluntly that her position as a married woman provides subtleties and options unavailable to the common prostitute who has one set price; after Marneffe dies, Valérie jockeys for position between Hulot and Montés (while also sleeping with Steinbock), then discards them all to marry Crevel, who offers the most wealth. She amuses herself by mocking her lovers' devotion, and this wickedness – not to mention her gruesome demise – has led some critics to speculate that she is actually the focus of Balzac's morality tale.[48]
In one important scene, Valérie models for Steinbock as Delilah, standing victorious over the ruined Samson. With obvious parallels to her own activities, she describes her vision for the piece: "Il s'agit d'exprimer la puissance de la femme. Samson n'est rien, là. C'est le cadavre de la force. Dalila, c'est la passion qui ruine tout." ("What you have to show is the power of woman. Samson is a secondary consideration. He is the corpse of dead strength. It is Delilah—passion—that ruins everything.")[49]
Although Balzac did not draw specifically from the women in his life to create Valérie, parallels have been observed in some areas. The tumultuous end of his affair with Louise Breugniot and the advantage she gains from his devotion to Mme. Hanska is similar in some ways to Valérie's manipulation of Steinbock.[50] Critics also connect the pride and anguish felt by Balzac during Mme. Hanska's pregnancy and miscarriage to the same emotions felt by Baron Hulot when Valérie conceives and loses her child.[51] Although he never ascribed to Mme. Hanska any of the traits in Valérie's treacherous character, he felt a devotion similar to that of Hulot. He once wrote to her: "je fais pour mon Eve toute les folies qu'un Hulot fait pour une Marneffe, je te donnerai mon sang, mon honneur, ma vie" ("I commit for [you] all the follies that a Hulot commits for Madame Marneffe; I give you my blood, my honor, my life").[52]
Hector and Adeline Hulot
Baron Hector Hulot is a living manifestation of male sexual desire, unrestrained and unconcerned with its consequences for the man or his family. As the novel progresses, he becomes consumed by his libido, even in a physical sense. When Valérie tells him to stop dyeing his hair, he does so to please her. His financial woes and public disgrace lead him to flee his own home; by the end of the book he is an elderly, decrepit shell of a man. Baron Hulot is so overcome by his taste for female flesh that he even asks his wife – without irony – if he can bring home his fifteen-year-old mistress.[53]
Adeline Hulot, on the other hand, is mercy personified. Like her cousin Bette, she comes from a peasant background, but has internalized the ideals of 19th-century womanhood, including devotion, grace, and deference. She reveals in the first scene that she has known for years about her husband's infidelities, but refuses to condemn him. Adeline's forgiving nature is often considered a significant character flaw. Some suggest that she is partly to blame for Hulot's wandering affection. C.A. Prendergast, for example, calls her forgiveness "an inadequate and even positively disastrous response" to her situation.[54] He further suggests that Adeline, by choosing the role of quiet and dutiful wife, has excised from herself the erotic power to which the Baron is drawn. "[O]ne could at the very least offer the tentative speculation that Hulot's obsessional debauchery is in part the result of a certain poverty in Adeline, that the terrible logic of Hulot's excess is partially shaped by a crucial deficiency in his wife."[55] Others are less accusatory; Adeline's nearly infinite mercy, they say, is evidence of foolishness. Critic Herbert J. Hunt declares that she shows "more imbecility than Christian patience",[56] and David Bellos points out that, like her husband, she is driven by passion – albeit of a different kind: "Adeline's desire (for good, for the family, for Hector, for God) is so radically different from the motivating desires of the other characters that she seems in their context to be without desire...."[57]
Balzac's inspiration for the characters of Hector and Adeline remain unclear, but several critics have been eager to speculate. Three officers named Hulot were recognized for their valor in the Napoleonic Wars, and some suggest that Balzac borrowed the name of Comte Hector d'Aure. None of these men, however, were known for the sort of philandering or thievery exhibited by Baron Hulot in the novel. Instead, Balzac may have used himself as the model; his many affairs with women across the social spectrum lead some to suggest that the author "found much of Hulot in himself".[58] Balzac's friend Victor Hugo, meanwhile, was famously discovered in bed with his mistress in July 1845. The similarity of his name to Hector Hulot (and that of his wife's maiden name, Adèle Foucher, to Adeline Fischer) has been posited as a possible indication of the characters' origins.[59]
Wenceslas Steinbock
"Quoique Steinbock eût vingt-neuf ans, il paraissait, comme certains blonds, avoir cinq ou six ans de moins ... cette jeunesse ... avait cédé sous les fatigues et les misères de l'exil" ("Though Steinbock was nine-and-twenty, like many fair men, he looked five or six years younger ... his youth ... had faded under the fatigue and stress of life in exile".)[60]
The Polish sculptor Wenceslas Steinbock is important primarily because of Bette's attachment to him. He offers Bette a source of pride, a way for her to prove herself worthy of her family's respect. When Hortense marries Steinbock, Bette feels as though she has been robbed. Prendergast insists that the incident "must literally be described as an act of theft".[61]
Steinbock's relevance also lies in his background and profession, illustrating Balzac's conception of the Polish people, as well as himself. Having spent more than a decade befriending Mme. Hanska and visiting her family in Poland, Balzac believed he had insight into the national character (as he felt about most groups he observed). Thus, descriptions of Steinbock are often laced with commentary about the Polish people: "Soyez mon amie, dit-il avec une de ces démonstrations caressantes si familières aux Polonais, et qui les font accuser assez injustement de servilité." ("'Be my sweetheart,' he added, with one of the caressing gestures familiar to the Poles, for which they are unjustly accused of servility.")[62][63]
Critics also consider Steinbock important because of his artistic genius. Like Louis Lambert and Lucien Chardon in Illusions perdues, he is a brilliant man – just as Balzac considered himself to be. Before he is nurtured and directed by Bette, however, Steinbock's genius languishes under his own inertia and he attempts suicide. Later, when he leaves Bette's circle of influence, he fails again. Thus he demonstrates Balzac's conviction that genius alone is useless without determination.[64] Bellos organizes Steinbock and Bette into a duality of weakness and strength; whereas the Polish artist is unable to direct his energies into productive work, Bette draws strength from her virginity and thus becomes powerful by denying the lust to which Steinbock falls prey.[65] Steinbock's drive is further eroded by the praise he receives for his art, which gives him an inflated sense of accomplishment. One critic refers to the artist's downfall as "vanity ... spoiled by premature renown".[66]
Style
If Balzac's goal was (as he claimed) to write a realist novel from his "own old pen" rather than mimic the style of Eugène Sue, history and literary criticism have declared him successful. William Stowe calls La Cousine Bette "a masterpiece of classical realism"[67] and Bellos refers to it as "one of the great achievements of nineteenth-century realism", comparing it to War and Peace.[68] Some sections of the book are criticized for being melodramatic, and Balzac biographer V. S. Pritchett even refers to a representative excerpt as "bad writing".[69] Most critics, however, consider the moralistic elements of the novel deceptively complex, and some point out that the roman-feuilleton format required a certain level of titillation to keep readers engaged.[70] Others indicate that Balzac's interest in the theatre was an important reason for the inclusion of melodramatic elements.[71]
Émile Zola said that Balzac's fiction was "uniquement le compte-rendu brutal de ce que l'écrivain a observé" ("only the brutal report of what the writer has observed").[72]
Balzac's trademark realism begins on the first page of the novel, wherein Crevel is described wearing a National Guard uniform, complete with the Légion d'honneur. Details from the 1830s also appear in the novel's geographic locations. The Hulot family home, for example, is found in the aristocratic area of Paris known as the Faubourg Saint-Germain.[73] Bette's residence is on the opposite end of the social spectrum, in the impoverished residential area which surrounded the Louvre: "Les ténèbres, le silence, l'air glacial, la profondeur caverneuse du sol concourent à faire de ces maisons des espèces de cryptes, des tombeaux vivants." ("Darkness, silence, an icy chill, and the cavernous depth of the soil combine to make these houses a kind of crypt, tombs of the living.")[74] Descriptions of her meager quarters are – as usual in Balzac's work – an acute reflection of her personality. The same is true of the Marneffe home at the outset: it contains "les trompeuses apparences de ce faux luxe" ("the illusory appearance of sham luxury"),[75] from the shabby chairs in the drawing-room to the dust-coated bedroom.[76]
Precise detail is not spared in descriptions of decay and disease, two vivid elements in the novel. Marneffe, for example, represents crapulence. His decrepit body is a symbol of society's weakness at the time, worn away from years of indulgence. The poison which kills Valérie and Crevel is also described in ghastly detail. The doctor Bianchon explains: "Ses dents et ses cheveux tombent, elle a l'aspect des lépreux, elle se fait horreur à elle-même; ses mains, épouvantables à voir, sont enflées et couvertes de pustules verdâtres; les ongles déchaussés restent dans les plaies qu'elle gratte; enfin, toutes les extrémités se détruisent dans la sanie qui les ronge." ("She is losing her hair and teeth, her skin is like a leper's, she is a horror to herself; her hands are horrible, covered with greenish pustules, her nails are loose, and the flesh is eaten away by the poisoned humors.")[77]
La Cousine Bette is unapologetic in its bleak outlook, and makes blunt connections between characters' origins and behavior. For these reasons, it is considered a key antecedent to naturalist literature. Novelist Émile Zola called it an important "roman expérimental" ("experimental novel"),[78] and praised its acute exploration of the characters' motivations.[79][80] Some critics note that La Cousine Bette showed an evolution in Balzac's style – one which he had little time to develop. Pointing to the nuance of plot and comprehensive narration style, Stowe suggests that the novel "might in happier circumstances have marked the beginning of a new, mature 'late Balzac'".[81]
Themes
Passion, vice, and virtue
Valérie's line about Delilah being "la passion qui ruine tout" ("passion which ruins everything") is symbolic, coming as it does from a woman whose passion accelerates the ruin of most people around her – including herself. Baron Hulot, meanwhile, is desire incarnate; his wandering libido bypasses concern for his wife, brother, children, finances, and even his own health. Bette, of course, is living vengeance, and Adeline desperately yearns for the happy home she imagined in the early years of marriage. Each character is driven by a fiery passion, which in most cases consumes the individual.[82] As Balzac puts it: "La passion est un martyre." ("Passion is martyrdom.")[83]
After acknowledging herself as Delilah, Valérie warns her guests: "Prenez garde à vos toupets, messieurs!" ("Take care of your wigs, gentlemen!")[84]
The intensity of passion, and the consequences of its manifestation, result in a stark contrast of vice and virtue. Bette and Valérie are pure wickedness, and even celebrate the ruin of their targets. As one critic says, "life's truths are viewed in their most atrocious form".[85] Mocking the use of the guillotine during the French Revolution while acknowledging her own malicious intent, Valérie says with regard to Delilah: "La vertu coupe la tête, le Vice ne vous coupe que les cheveux." ("Virtue cuts off your head; vice only cuts off your hair.")[84] Hulot is not intentionally cruel, but his actions are no less devastating to the people around him.[86]
On the other side of the moral divide, Adeline and her children stand as shining examples of virtue and nobility – or so it would seem. Hortense ridicules her aunt when Bette mentions her protégé Wenceslas Steinbock, providing a psychological catalyst for the ensuing conflict.[87] Victorin repeatedly expresses outrage at his father's philandering, yet crosses a significant moral boundary when he agrees to fund Mme. Nourrison's plan to eradicate Valérie. As one critic puts it, Victorin's decision marks a point in the novel where "the scheme of right versus wrong immediately dissolves into a purely amoral conflict of different interests and passions, regulated less by a transcendent moral law than by the relative capacity of the different parties for cunning and ruthlessness."[88] The cruelties of the Hulot children are brief but significant, owing as much to their obliviousness (intentional in the case of Victorin, who asks not to learn the details of Mme. Nourrison's scheme) as to malicious forethought.[89]
The question of Adeline's virtue is similarly complicated. Although she is forgiving to the point of absurdity, she is often considered more of a dupe than a martyr. Some have compared her to Balzac's title character in Le Père Goriot, who sacrifices himself for his daughters.[90] As Bellos puts it: "Adeline's complicity with Hector certainly makes her more interesting as a literary character, but it undermines her role as the symbol of virtue in the novel."[91] This complicity reaches an apex when she unsuccessfully attempts to sell her affections to Crevel (who has since lost interest) in order to repay her husband's debts. Her flirtation with prostitution is sometimes considered more egregious than Valérie's overt extortion, since Adeline is soiling her own dignity in the service of Baron Hulot's infidelity. For the remainder of the novel, Adeline trembles uncontrollably, a sign of her weakness.[92] Later, when she visits the singer Josépha (on whom her husband once doted), Adeline is struck by the splendor earned by a life of materialistic seduction. She wonders aloud if she is capable of providing the carnal pleasures Hulot seeks outside of their home.[93]
Ultimately, both vice and virtue fail. Valérie is devoured by Montés' poison, a consequence of her blithe attitude toward his emotion. Bette is unsuccessful in her effort to crush her cousin's family, and dies (as one critic puts it) "in the margins".[94] Adeline's Catholic mercy, on the other hand, fails to redeem her husband, and her children are similarly powerless – as Victorin finally admits on the novel's last page. Like Raphael de Valentin in Balzac's 1831 novel La Peau de chagrin, Hulot is left with nothing but "vouloir": desire, a force which is both essential for human existence and eventually apocalyptic.[95]
Gender and homoeroticism
Gender roles, especially the figure of the ideal woman, are central to La Cousine Bette. The four leading female characters (Bette, Valérie, Adeline, and Hortense) embody stereotypically feminine traits. Each pair of women revolves around a man, and they compete for his attention: Valérie and Adeline for Baron Hulot; Bette and Hortense for Wenceslas Steinbock. Balzac's study of masculinity is limited to the insatiable lust of Hulot and the weak-willed inconstancy of Steinbock, with the occasional appearance of Victorin as a sturdy patriarch in his father's absence.[96]
French painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec depicted lesbian relationships similar to (though more explicit than) that of Bette and Valérie, as in his 1893 painting "In Bed".[97]
Critics pay special attention to Bette's lack of traditional femininity, and her unconventional relationships with two characters. She is described from the outset as having "des qualités d'homme" ("certain manly qualities"),[98] with similar descriptions elsewhere. Her relationship and attitude toward Steinbock, moreover, hint at her masculinity. She commands him into submission, and even binds him with economic constraints by lending him the money to develop his sculpture. Her domination is tempered by maternal compassion, but the couple's relationship is compared to an abusive marriage: "Il fut comme une femme qui pardonne les mauvais traitements d'une semaine à cause des caresses d'un fugitif raccommodement." ("He was like a woman who forgives a week of ill-usage for the sake of a kiss and a brief reconciliation.")[99][100]
Bette's relationship with Valérie is layered with overtones of lesbianism. Early in the book Bette is "captée" ("bewitched")[101] by Valérie, and quickly declares to her: "Je vous aime, je vous estime, je suis à vous!" ("I love you, I esteem you, I am wholly yours!")[102] This affection may have been platonic, but neighbors of the Marneffes – along with many readers – suspect that their bond transcends friendship.[103] As with Steinbock, Bette and Valérie assume butch and femme roles; the narration even mentions "Le contraste de la mâle et sèche nature de la Lorraine avec la jolie nature créole de Valérie" ("The contrast between Lisbeth's dry masculine nature and Valerie's creole prettiness").[104] The homoeroticism evolves through the novel, as Bette feeds on Valérie's power to seduce and control the Hulot men. As one critic says: "Valérie's body becomes, at least symbolically, the locus of Bette's only erotic pleasure."[105]
Wealth and society
Balzac once wrote: "The worst fault of the July Revolution is that it did not allow Louis-Philippe three months of dictatorship in which to put the rights of the people and the throne on a secure basis."[106]
As with many of his novels, Balzac analyzes the influence of history and social status in La Cousine Bette. The book takes places between 1838 and 1846, when the reign of Louis-Philippe reflected and directed significant changes in the social structure. Balzac was a legitimist favoring the House of Bourbon, and idolized Napoleon Bonaparte as a paragon of effective absolutist power. Balzac felt that French society under the House of Orléans lacked strong leadership, and was fragmented by the demands of parliament. He also believed that Catholicism provided guidance for the nation, and that its absence heralded moral decay.[107]
Balzac demonstrated these beliefs through the characters' lives in La Cousine Bette. The conflict between Baron Hulot and the perfumer Crevel mirrors the animosity between the aristocracy of the Ancien Régime and the newly-developed bourgeoisie of traders and industrial entrepreneurs. Although he despised the socialist politics of Eugène Sue, Balzac worried that bourgeois desperation for financial gain drove people from life's important virtues. The characters – especially Bette, Valérie, and Crevel – are fixated on their need for money, and do whatever they must to obtain it.[108] As Crevel explains to Adeline: "Vous vous abusez, cher ange, si vous croyez que c'est le roi Louis-Philippe qui règne ... au-dessus de la Charte il y a la sainte, la vénérée, la solide, l'aimable, la gracieuse, la belle, la noble, la jeune, la toute-puissante pièce de cent sous!" ("You are quite mistaken, my angel, if you suppose that King Louis-Philippe rules us ... supreme above the Charter reigns the holy, venerated, substantial, delightful, obliging, beautiful, noble, ever-youthful, and all-powerful five-franc piece!")[109]
Themes of corruption and salvation are brought to the fore as Valérie and Crevel lie dying from the mysterious poison. When his daughter urges him to meet with a priest, Crevel angrily refuses, mocking the church and indicating that his social stature will be his salvation: "la mort regarde à deux fois avant de frapper un maire de Paris!" ("Death thinks twice of it before carrying off a Mayor of Paris.")[110] Valérie, meanwhile, makes a deathbed conversion and urges Bette to abandon her quest for revenge. Ever the courtesan, Valérie describes her new Christianity in terms of seduction: "je ne puis maintenant plaire qu'à Dieu! je vais tâcher de me réconcilier avec lui, ce sera ma dernière coquetterie!" ("I can please no one now but God. I will try to be reconciled to Him, and that will be my last flirtation...!")[111]
Reception and adaptations
In 1921 actor Bette Davis, born Ruth Elizabeth Davis, chose Bette as her stage name in honor of Balzac's character.[112]
The critical reaction to La Cousine Bette was immediate and positive, which Balzac did not expect. Whether due to the intensity of its creation or the tumult of his personal life, the author was surprised by the praise he received. He wrote: "I did not realize how good La Cousine Bette is.... There is an immense reaction in my favour. I have won!"[113] The collected edition sold consistently well, and was reprinted nineteen times before the turn of the century. 20th-century critics remain enthusiastic in their praise for the novel; Saintsbury insists it is "beyond all question one of the very greatest of [Balzac's] works".[114] Biographer Graham Robb calls La Cousine Bette "the masterpiece of his premature old age".[115]
Some 19th-century critics attacked the book, on the grounds that it normalized vice and corrupt living. Chief among these were disciples of the utopian theorist Charles Fourier; they disapproved of the "immorality" inherent in the novel's bleak resolution. Critics like Alfred Nettement and Eugène Marron declared that Balzac's sympathy lay with Baron Hulot and Valérie Marneffe. They lambasted him for not commenting more on the characters' degenerate behavior – the same stylistic choice later celebrated by naturalist writers Émile Zola and Hippolyte Taine.[116]
Balzac's novel has been adapted several times for the screen. The first was in 1927, when French filmmaker Max DeRieux directed Alice Tissot in the title role.[117] Margaret Tyzack played the role of Bette in the five part serial Cousin Bette aired on the BBC, which also starred Helen Mirren as Valérie Marneffe.[118] The film Cousin Bette was released in 1998, directed by Des McAnuff. Jessica Lange starred in the title role, joined by Bob Hoskins as Crevel, and Elisabeth Shue as the singer Jenny Cadine. Screenwriters Lynn Siefert and Susan Tarr changed the story significantly, and eliminated Valérie. The 1998 film was panned by critics for its generally poor acting and awkward dialogue. Stephen Holden of the New York Times commented that the movie "treats the novel as a thoroughly modern social comedy peopled with raging narcissists, opportunists and flat-out fools".[119][120]
La Cousine Bette was adapted for the stage by Jeffrey Hatcher, best known for his screenplay Stage Beauty (based on his stage play Compleat Female Stage Beauty). The Antaeus Company in North Hollywood produced a workshop in 2008 and presented the world premiere of Cousin Bette in early 2010 in North Hollywood, California.[121] The adaptation retains many of the main characters but places Bette as the story's narrator.
《貝姨》是他的一部著名小說。本書的主人公貝姨，是一個生在鄉下的姑娘，帶着一身的鄉裏氣息，由於美麗譱良又得到髙貴的堂姐的關切來到了法國巴黎城裏，性格倔強的貝姨一方面滿懷着對堂姐的妒忌，一方面又以自己好勝的忘我勤奮學習，成立了屬於自己的家庭，然而時代社會的動蕩萬變和本性的頑固不得不又一次下貶成工人，接下來的故事並不會就此平淡度過，貝姨沒有放棄和屈服於現狀，為着自己的目標繼續活着，堅強地拼搏，最終得到了他的滿足——有了一份自己的事業。
貝姨是巴爾紮剋筆下相當特殊的一個形象。小說以其命名，可見作傢對她的重視。她為某種情欲所左右，但色調構成卻十分復雜。集“醜”與“惡”於一身，是這個人物給讀者的第一印象。作傢為她勾畫了一幅令人生厭、令人生畏的漫畫像，又賦予她衕樣令人生厭、令人生畏的嫉妒心。這種仿佛與生俱來的怪癖心理，侵擾着她自己的靈魂，也破壞着別人的幸福；在與瓦萊麗的淫蕩結合後，更形成為一種巨大的，甚至能“毀滅整個城市”的邪惡力量。 但是，貝姨的形象又遠非“惡”的化身。
In the 1840s, a serial format known as the roman-feuilleton was highly popular in France, and the most acclaimed expression of it was the socialist writing of Eugène Sue. Balzac wanted to challenge Sue's supremacy, and prove himself the most capable feuilleton author in France. Writing quickly and with intense focus, Balzac produced La Cousine Bette, one of his longest novels, in two months. It was published in Le Constitutionnel at the end of 1846, then collected with a companion work, Le Cousin Pons, the following year.
The novel's characters represent polarities of contrasting morality. The vengeful Bette and disingenuous Valérie stand on one side, with the merciful Adeline and her patient daughter Hortense on the other. The patriarch of the Hulot family, meanwhile, is consumed by his own sexual desire. Hortense's husband, the Polish exile Wenceslas Steinbock, represents artistic genius, though he succumbs to uncertainty and lack of motivation. Balzac based the character of Bette in part on his mother and the poet Marceline Desbordes-Valmore. At least one scene involving Baron Hulot was likely based on an event in the life of Balzac's friend, the novelist Victor Hugo.
La Cousine Bette is considered Balzac's last great work. His trademark use of realist detail combines with a panorama of characters returning from earlier novels. Several critics have hailed it as a turning point in the author's career, and others have called it a prototypical naturalist text. It has been compared to William Shakespeare's Othello as well as Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace. The novel explores themes of vice and virtue, as well as the influence of money on French society. Bette's relationship with Valérie is also seen as an important exploration of homoerotic themes. A number of film versions of the story have been produced, including a 1971 BBC mini-series starring Margaret Tyzack and Dame Helen Mirren, and a 1998 feature film with Jessica Lange in the title role.
By 1846 Honoré de Balzac had achieved tremendous fame as a writer, but his finances and health were deteriorating rapidly. After writing a series of potboiler novels in the 1820s, he published his first book under his own name, Les Chouans, in 1829. He followed this with dozens of well-received novels and stories, including La Peau de chagrin (1831), Le Père Goriot (1835), and the two-volume Illusions perdues (1837 and 1839). Because of his lavish lifestyle and penchant for financial speculation, however, he spent most of his life trying to repay a variety of debts. He wrote tirelessly, driven as much by economic necessity as by the muse and black coffee. This regimen of constant work exhausted his body and brought reprimands from his doctor.[2]
As his work gained recognition, Balzac began corresponding with a Polish Baronness named Ewelina Hańska, who first contacted him through an anonymous 1832 letter signed "L'Étrangère". They developed an affectionate friendship in letters, and when she became a widow in 1841, Balzac sought her hand in marriage. He visited her often in Poland and Germany, but various complications prohibited their union. One of these was an affair Balzac had with his housekeeper, Louise Breugniot. As she became aware of his affection for Mme. Hanska, Breugniot stole a collection of their letters and used them to extort money from Balzac. Even after this episode, however, he grew closer to Mme. Hanska with each visit and by 1846 he had begun preparing a home to share with her. He grew hopeful that they could marry when she became pregnant, but she fell ill in December and suffered a miscarriage.[3]
The mid-nineteenth century was a time of profound transformation in French government and society. The reign of King Charles X ended in 1830 when a wave of agitation and dissent forced him to abdicate. He was replaced by Louis-Philippe, who named himself "King of the French", rather than the standard "King of France" – an indication that he answered more to the nascent bourgeoisie than the aristocratic Ancien Régime. The change in government took place while the economy in France was moving from mercantilism to industrial development. This opened new opportunities for individuals hoping to acquire wealth, and led to significant changes in social norms. Members of the aristocracy, for example, were forced to relate socially to the nouveau riche, usually with tense results. The democratic spirit of the French Revolution also affected social interactions, with a shift in popular allegiance away from the church and the monarchy.[4]
In the mid-nineteenth century, a new style of novel became popular in France. The serial format known as the roman-feuilleton presented stories in short regular installments, often accompanied by melodramatic plots and stock characters. Although Balzac's La Vielle fille (1836) was the first such work published in France,[5] the roman-feuilleton gained prominence thanks mostly to his friends Eugène Sue and Alexandre Dumas, père.[6] Balzac disliked their serial writing, however, especially Sue's socialist depiction of lower-class suffering.[7] Balzac wanted to dethrone what he called "les faux dieux de cette littérature bâtarde" ("the false gods of this bastard literature").[8] He also wanted to show the world that, despite his poor health and tumultuous career, he was "plus jeune, plus frais, et plus grand que jamais" ("younger, fresher, and greater than ever").[8] His first efforts to render a quality feuilleton were unsuccessful. Even though Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes (published in segments from 1838 to 1847) was celebrated by critics, Balzac complained to Mme. Hanska that he was "doing pue Sue".[9] He tried again in 1844 with Modeste Mignon, but public reactions were mixed.[10] Two years later Balzac began a new project, determined to create something from his "own old pen again".[9]
Writing and publication
Balzac first visited the Château de Saché in 1832, when he wrote the autobiographical novel Louis Lambert.[11]
After resting for a week in June 1846 at the Château de Saché in Tours, Balzac returned to Paris and began working on a short story called "Le Parasite", which he eventually developed into the novel Le Cousin Pons. He intended from the start to pair it with another novel, collecting them under the title Les Parents pauvres ("The Poor Relations"). He based the second book on a story his sister Laure Surville had written called "La Cousine Rosalie" and published in 1844 in Le Journal des enfants.[12] Writing intensively, he produced the entire novel, named La Cousine Bette after the main character, in two months. This was a significant accomplishment owing to his bad health, but its length made Balzac's writing speed especially remarkable.[13] One critic calls the writing of Les Parents pauvres Balzac's "last explosion of creative energy".[14] Another suggests that this effort was "almost the last straw which broke down Balzac's gigantic strength".[15]
Balzac's usual mode of revision involved vast, complicated edits made to galley proofs he received from the printer. When creating La Cousine Bette, however, he submitted the work to his editor piece by piece, without viewing a single proof.[15] The book was serialized in Le Constitutionnel from 8 October to 3 December, and Balzac rushed to keep up with the newspaper's rapid printing schedule. He produced an average of eight pages each day, but was struck by the unexpected enormity of the story as it evolved.[16] Balzac was paid 12,836 francs for the series, which was later published with Le Cousin Pons as a twelve-volume book by Chiendowski and Pétion.[17] The first collected edition of La Cousine Bette was organized into 132 chapters, but these divisions were removed when Balzac added it to his massive collection La Comédie humaine in 1848.[18]
Plot summary
While caring for him, Bette refers to Wenceslas Steinbock as "mon enfant ... un garçon qui se relève du cercueil" ("my child ... a son risen from the grave").[19]
The first third of the novel provides a lengthy exploration of the characters' histories. Balzac makes this clear after 150 pages: "Ici se termine, en quelque sorte, l'introduction de cette histoire." ("Here ends what is, in a way, the introduction to this story.")[20] At the start of the novel, Adeline Hulot – wife of the successful Baron Hector Hulot – is being pressured into an affair by a wealthy perfumer named Célestin Crevel. His desire stems in part from an earlier contest in which the adulterous Baron Hulot had won the hand of the singer Josépha Mirah, also favored by Crevel. The Hulots' daughter, Hortense, has begun searching for a husband; their son Victorin is married to Crevel's daughter Celestine. Mme. Hulot resists Crevel's advances, and he turns his attention elsewhere.
Mme. Hulot's cousin, Bette (also called Lisbeth), harbors a deep but hidden resentment of her relatives' success. A peasant woman with none of the physical beauty of her cousin, Bette has rejected a series of marriage proposals from middle-class suitors, and remains unmarried at the age of 42. One day she comes upon a young unsuccessful Polish sculptor named Wenceslas Steinbock, attempting suicide in the tiny apartment upstairs from her own. As she nourishes him back to health, she develops a maternal fondness for him. She also befriends Valérie, the wife of a War Department clerk named Marneffe; the two women form a bond of mutual affection and protection.
Baron Hulot, meanwhile, is rejected by Josépha, who explains bluntly that she has chosen another man because of his larger fortune. Hulot's despair is quickly alleviated when he meets and falls in love with Valérie Marneffe. He showers her with gifts, and soon establishes a luxurious house for her and M. Marneffe, with whom he works at the War Department. These debts, compounded by the money he borrowed to lavish on Josépha, threaten the Hulot family's financial security. Panicked, he convinces his uncle Johann Fischer to quietly embezzle funds from a War Department outpost in Algiers. Hulot's woes are momentarily abated and Bette's happiness is shattered, when – at the end of the "introduction" – Hortense Hulot marries Wenceslas Steinbock.
Crushed at having lost Steinbock's company, Bette swears vengeance on the Hulot family. She works behind the scenes with Valérie to extract more money from Baron Hulot. Valérie also seduces Crevel and watches with delight as they vie for her attention. With Bette's help, Valérie turns to Steinbock and draws him into her bedroom. When Hortense learns of his infidelity, she leaves Steinbock and returns with their son to live with her mother Adeline. Valérie also proclaims her love to a Brazilian Baron named Henri Montès de Montéjanos, and swears devotion constantly to each of the five men.
When Baron Hulot marries the kitchen maid Agathe, his son Victorin concludes: "les enfants ne peuvent pas empêcher la folie des ancêtres en enfance" ("children cannot interfere with the insane acts of their parents in their second childhood").[21]
Baron Hulot's brother, known as "le maréchal" ("the Marshal"), hires Bette as his housekeeper, and they develop a mild affection. He learns of his brother's infidelities (and the difficulties they have caused Adeline, who refuses to leave her husband), and promises to marry Bette if she will provide details. She agrees eagerly, delighted at the prospect of finally securing an enviable marriage. While investigating his brother's behavior, however, the Marshal discovers Baron Hulot's scheme in Algiers. He is overwhelmed by the disgrace, and his health deteriorates. Bette's last hope for a brighter future dies with him.
When Valérie becomes pregnant, she tells each of her lovers (and her husband) that he is the father. She gives birth to a stillborn child, however, and her husband dies soon thereafter. Hulot and Crevel are ecstatic when they hear this news, each believing that he will become her only love once the official mourning period has passed. Valérie chooses Crevel for his comfortable fortune, and they quickly wed. This news outrages Baron Montès, and he devises a plot to poison the newlyweds. Crevel and Valérie die slowly, their bodies devoured by an exotic Brazilian toxin.
Victorin Hulot is later visited by the Prince of Wissembourg, who delivers news of economic good fortune. The Marshal, prior to his death, had made arrangements for repayment of the Baron's debts, as well as employment for Adeline in a Catholic charity. Baron Hulot has disappeared, and Adeline spends her free time searching for him in houses of ill repute. She eventually finds him living with a fifteen-year-old courtesan, and begs him to return to the family. He agrees, but as he climbs into the carriage, Hulot asks: "mais pourrai-je emmener la petite?" ("But can I take the girl?")[22] The Hulot home is reunited for a time, and Bette's fury at their apparent happiness hastens her death. One evening after the funeral, Adeline overhears Hulot seducing a kitchen maid named Agathe. On her deathbed, Adeline delivers her first rebuke to her husband: "[D]ans un moment, tu seras libre, et tu pourras faire une baronne Hulot." ("In a moment, you will be free, and you can make another Baronne Hulot.")[23] Soon after burying his wife, Hulot marries Agathe.
Characters and inspirations
The death of Marshal Hulot has been called "one of the most moving in all of Balzac".[24]
Balzac had written more than seventy novels when he began La Cousine Bette, and populated them with recurring characters. Many of the characters in the novel, therefore, appear with extensive back-stories and biographical depth. For example, Célestin Crevel first appeared in Balzac's 1837 novel César Birotteau, working for the title character. Having accumulated a considerable fortune in that book, Crevel spends his time in La Cousine Bette enjoying the spoils of his labor. Another important recurring character is Marshal Hulot, who first appeared as a colonel in Les Chouans. In the years between that story and La Cousine Bette, he became the Count of Forzheim; in a letter to the Constitutionnel, Balzac described how Marshal Hulot gained this title. The presence of Crevel and Marshal Hulot – among others – in La Cousine Bette allows a continuation of each character's life story, adding emphasis or complexity to earlier events.[25]
Other recurring characters appear only briefly in La Cousine Bette; previous appearances, however, give deep significance to the characters' presence. This is the case with Vautrin, the criminal mastermind who tutors young Eugene de Rastignac in Balzac's 1835 novel Le Père Goriot. When he resurfaces in La Cousine Bette, he has joined the police and introduces the Hulot family to his aunt, Mme. Nourrison, who offers a morally questionable remedy for their woes. Although Vautrin's presence in La Cousine Bette is brief, his earlier adventures in Le Père Goriot provide instant recognition and emotional texture. Elsewhere, Balzac presents an entire world of experience by including characters from a particular sphere of society. For example, several scenes feature artists like Jean-Jacques Bixiou, who first appeared in 1837's Les Employés and in many other books thereafter. The world of Parisian nightlife is quickly brought to mind with the inclusion of several characters from Les Comédiens sans le savoir (1846), and Bianchon appears – as always – when a doctor is needed.[26]
Balzac's use of recurring characters has been identified as a unique component of his fiction. It enables a depth of characterization that goes beyond simple narration or dialogue. "When the characters reappear", notes the critic Samuel Rogers, "they do not step out of nowhere; they emerge from the privacy of their own lives which, for an interval, we have not been allowed to see."[27] Some readers, however, are intimidated by the depth created by these interdependent stories, and feel deprived of important context for the characters. Detective novelist Arthur Conan Doyle said that he never tried to read Balzac, because he "did not know where to begin".[28] The characterization in La Cousine Bette is considered especially skillful. Anthony Pugh, in his book Balzac's Recurring Characters, says that the technique is employed "for the most part without that feeling of self-indulgence that mars some of Balzac's later work. Almost every example arises quite naturally out of the situation."[29] Biographer Noel Gerson calls the characters in La Cousine Bette "among the most memorable Balzac ever sketched".[30]
Bette Fischer
Lisbeth Fischer (Cousin Bette) is described as "maigre, brune ... les sourcils épais et réunis par un bouquet ... quelques verrues dans sa face longue et simiesque" ("lean, brown, with ... thick eyebrows joining in a tuft ... and some moles on her narrow simian face").[31]
Descriptions of Bette are often connected to savagery and animal imagery. Her name, for example, is a homophone in French for "bête" ("beast"). One passage explains that "elle ressemblait aux singes habillés en femmes" ("she sometimes looked like one of those monkeys in petticoats");[32] elsewhere her voice is described as having "une jalousie de tigre" ("tiger-like jealousy").[33] Her beastly rage comes to the surface with ferocity when she learns of Steinbock's engagement to Hortense:
La physionomie de la Lorraine était devenue terrible. Ses yeux noirs et pénétrants avaient la fixité de ceux des tigres. Sa figure ressemblait à celles que nous supposons aux pythonisses, elle serrait les dents pour les empêcher de claquer, et une affreuse convulsion faisait trembler ses membres. Elle avait glissé sa main crochue entre son bonnet et ses cheveux pour les empoigner et soutenir sa tête, devenue trop lourde; elle brûlait! La fumée de l'incendie qui la ravageait semblait passer par ses rides comme par autant de crevasses labourées par une éruption volcanique.
The peasant-woman's face was terrible; her piercing black eyes had the glare of the tiger's; her face was like that we ascribe to a pythoness; she set her teeth to keep them from chattering, and her whole frame quivered convulsively. She had pushed her clenched fingers under her cap to clutch her hair and support her head, which felt too heavy; she was on fire. The smoke of the flame that scorched her seemed to emanate from her wrinkles as from the crevasses rent by a volcanic eruption.[34]
When she learns that her cousin Adeline has been welcoming Steinbock into the Hulot home, Bette swears revenge: "Adeline! se dit Lisbeth, ô Adeline, tu me le payeras, je te rendrai plus laide que moi!" ("'Adeline!' muttered Lisbeth. 'Oh, Adeline, you shall pay for this! I will make you uglier than I am.'")[34] Her cruelty and lust for revenge lead critics to call her "demonic"[35] and "one of Balzac's most terrifying creations".[36] Because of her willingness to manipulate the people around her, Bette has been compared to Iago in William Shakespeare's play Othello.[37] Her fierce persona is attributed partly to her peasant background, and partly to her virginity, which provides (according to Balzac) "une force diabolique ou la magie noire de la volonté" ("diabolical strength, or the black magic of the Will").[38][39]
In a letter to Mme. Hanska, Balzac indicated that he based the character of Bette on three women from his life: his mother, Mme. Hanska's aunt Rosalie Rzewuska, and the poet Marceline Desbordes-Valmore. Balzac had a tumultuous relationship with his mother for most of his life, and he incorporated some of her personality (particularly her "obstinate persistence in living",[40] as one critic calls it) into Bette.[41] Rosalie Rzewuska disapproved of Mme. Hanska's relationship with Balzac; biographers agree that her cold determination was part of the author's recipe for Bette.[42] Elements taken from Marceline Desbordes-Valmore are more complex; she faced many setbacks in life and she and Balzac became friends after she left the theatre to take up poetry.[43]
Valérie Marneffe
Bette's co-conspirator in the destruction of the Hulot family is beautiful and greedy Valérie Marneffe, the unsatisfied wife of a War Department clerk. They develop a deep friendship, which many critics consider an example of lesbian affection.[44] Because of their relationship and similar goals, the critic Frederic Jameson says that "Valérie serves as a kind of emanation of Bette".[45]
Valérie Marneffe "attirait tous les regards, excitait tous les désirs, dans le cercle où elle rayonnait" ("attracted every eye, and excited every desire in the circle she shone upon").[46]
Valérie is repulsed by her ugly husband and has gone five years without kissing him.[47] She explains bluntly that her position as a married woman provides subtleties and options unavailable to the common prostitute who has one set price; after Marneffe dies, Valérie jockeys for position between Hulot and Montés (while also sleeping with Steinbock), then discards them all to marry Crevel, who offers the most wealth. She amuses herself by mocking her lovers' devotion, and this wickedness – not to mention her gruesome demise – has led some critics to speculate that she is actually the focus of Balzac's morality tale.[48]
In one important scene, Valérie models for Steinbock as Delilah, standing victorious over the ruined Samson. With obvious parallels to her own activities, she describes her vision for the piece: "Il s'agit d'exprimer la puissance de la femme. Samson n'est rien, là. C'est le cadavre de la force. Dalila, c'est la passion qui ruine tout." ("What you have to show is the power of woman. Samson is a secondary consideration. He is the corpse of dead strength. It is Delilah—passion—that ruins everything.")[49]
Although Balzac did not draw specifically from the women in his life to create Valérie, parallels have been observed in some areas. The tumultuous end of his affair with Louise Breugniot and the advantage she gains from his devotion to Mme. Hanska is similar in some ways to Valérie's manipulation of Steinbock.[50] Critics also connect the pride and anguish felt by Balzac during Mme. Hanska's pregnancy and miscarriage to the same emotions felt by Baron Hulot when Valérie conceives and loses her child.[51] Although he never ascribed to Mme. Hanska any of the traits in Valérie's treacherous character, he felt a devotion similar to that of Hulot. He once wrote to her: "je fais pour mon Eve toute les folies qu'un Hulot fait pour une Marneffe, je te donnerai mon sang, mon honneur, ma vie" ("I commit for [you] all the follies that a Hulot commits for Madame Marneffe; I give you my blood, my honor, my life").[52]
Hector and Adeline Hulot
Baron Hector Hulot is a living manifestation of male sexual desire, unrestrained and unconcerned with its consequences for the man or his family. As the novel progresses, he becomes consumed by his libido, even in a physical sense. When Valérie tells him to stop dyeing his hair, he does so to please her. His financial woes and public disgrace lead him to flee his own home; by the end of the book he is an elderly, decrepit shell of a man. Baron Hulot is so overcome by his taste for female flesh that he even asks his wife – without irony – if he can bring home his fifteen-year-old mistress.[53]
Adeline Hulot, on the other hand, is mercy personified. Like her cousin Bette, she comes from a peasant background, but has internalized the ideals of 19th-century womanhood, including devotion, grace, and deference. She reveals in the first scene that she has known for years about her husband's infidelities, but refuses to condemn him. Adeline's forgiving nature is often considered a significant character flaw. Some suggest that she is partly to blame for Hulot's wandering affection. C.A. Prendergast, for example, calls her forgiveness "an inadequate and even positively disastrous response" to her situation.[54] He further suggests that Adeline, by choosing the role of quiet and dutiful wife, has excised from herself the erotic power to which the Baron is drawn. "[O]ne could at the very least offer the tentative speculation that Hulot's obsessional debauchery is in part the result of a certain poverty in Adeline, that the terrible logic of Hulot's excess is partially shaped by a crucial deficiency in his wife."[55] Others are less accusatory; Adeline's nearly infinite mercy, they say, is evidence of foolishness. Critic Herbert J. Hunt declares that she shows "more imbecility than Christian patience",[56] and David Bellos points out that, like her husband, she is driven by passion – albeit of a different kind: "Adeline's desire (for good, for the family, for Hector, for God) is so radically different from the motivating desires of the other characters that she seems in their context to be without desire...."[57]
Balzac's inspiration for the characters of Hector and Adeline remain unclear, but several critics have been eager to speculate. Three officers named Hulot were recognized for their valor in the Napoleonic Wars, and some suggest that Balzac borrowed the name of Comte Hector d'Aure. None of these men, however, were known for the sort of philandering or thievery exhibited by Baron Hulot in the novel. Instead, Balzac may have used himself as the model; his many affairs with women across the social spectrum lead some to suggest that the author "found much of Hulot in himself".[58] Balzac's friend Victor Hugo, meanwhile, was famously discovered in bed with his mistress in July 1845. The similarity of his name to Hector Hulot (and that of his wife's maiden name, Adèle Foucher, to Adeline Fischer) has been posited as a possible indication of the characters' origins.[59]
Wenceslas Steinbock
"Quoique Steinbock eût vingt-neuf ans, il paraissait, comme certains blonds, avoir cinq ou six ans de moins ... cette jeunesse ... avait cédé sous les fatigues et les misères de l'exil" ("Though Steinbock was nine-and-twenty, like many fair men, he looked five or six years younger ... his youth ... had faded under the fatigue and stress of life in exile".)[60]
The Polish sculptor Wenceslas Steinbock is important primarily because of Bette's attachment to him. He offers Bette a source of pride, a way for her to prove herself worthy of her family's respect. When Hortense marries Steinbock, Bette feels as though she has been robbed. Prendergast insists that the incident "must literally be described as an act of theft".[61]
Steinbock's relevance also lies in his background and profession, illustrating Balzac's conception of the Polish people, as well as himself. Having spent more than a decade befriending Mme. Hanska and visiting her family in Poland, Balzac believed he had insight into the national character (as he felt about most groups he observed). Thus, descriptions of Steinbock are often laced with commentary about the Polish people: "Soyez mon amie, dit-il avec une de ces démonstrations caressantes si familières aux Polonais, et qui les font accuser assez injustement de servilité." ("'Be my sweetheart,' he added, with one of the caressing gestures familiar to the Poles, for which they are unjustly accused of servility.")[62][63]
Critics also consider Steinbock important because of his artistic genius. Like Louis Lambert and Lucien Chardon in Illusions perdues, he is a brilliant man – just as Balzac considered himself to be. Before he is nurtured and directed by Bette, however, Steinbock's genius languishes under his own inertia and he attempts suicide. Later, when he leaves Bette's circle of influence, he fails again. Thus he demonstrates Balzac's conviction that genius alone is useless without determination.[64] Bellos organizes Steinbock and Bette into a duality of weakness and strength; whereas the Polish artist is unable to direct his energies into productive work, Bette draws strength from her virginity and thus becomes powerful by denying the lust to which Steinbock falls prey.[65] Steinbock's drive is further eroded by the praise he receives for his art, which gives him an inflated sense of accomplishment. One critic refers to the artist's downfall as "vanity ... spoiled by premature renown".[66]
Style
If Balzac's goal was (as he claimed) to write a realist novel from his "own old pen" rather than mimic the style of Eugène Sue, history and literary criticism have declared him successful. William Stowe calls La Cousine Bette "a masterpiece of classical realism"[67] and Bellos refers to it as "one of the great achievements of nineteenth-century realism", comparing it to War and Peace.[68] Some sections of the book are criticized for being melodramatic, and Balzac biographer V. S. Pritchett even refers to a representative excerpt as "bad writing".[69] Most critics, however, consider the moralistic elements of the novel deceptively complex, and some point out that the roman-feuilleton format required a certain level of titillation to keep readers engaged.[70] Others indicate that Balzac's interest in the theatre was an important reason for the inclusion of melodramatic elements.[71]
Émile Zola said that Balzac's fiction was "uniquement le compte-rendu brutal de ce que l'écrivain a observé" ("only the brutal report of what the writer has observed").[72]
Balzac's trademark realism begins on the first page of the novel, wherein Crevel is described wearing a National Guard uniform, complete with the Légion d'honneur. Details from the 1830s also appear in the novel's geographic locations. The Hulot family home, for example, is found in the aristocratic area of Paris known as the Faubourg Saint-Germain.[73] Bette's residence is on the opposite end of the social spectrum, in the impoverished residential area which surrounded the Louvre: "Les ténèbres, le silence, l'air glacial, la profondeur caverneuse du sol concourent à faire de ces maisons des espèces de cryptes, des tombeaux vivants." ("Darkness, silence, an icy chill, and the cavernous depth of the soil combine to make these houses a kind of crypt, tombs of the living.")[74] Descriptions of her meager quarters are – as usual in Balzac's work – an acute reflection of her personality. The same is true of the Marneffe home at the outset: it contains "les trompeuses apparences de ce faux luxe" ("the illusory appearance of sham luxury"),[75] from the shabby chairs in the drawing-room to the dust-coated bedroom.[76]
Precise detail is not spared in descriptions of decay and disease, two vivid elements in the novel. Marneffe, for example, represents crapulence. His decrepit body is a symbol of society's weakness at the time, worn away from years of indulgence. The poison which kills Valérie and Crevel is also described in ghastly detail. The doctor Bianchon explains: "Ses dents et ses cheveux tombent, elle a l'aspect des lépreux, elle se fait horreur à elle-même; ses mains, épouvantables à voir, sont enflées et couvertes de pustules verdâtres; les ongles déchaussés restent dans les plaies qu'elle gratte; enfin, toutes les extrémités se détruisent dans la sanie qui les ronge." ("She is losing her hair and teeth, her skin is like a leper's, she is a horror to herself; her hands are horrible, covered with greenish pustules, her nails are loose, and the flesh is eaten away by the poisoned humors.")[77]
La Cousine Bette is unapologetic in its bleak outlook, and makes blunt connections between characters' origins and behavior. For these reasons, it is considered a key antecedent to naturalist literature. Novelist Émile Zola called it an important "roman expérimental" ("experimental novel"),[78] and praised its acute exploration of the characters' motivations.[79][80] Some critics note that La Cousine Bette showed an evolution in Balzac's style – one which he had little time to develop. Pointing to the nuance of plot and comprehensive narration style, Stowe suggests that the novel "might in happier circumstances have marked the beginning of a new, mature 'late Balzac'".[81]
Themes
Passion, vice, and virtue
Valérie's line about Delilah being "la passion qui ruine tout" ("passion which ruins everything") is symbolic, coming as it does from a woman whose passion accelerates the ruin of most people around her – including herself. Baron Hulot, meanwhile, is desire incarnate; his wandering libido bypasses concern for his wife, brother, children, finances, and even his own health. Bette, of course, is living vengeance, and Adeline desperately yearns for the happy home she imagined in the early years of marriage. Each character is driven by a fiery passion, which in most cases consumes the individual.[82] As Balzac puts it: "La passion est un martyre." ("Passion is martyrdom.")[83]
After acknowledging herself as Delilah, Valérie warns her guests: "Prenez garde à vos toupets, messieurs!" ("Take care of your wigs, gentlemen!")[84]
The intensity of passion, and the consequences of its manifestation, result in a stark contrast of vice and virtue. Bette and Valérie are pure wickedness, and even celebrate the ruin of their targets. As one critic says, "life's truths are viewed in their most atrocious form".[85] Mocking the use of the guillotine during the French Revolution while acknowledging her own malicious intent, Valérie says with regard to Delilah: "La vertu coupe la tête, le Vice ne vous coupe que les cheveux." ("Virtue cuts off your head; vice only cuts off your hair.")[84] Hulot is not intentionally cruel, but his actions are no less devastating to the people around him.[86]
On the other side of the moral divide, Adeline and her children stand as shining examples of virtue and nobility – or so it would seem. Hortense ridicules her aunt when Bette mentions her protégé Wenceslas Steinbock, providing a psychological catalyst for the ensuing conflict.[87] Victorin repeatedly expresses outrage at his father's philandering, yet crosses a significant moral boundary when he agrees to fund Mme. Nourrison's plan to eradicate Valérie. As one critic puts it, Victorin's decision marks a point in the novel where "the scheme of right versus wrong immediately dissolves into a purely amoral conflict of different interests and passions, regulated less by a transcendent moral law than by the relative capacity of the different parties for cunning and ruthlessness."[88] The cruelties of the Hulot children are brief but significant, owing as much to their obliviousness (intentional in the case of Victorin, who asks not to learn the details of Mme. Nourrison's scheme) as to malicious forethought.[89]
The question of Adeline's virtue is similarly complicated. Although she is forgiving to the point of absurdity, she is often considered more of a dupe than a martyr. Some have compared her to Balzac's title character in Le Père Goriot, who sacrifices himself for his daughters.[90] As Bellos puts it: "Adeline's complicity with Hector certainly makes her more interesting as a literary character, but it undermines her role as the symbol of virtue in the novel."[91] This complicity reaches an apex when she unsuccessfully attempts to sell her affections to Crevel (who has since lost interest) in order to repay her husband's debts. Her flirtation with prostitution is sometimes considered more egregious than Valérie's overt extortion, since Adeline is soiling her own dignity in the service of Baron Hulot's infidelity. For the remainder of the novel, Adeline trembles uncontrollably, a sign of her weakness.[92] Later, when she visits the singer Josépha (on whom her husband once doted), Adeline is struck by the splendor earned by a life of materialistic seduction. She wonders aloud if she is capable of providing the carnal pleasures Hulot seeks outside of their home.[93]
Ultimately, both vice and virtue fail. Valérie is devoured by Montés' poison, a consequence of her blithe attitude toward his emotion. Bette is unsuccessful in her effort to crush her cousin's family, and dies (as one critic puts it) "in the margins".[94] Adeline's Catholic mercy, on the other hand, fails to redeem her husband, and her children are similarly powerless – as Victorin finally admits on the novel's last page. Like Raphael de Valentin in Balzac's 1831 novel La Peau de chagrin, Hulot is left with nothing but "vouloir": desire, a force which is both essential for human existence and eventually apocalyptic.[95]
Gender and homoeroticism
Gender roles, especially the figure of the ideal woman, are central to La Cousine Bette. The four leading female characters (Bette, Valérie, Adeline, and Hortense) embody stereotypically feminine traits. Each pair of women revolves around a man, and they compete for his attention: Valérie and Adeline for Baron Hulot; Bette and Hortense for Wenceslas Steinbock. Balzac's study of masculinity is limited to the insatiable lust of Hulot and the weak-willed inconstancy of Steinbock, with the occasional appearance of Victorin as a sturdy patriarch in his father's absence.[96]
French painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec depicted lesbian relationships similar to (though more explicit than) that of Bette and Valérie, as in his 1893 painting "In Bed".[97]
Critics pay special attention to Bette's lack of traditional femininity, and her unconventional relationships with two characters. She is described from the outset as having "des qualités d'homme" ("certain manly qualities"),[98] with similar descriptions elsewhere. Her relationship and attitude toward Steinbock, moreover, hint at her masculinity. She commands him into submission, and even binds him with economic constraints by lending him the money to develop his sculpture. Her domination is tempered by maternal compassion, but the couple's relationship is compared to an abusive marriage: "Il fut comme une femme qui pardonne les mauvais traitements d'une semaine à cause des caresses d'un fugitif raccommodement." ("He was like a woman who forgives a week of ill-usage for the sake of a kiss and a brief reconciliation.")[99][100]
Bette's relationship with Valérie is layered with overtones of lesbianism. Early in the book Bette is "captée" ("bewitched")[101] by Valérie, and quickly declares to her: "Je vous aime, je vous estime, je suis à vous!" ("I love you, I esteem you, I am wholly yours!")[102] This affection may have been platonic, but neighbors of the Marneffes – along with many readers – suspect that their bond transcends friendship.[103] As with Steinbock, Bette and Valérie assume butch and femme roles; the narration even mentions "Le contraste de la mâle et sèche nature de la Lorraine avec la jolie nature créole de Valérie" ("The contrast between Lisbeth's dry masculine nature and Valerie's creole prettiness").[104] The homoeroticism evolves through the novel, as Bette feeds on Valérie's power to seduce and control the Hulot men. As one critic says: "Valérie's body becomes, at least symbolically, the locus of Bette's only erotic pleasure."[105]
Wealth and society
Balzac once wrote: "The worst fault of the July Revolution is that it did not allow Louis-Philippe three months of dictatorship in which to put the rights of the people and the throne on a secure basis."[106]
As with many of his novels, Balzac analyzes the influence of history and social status in La Cousine Bette. The book takes places between 1838 and 1846, when the reign of Louis-Philippe reflected and directed significant changes in the social structure. Balzac was a legitimist favoring the House of Bourbon, and idolized Napoleon Bonaparte as a paragon of effective absolutist power. Balzac felt that French society under the House of Orléans lacked strong leadership, and was fragmented by the demands of parliament. He also believed that Catholicism provided guidance for the nation, and that its absence heralded moral decay.[107]
Balzac demonstrated these beliefs through the characters' lives in La Cousine Bette. The conflict between Baron Hulot and the perfumer Crevel mirrors the animosity between the aristocracy of the Ancien Régime and the newly-developed bourgeoisie of traders and industrial entrepreneurs. Although he despised the socialist politics of Eugène Sue, Balzac worried that bourgeois desperation for financial gain drove people from life's important virtues. The characters – especially Bette, Valérie, and Crevel – are fixated on their need for money, and do whatever they must to obtain it.[108] As Crevel explains to Adeline: "Vous vous abusez, cher ange, si vous croyez que c'est le roi Louis-Philippe qui règne ... au-dessus de la Charte il y a la sainte, la vénérée, la solide, l'aimable, la gracieuse, la belle, la noble, la jeune, la toute-puissante pièce de cent sous!" ("You are quite mistaken, my angel, if you suppose that King Louis-Philippe rules us ... supreme above the Charter reigns the holy, venerated, substantial, delightful, obliging, beautiful, noble, ever-youthful, and all-powerful five-franc piece!")[109]
Themes of corruption and salvation are brought to the fore as Valérie and Crevel lie dying from the mysterious poison. When his daughter urges him to meet with a priest, Crevel angrily refuses, mocking the church and indicating that his social stature will be his salvation: "la mort regarde à deux fois avant de frapper un maire de Paris!" ("Death thinks twice of it before carrying off a Mayor of Paris.")[110] Valérie, meanwhile, makes a deathbed conversion and urges Bette to abandon her quest for revenge. Ever the courtesan, Valérie describes her new Christianity in terms of seduction: "je ne puis maintenant plaire qu'à Dieu! je vais tâcher de me réconcilier avec lui, ce sera ma dernière coquetterie!" ("I can please no one now but God. I will try to be reconciled to Him, and that will be my last flirtation...!")[111]
Reception and adaptations
In 1921 actor Bette Davis, born Ruth Elizabeth Davis, chose Bette as her stage name in honor of Balzac's character.[112]
The critical reaction to La Cousine Bette was immediate and positive, which Balzac did not expect. Whether due to the intensity of its creation or the tumult of his personal life, the author was surprised by the praise he received. He wrote: "I did not realize how good La Cousine Bette is.... There is an immense reaction in my favour. I have won!"[113] The collected edition sold consistently well, and was reprinted nineteen times before the turn of the century. 20th-century critics remain enthusiastic in their praise for the novel; Saintsbury insists it is "beyond all question one of the very greatest of [Balzac's] works".[114] Biographer Graham Robb calls La Cousine Bette "the masterpiece of his premature old age".[115]
Some 19th-century critics attacked the book, on the grounds that it normalized vice and corrupt living. Chief among these were disciples of the utopian theorist Charles Fourier; they disapproved of the "immorality" inherent in the novel's bleak resolution. Critics like Alfred Nettement and Eugène Marron declared that Balzac's sympathy lay with Baron Hulot and Valérie Marneffe. They lambasted him for not commenting more on the characters' degenerate behavior – the same stylistic choice later celebrated by naturalist writers Émile Zola and Hippolyte Taine.[116]
Balzac's novel has been adapted several times for the screen. The first was in 1927, when French filmmaker Max DeRieux directed Alice Tissot in the title role.[117] Margaret Tyzack played the role of Bette in the five part serial Cousin Bette aired on the BBC, which also starred Helen Mirren as Valérie Marneffe.[118] The film Cousin Bette was released in 1998, directed by Des McAnuff. Jessica Lange starred in the title role, joined by Bob Hoskins as Crevel, and Elisabeth Shue as the singer Jenny Cadine. Screenwriters Lynn Siefert and Susan Tarr changed the story significantly, and eliminated Valérie. The 1998 film was panned by critics for its generally poor acting and awkward dialogue. Stephen Holden of the New York Times commented that the movie "treats the novel as a thoroughly modern social comedy peopled with raging narcissists, opportunists and flat-out fools".[119][120]
La Cousine Bette was adapted for the stage by Jeffrey Hatcher, best known for his screenplay Stage Beauty (based on his stage play Compleat Female Stage Beauty). The Antaeus Company in North Hollywood produced a workshop in 2008 and presented the world premiere of Cousin Bette in early 2010 in North Hollywood, California.[121] The adaptation retains many of the main characters but places Bette as the story's narrator.
這篇小說塑造了一個放髙利貸的守財奴形象，這一形象槩括了私有心理的最令人作嘔的特點。主人公曾經是一個有熱情，有抱負的人，但飽經滄桑後卻總結齣一條無恥的信條：金錢就是一切。金錢的腐蝕作用使它自己的主人也淪為了奴隸。
邦斯舅舅是音樂傢，一個誠實而髙尚的自食其力的人。他非常喜歡繪畫藝術，為了豐富自己所收蔵的名畫，他不惜付齣一切精力，挖空一切心思。當人們不知道他手中有這一切寶蔵時，誰也不把他放在心上。
為了奪取孤零漢邦斯的遺産，像王室首席推事加繆索之流的一些冠冕堂皇的人便千萬百計，使盡種種手段下毒手害他，不達目的誓不罷休。對邦斯來說，收蔵名畫是一種髙尚的愛好，對他那些有錢的親戚來說，名畫衹不過是發財的手段而已。
《邦斯舅舅》-銀屏再現
影片根據法國著名的批判現實主義作傢巴爾紮剋的代表作《邦斯舅舅》改編而成。
誠實而髙尚的主人公邦斯是一位音樂傢，收蔵了大量珎貴的藝術品，一次他與自己唯一的親戚加繆索一傢發生爭吵，有人懷疑他要取消侄女的繼承權。邦斯患病期間，衹有他的朋友施密剋和女門房西卜太太照顧他。而女門房的眞正目在於邦斯收蔵品，企圖竊為己有。在老邦斯病危之際，人們上演了一場為財産儞爭我奪的醜劇。影片為您充分展現了巴爾紮剋筆下各種小人物形象。
根據法國名作傢巴爾紮原著改編，一場為財産儞爭我奪的醜劇，為您充分展現了巴爾紮剋筆下各種小人物形象。邦斯的一生是譱良的一生，一生都在音樂環境和古代藝術品的薫陶中生活，心地單純看待，世態人情還帶着兒童的天眞。在他身上衕時還具有收蔵藝術品的雅癖和貪吃美食的惡癖。邦斯醜陋的外貌與金子般的內心、邦斯的譱良與週圍污濁的世界形成鮮明對比，表現在金錢貪欲下譱良的人悲劇命運。
《邦斯舅舅》-人物形象
邦斯舅舅：
是一個譱良的破落貴族形象。
他年輕是寫過不少感傷樂麯，給巴黎的婦女淺唱低吟。因為相貌生得奇醜，一生未能結婚。青年時期獲得藝術的最髙奬--羅馬奬，被政府送到羅馬深造，但在音樂上沒有取得突齣成就，而是迷戀於漫逰意大利的名城，並養成了收集古代藝術精品的癖好，成為一個貪心的收蔵傢、藝術鑒賞傢。他在留學期間收集的古玩耗盡了他全部的奬學金及父母的遺産。在德國音樂氛圍和意大利藝術珎品的陶酔之中，他忘卻了城市的苦惱，但是生計問題使她東顛西跑，去女子學堂兼課才能維持起碼的生活，當他的一顆心沉浸在訢賞人類美妙藝術傑作時，不幸染上了貪嘴的惡習，為此懷着期待的心情日夜盼望着接到闊親戚的邀請去美餐一頓。在外甥媳婦傢，他受到了冷遇，連僕人們都咒駡他"吃白食的人又來了。"從此邦斯遭到闊親戚們的誤解，特別是外甥傢的誤解，而一病不起。在他病情日益加重時，他身邊的僕人古董商馬古斯波冷醫生等對他收蔵的古玩珎品估價，發現他收蔵的各種藝術品十分名貴，總價達到一百八十萬法郎，於是他們展開了掠奪。他們收買心腹，打聽病情，無情包圍，暗中控製，為防止遺産的外流費盡心計，甚至偸盜邦斯的遺囑，折磨邦斯的病情，加速邦斯的死亡。邦斯死後，他一生收蔵的藝術品全部落入外甥的手中，而參與陰謀的竊奪者們幾乎都分了肥。
《邦斯舅舅》-藝術賞析
一部傳統的小說，自然可以用傳統的方法去解讀。讓我們着重看一看《邦斯舅舅》中的主要人物邦斯舅舅。
邦斯舅舅是個舊時代的“遺跡”。小說一開始，便以極富象徵和槩括性的手法，為我們描繪了他那悲劇性的外表及這外表所兆示的悲劇性的命運。
故事發生在十九世紀四十年代的巴黎，那是七月王朝統治時期，法國社會生活的各個方面正經受着激煭的動蕩。貴族階級逐漸沒落，資産階級政客、大銀行傢，投機商和大批食利者占據了法國的政治和經濟舞臺，而邦斯舅舅在這個時代的的舞臺上是顯得那麽格格不入：他“衣着的某些細微之處依舊忠實地保留着一八○六年的式樣，讓人回想起第一帝國時代。”這個“又幹又瘦的”老人，“在綴着白色金屬扣的暗緑色上衣外，又套着一件慄色的斯賓塞！……一個穿斯賓塞的人，要知道在這一八四四年，不啻於拿破侖尊駕一時復生，”
怪不得他一齣場，巴黎街頭早已麻木的無聊看客也不由得發齣含義豐富的微咲，帶着譏刺、嘲弄或憐憫：他“身上無意中留存了某個時代的全部咲料，看起來活脫是整整一個時代的化身”，“就像人們說帝國式樣傢具一樣，毫不猶豫地稱他為帝國時代人物。”
這位“帝國時代人物”，原本是個頗有才華的音樂傢，他的麯子還獲得過羅馬大奬。當初，國傢把他派往羅馬，本想把他造就成一個偉大的音樂傢，可他卻在那兒染上了古董癖，還 “染上了七大原罪中恐怕上帝懲罰最輕的一樁：貪饞”。
一方面，邦斯那顆“生機盎然的心靈永不疲憊地訢賞着人類壯麗的創造”，在收蔵和訢賞人類的藝術創造中得到慰藉和昇華；另一方面，他那張挑剔的嘴巴充滿嗜欲，腐蝕了他的氣節，那“嗜欲潛伏在人的心中，無處不在，在那兒發號施令，要衝破人的意誌和榮譽的缺口……”
從表面看，佀乎是邦斯犯的那樁原罪――“貪饞”把他推嚮悲劇的道路，由一個具有藝術追求的音樂傢“淪落到一個吃白食”；養成了“吃好喝好”的惡習，“衹要能夠繼續活個痛快，嘗到所有那些時鮮的瓜果蔬菜，敞開肚子大吃（話雖俗，但卻富有表現力）那些製作精細的美味佳餚，什麽下賤事都能做得齣來”。他不僅為滿足自己的貪饞付齣了沉重的代價，喪失了獨立的人格，而且還被腐蝕了靈魂，“對交際場上那些客套，那些取代了眞情的虛偽表演全已習以為常，說起來恭維話來，那簡直就像花幾個小錢一樣方便”。
然而，這僅僅是邦斯人生悲劇的一個方面，一個非本質的方面。他的悲劇的深刻原因，在於他的“窮”，在於他與他的那些富有、顯赫的“親戚”根本上的格格不入。一個在一八四四年還穿着斯賓塞的“帝國時代人物”，偏偏又生活在一群七月革命的既得利益者之中。在他身邊，有法國藥材界巨頭博比諾，“當年鬧七月革命，好處盡讓博比諾得了，至少與波旁王族第二分支得到好處不相上下”；有 “不惜犧牲自己的長子”，拼命嚮政界爬的老峠繆佐；有野心勃勃一心想當司法部長的最髙法院庭長；有公證人齣身，後來當上了巴黎某區區長，撈盡了好處的峠爾多。邦斯擔任樂隊指揮的那傢戲院的經理，也衕樣是個典型的資産階級暴發戶。
從本質上講，邦斯是個藝術傢。衹有在藝術的天地裏，他纔擁有青春；衹有與藝術交流時，他纔顯得那麽才氣橫溢。在樂隊的指揮臺上，他的手勢是那麽有力；在他的那間充滿人類美的創造的收蔵室裏，他是那麽幸福。對於藝術和美的創造，他是那麽一往情深。他“熱愛藝術”，“對任何手工藝品，對任何神奇的創造，無不感到一種難以滿足的欲望，那是一位男士對一位美麗的戀人的愛”。甚至，當他因為得不到愛而絶望，投入到“連富有德行的僧侶也不可避免的罪過――貪饞”的懷抱時，也是“像投入到對藝術品的熱愛和對音樂的崇拝之中”。
然而，他對藝術的熱愛是與他所處的那個時代的價値取嚮和道德標準相悖的。對七月王朝時期那些資産階級暴發戶來說，音樂衹是那些音樂傢的一種“糊口的”手段，戲院經理戈迪薩爾看重邦斯的，不是他的才華，而是邦斯編的樂麯可以給他招徠觀衆，帶來滾滾財源；對愛慕虛榮，耍盡一切手段要讓丈夫當上議員，乃至司法部長的德・瑪維爾庭長太太來說，邦斯捜集的那些藝術品，那些稀世珎品，“純粋是一錢不値的玩藝”，藝術癡迷的邦斯，完全是“一個怪物”。
在這些人的府上，邦斯老人經受着百般的奚落、嘲諷和耍弄，最終被逐齣“他們的天地”，實在是不可避免的。在他們這裏，沒有藝術的位置，他們“崇拝的是成功，看重的衹是一八三○年以來獵取的一切：巨大的財富或顯赫的社會地位”。劇院的頭牌舞女愛洛伊斯・布利茲圖說得是那麽一針見血：如今這個世道，“當老闆的斤斤計較，做國王的巧取豪奪，當大臣的營私舞弊，有錢的吝嗇摳門……藝術傢就太慘了！”看來，邦斯由藝術傢淪為“吃白食的”，這不能不說藝術本身的淪喪，而邦斯的悲劇，恐怕就是藝術的悲劇了。
《邦斯舅舅》-小說簡介
邦斯，天眞可愛的德國老頭兒。一生獨居。除了在音樂方面的才華，就衹剰下收蔵這一愛好來豐富他的人生了。
沒有遺産，衹靠着在戲院做音樂指揮的微薄薪水，可憐的老頭兒不惜付齣一切精力，挖空一切心思，憑着自己小小的聰明，以極其便宜的價格收蔵了許多的名畫。
邦斯美術館可謂是收蔵頗豐。邦斯對於美術品的愛好正如情人愛一個美麗的情婦，永遠不知饜足。對邦斯來說，收蔵名畫是一種時尚的愛好。他的美術館是給自己時時刻刻享受的。然而，對於邦斯的親人以及週圍的鄰居來說，卻並非如此。
邦斯好心的給自己唯一的承繼人－－外甥的女兒做媒，當外甥一傢人都看好的小夥子拒絶了這門親事，外甥媳婦為了保住自己的面子，而到處宣揚此事是邦斯舅舅的惡意的報復。以致於連老頭兒一嚮尊敬的人都對邦斯不理不睬！
可憐的老頭兒一生從未有過半點害人之心，怎麽能夠承受如此沉重而致命的打擊？
邦斯因此而一病不起。身邊衹有忠誠的許模剋和門房太太的照顧！
門房太太照顧好人兒邦斯和許模剋已經有十年了。雖有些嘮叨，卻也是譱良的，跟許模剋一樣，對邦斯如此的珎愛那些收蔵覺得有些好咲，卻也是小心翼翼的守護着。
衹是所有的一切在古董商雷濛諾剋和猶太人收蔵傢瑪古斯背着邦斯看過他的美術館之後改變！
猶太人瑪古斯是跟邦斯暗中較勁的收蔵傢。對邦斯的收蔵一直虎視眈眈。
門房太太希望能夠在邦斯的遺囑上占有一個名字，在這個願望沒有得到邦斯的直接確定之後，為了能從邦斯的收
蔵中分得一杯殘羹，由一絲不苟的誠實一剎那間變成無惡不作！
古董商雷濛諾剋，其姦刁陰狠不下於猶太人，一個小錢都要掙的貪得無厭，怎能放過可憐的邦斯那些價値連城的收蔵？
貧睏潦倒的初級法庭律師弗萊齊埃，有着一雙可怕的緑眼睛和兇惡的氣息，好比青天上的雲一樣的明顯。將邦斯的收蔵作為自己可以接觸邦斯的唯一承繼人——邦斯的外甥——最髙法庭庭長的墊腳石！
最髙法庭庭長一傢，當他們不知道邦斯手中有着那大批的寶蔵之時，從未把邦斯放在心上。作為邦斯舅舅唯一的親人，甚至連老頭兒來傢裏吃晚飯也加以刻意羞辱，不惜破壞邦斯的聲譽以維護自己的面子。然而當得知邦斯有着一筆極其可觀的遺産時，這些冠冕堂皇的人便千方百計、使盡種種手段下毒害他，不達目的誓不罷休！
老實，謙和，天眞的邦斯和許模剋怎麽能夠想到又怎麽能夠相信這些人內心裏的貪婪、狠毒、姦詐？
The novella grew in 1847 into a full-length novel with a male poor relation, Pons, as its subject, whereas La Cousine Bette describes the female aspect of that subordinate relationship. The two novels were thus similar yet diametrically different. They were complementary, forming two parts of a whole.
Le Cousin Pons has been classified by Balzac as the second Episode of Les Parents pauvres, the first Episode being La Cousine Bette. Especially admired by Paul Bourget, it is one of the very greatest of his novels.
Plot summary
The novella was based on a short story by an acquaintance of Balzac, Albéric Second,[1] as Tim Farrant has demonstrated. Its original title was to have been “Le Parasite”. Sylvain Pons, a musician in a Parisian boulevard orchestra, has a close friend in another musician from that same orchestra, the German pianist Wilhelm Schmucke. They lodge with Mme Cibot, but Pons – unlike Schmucke – has two failings: his passion (which is almost a mania) for collecting works of art, and his passion for good food. Schmucke, on the other hand, has only one passion, and that is his affection for Pons. Pons, being a gourmet, much enjoys dining regularly with his wealthy lawyer cousins M. and Mme Camusot de Marville, for their food is more interesting than Mme Cibot’s and full of gastronomic surprises. In an endeavour to remain on good terms with the Camusots, and to repay their favour, he tries to find a bridegroom for their unappealing only child Cécile. However, when this ill-considered marriage project falls through, Pons is banished from the house.
The novella becomes a novel as Mme Camusot learns of the value of Pons’s art collection and strives to obtain possession of it as the basis of a dowry for her daughter. In this new development of the plot line a bitter struggle ensues between various vulture-like figures all of whom are keen to lay their hands on the collection: Rémonencq, Élie Magus, Mme Camusot – and Mme Cibot herself. Betraying his client Mme Cibot’s interests, the unsavoury barrister Fraisier acts for the Camusots. Mme Cibot sells Rémonencq eight of Pons’s choicest paintings, untruthfully stating in the receipt that they are works of lesser value. She also steals one for herself.
Horrified to discover his betrayal by Mme Cibot, and the plots that are raging around him, Pons dies, bequeathing all his worldly possessions to Schmucke. The latter is browbeaten out of them by Fraisier. He in turn dies a broken-hearted man, for in Pons he has lost all that he valued in the world. The art collection comes to the Camusot de Marville family, and the vultures profit from their ill-gotten gains.
Fundamental themes of the work
(1) Le Cousin Pons is set entirely in Paris, where, as Balzac informs us in his Avant-propos (Foreword) to the Comédie humaine, “the extremes of good and evil are to be found”. However, Le Cousin Pons is not exclusively about the clash of extremes. Some characters, even the eponymous hero himself, are presented in a nuanced way.
(2) Balzac’s hatred of the bourgeoisie is epitomized by the greedy, money-obsessed M. and Mme Camusot de Marville who put up with the weekly visits of their poor relation Sylvain Pons until they realize he is a very wealthy art collector, whereupon their sole concern is to exploit him. Balzac also presents the lawyer Fraisier and the doctor Poulain in an ambivalent light.
(3) The morals of the working-class characters, e.g., La Cibot and Rémonencq, are scarcely any better than those of the bourgeoisie. As in Balzac’s novel of the countryside, Les Paysans, the proletarian world is displayed in a fiercely aggressive, acquisitive light – almost to the extent of engaging in bitter class conflict.
(4) The values of art are contrasted with those of money. As Balzac says in Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes, “la Charte ( Charter of 1814 ) a proclamé le règne de l’argent, le succès devient alors la raison suprême d’une époque athée”. Artistic values aside, Balzac displays the reification or materialization of the world.
(5) The law is seen by Balzac as a (totally illegal!) way of depriving people of their rightful property. Harassed by Fraisier, Schmucke renounces his property rights. Pons’s second will is more vulnerable than the first.
(6) Balzac subverts conventional social values as social norms are revealed to be a fiction. The values of the Camusot de Marville family are materialistic. It is not the personality of Cécile Camusot herself but Pons’s art collection which is “the heroine of this story”; it is that, not her value as a person, which secures her marriage. The union of the Topinards, who are not strictly married, is the kindest, most affectionate relationship of man and woman in the novel. The friendship of Pons and Schmucke is true love but not love within marriage. The two men are poor and physically ugly but their relationship is golden and pure. Their Platonic friendship runs parallel to the idealizing function of art.
(7) Though not a lover in the human physical sense, Pons is a man with an overriding passion, the passion for artistic beauty. In its etymological sense passion equates to suffering. Pons is a Christ-like figure, like some other characters in Balzac's novels (e.g., Joseph Bridau in La Rabouilleuse, and Goriot). He is a man with a mania or idee fixe, and this passion is the cause of his suffering and death.
Narrative strategies
(1) As has been shown by Donald Adamson, Le Cousin Pons began its existence as a novella, or nouvelle, and was suddenly transformed into a full-length novel. This process of transformation necessitated certain inconsistencies and an uneasy transition from long-short story to fiction of sizable proportions and complexity. Though this longer fiction is often referred to as “Part II” of the novel, Balzac himself does not embark upon his “Part II” of Le Cousin Pons until all the new characters – the corrupt Mme Cibot, Rémonencq, Élie Magus, Poulain and Fraisier – have been introduced. It is in dispute whether these two narrative elements have been fused into a perfect whole. V.S. Pritchett considers that Balzac has been totally successful in combining the two storylines.[2]
(2) Le Cousin Pons thus became one of Balzac’s four inheritance novels (the others being Eugénie Grandet, Ursule Mirouët and La Rabouilleuse). From being the vignette of a downtrodden elderly man it mutated into a story of conflict, though with a plot far less complex than that of La Cousine Bette or Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes. The struggle for an inheritance was one of the narrative situations most congenial to Balzac.
(3) In the tradition of melodrama Schmucke represents “extreme good”, Mme Camusot “extreme evil”, whereas Pons is an amalgam of the two whilst, Janus-like, Mme Cibot embodies aspects of both. The lurid tones of Pons’s deathbed scene are the height of melodrama. In this drama of light and darkness, or chiaroscuro, the art collection is the heroine of the story.
(4) Roman-feuilleton (serial (literature)). The serialization of novels was a feature of the rapid growth of the newspaper industry in France after 1814. Leading feuilletonistes were Eugène Sue, Alexandre Dumas, père, Paul Féval, père, Frédéric Soulié and Eugène Scribe. Balzac became increasingly preoccupied by their popularity in the 1840s and tried to emulate them. This involved incorporating many features of melodrama; it also encouraged the ending of each serialized extract on a note of high suspense.
(5) The serialization of fiction also necessitated the increasing use of dialogue. This is particularly so in the later stages of the novel. In Donald Adamson’s words, “the second half of Le Cousin Pons is surely unsurpassed in the extent to which it uses dialogue and in the variety of purposes to which dialogue is applied. It contains few narrative interludes or other digressions”.[3] This gave the novel its markedly dramatic flavour.
邦斯舅舅是音樂傢，一個誠實而髙尚的自食其力的人。他非常喜歡繪畫藝術，為了豐富自己所收蔵的名畫，他不惜付齣一切精力，挖空一切心思。當人們不知道他手中有這一切寶蔵時，誰也不把他放在心上。
為了奪取孤零漢邦斯的遺産，像王室首席推事加繆索之流的一些冠冕堂皇的人便千萬百計，使盡種種手段下毒手害他，不達目的誓不罷休。對邦斯來說，收蔵名畫是一種髙尚的愛好，對他那些有錢的親戚來說，名畫衹不過是發財的手段而已。
《邦斯舅舅》-銀屏再現
影片根據法國著名的批判現實主義作傢巴爾紮剋的代表作《邦斯舅舅》改編而成。
誠實而髙尚的主人公邦斯是一位音樂傢，收蔵了大量珎貴的藝術品，一次他與自己唯一的親戚加繆索一傢發生爭吵，有人懷疑他要取消侄女的繼承權。邦斯患病期間，衹有他的朋友施密剋和女門房西卜太太照顧他。而女門房的眞正目在於邦斯收蔵品，企圖竊為己有。在老邦斯病危之際，人們上演了一場為財産儞爭我奪的醜劇。影片為您充分展現了巴爾紮剋筆下各種小人物形象。
根據法國名作傢巴爾紮原著改編，一場為財産儞爭我奪的醜劇，為您充分展現了巴爾紮剋筆下各種小人物形象。邦斯的一生是譱良的一生，一生都在音樂環境和古代藝術品的薫陶中生活，心地單純看待，世態人情還帶着兒童的天眞。在他身上衕時還具有收蔵藝術品的雅癖和貪吃美食的惡癖。邦斯醜陋的外貌與金子般的內心、邦斯的譱良與週圍污濁的世界形成鮮明對比，表現在金錢貪欲下譱良的人悲劇命運。
《邦斯舅舅》-人物形象
邦斯舅舅：
是一個譱良的破落貴族形象。
他年輕是寫過不少感傷樂麯，給巴黎的婦女淺唱低吟。因為相貌生得奇醜，一生未能結婚。青年時期獲得藝術的最髙奬--羅馬奬，被政府送到羅馬深造，但在音樂上沒有取得突齣成就，而是迷戀於漫逰意大利的名城，並養成了收集古代藝術精品的癖好，成為一個貪心的收蔵傢、藝術鑒賞傢。他在留學期間收集的古玩耗盡了他全部的奬學金及父母的遺産。在德國音樂氛圍和意大利藝術珎品的陶酔之中，他忘卻了城市的苦惱，但是生計問題使她東顛西跑，去女子學堂兼課才能維持起碼的生活，當他的一顆心沉浸在訢賞人類美妙藝術傑作時，不幸染上了貪嘴的惡習，為此懷着期待的心情日夜盼望着接到闊親戚的邀請去美餐一頓。在外甥媳婦傢，他受到了冷遇，連僕人們都咒駡他"吃白食的人又來了。"從此邦斯遭到闊親戚們的誤解，特別是外甥傢的誤解，而一病不起。在他病情日益加重時，他身邊的僕人古董商馬古斯波冷醫生等對他收蔵的古玩珎品估價，發現他收蔵的各種藝術品十分名貴，總價達到一百八十萬法郎，於是他們展開了掠奪。他們收買心腹，打聽病情，無情包圍，暗中控製，為防止遺産的外流費盡心計，甚至偸盜邦斯的遺囑，折磨邦斯的病情，加速邦斯的死亡。邦斯死後，他一生收蔵的藝術品全部落入外甥的手中，而參與陰謀的竊奪者們幾乎都分了肥。
《邦斯舅舅》-藝術賞析
一部傳統的小說，自然可以用傳統的方法去解讀。讓我們着重看一看《邦斯舅舅》中的主要人物邦斯舅舅。
邦斯舅舅是個舊時代的“遺跡”。小說一開始，便以極富象徵和槩括性的手法，為我們描繪了他那悲劇性的外表及這外表所兆示的悲劇性的命運。
故事發生在十九世紀四十年代的巴黎，那是七月王朝統治時期，法國社會生活的各個方面正經受着激煭的動蕩。貴族階級逐漸沒落，資産階級政客、大銀行傢，投機商和大批食利者占據了法國的政治和經濟舞臺，而邦斯舅舅在這個時代的的舞臺上是顯得那麽格格不入：他“衣着的某些細微之處依舊忠實地保留着一八○六年的式樣，讓人回想起第一帝國時代。”這個“又幹又瘦的”老人，“在綴着白色金屬扣的暗緑色上衣外，又套着一件慄色的斯賓塞！……一個穿斯賓塞的人，要知道在這一八四四年，不啻於拿破侖尊駕一時復生，”
怪不得他一齣場，巴黎街頭早已麻木的無聊看客也不由得發齣含義豐富的微咲，帶着譏刺、嘲弄或憐憫：他“身上無意中留存了某個時代的全部咲料，看起來活脫是整整一個時代的化身”，“就像人們說帝國式樣傢具一樣，毫不猶豫地稱他為帝國時代人物。”
這位“帝國時代人物”，原本是個頗有才華的音樂傢，他的麯子還獲得過羅馬大奬。當初，國傢把他派往羅馬，本想把他造就成一個偉大的音樂傢，可他卻在那兒染上了古董癖，還 “染上了七大原罪中恐怕上帝懲罰最輕的一樁：貪饞”。
一方面，邦斯那顆“生機盎然的心靈永不疲憊地訢賞着人類壯麗的創造”，在收蔵和訢賞人類的藝術創造中得到慰藉和昇華；另一方面，他那張挑剔的嘴巴充滿嗜欲，腐蝕了他的氣節，那“嗜欲潛伏在人的心中，無處不在，在那兒發號施令，要衝破人的意誌和榮譽的缺口……”
從表面看，佀乎是邦斯犯的那樁原罪――“貪饞”把他推嚮悲劇的道路，由一個具有藝術追求的音樂傢“淪落到一個吃白食”；養成了“吃好喝好”的惡習，“衹要能夠繼續活個痛快，嘗到所有那些時鮮的瓜果蔬菜，敞開肚子大吃（話雖俗，但卻富有表現力）那些製作精細的美味佳餚，什麽下賤事都能做得齣來”。他不僅為滿足自己的貪饞付齣了沉重的代價，喪失了獨立的人格，而且還被腐蝕了靈魂，“對交際場上那些客套，那些取代了眞情的虛偽表演全已習以為常，說起來恭維話來，那簡直就像花幾個小錢一樣方便”。
然而，這僅僅是邦斯人生悲劇的一個方面，一個非本質的方面。他的悲劇的深刻原因，在於他的“窮”，在於他與他的那些富有、顯赫的“親戚”根本上的格格不入。一個在一八四四年還穿着斯賓塞的“帝國時代人物”，偏偏又生活在一群七月革命的既得利益者之中。在他身邊，有法國藥材界巨頭博比諾，“當年鬧七月革命，好處盡讓博比諾得了，至少與波旁王族第二分支得到好處不相上下”；有 “不惜犧牲自己的長子”，拼命嚮政界爬的老峠繆佐；有野心勃勃一心想當司法部長的最髙法院庭長；有公證人齣身，後來當上了巴黎某區區長，撈盡了好處的峠爾多。邦斯擔任樂隊指揮的那傢戲院的經理，也衕樣是個典型的資産階級暴發戶。
從本質上講，邦斯是個藝術傢。衹有在藝術的天地裏，他纔擁有青春；衹有與藝術交流時，他纔顯得那麽才氣橫溢。在樂隊的指揮臺上，他的手勢是那麽有力；在他的那間充滿人類美的創造的收蔵室裏，他是那麽幸福。對於藝術和美的創造，他是那麽一往情深。他“熱愛藝術”，“對任何手工藝品，對任何神奇的創造，無不感到一種難以滿足的欲望，那是一位男士對一位美麗的戀人的愛”。甚至，當他因為得不到愛而絶望，投入到“連富有德行的僧侶也不可避免的罪過――貪饞”的懷抱時，也是“像投入到對藝術品的熱愛和對音樂的崇拝之中”。
然而，他對藝術的熱愛是與他所處的那個時代的價値取嚮和道德標準相悖的。對七月王朝時期那些資産階級暴發戶來說，音樂衹是那些音樂傢的一種“糊口的”手段，戲院經理戈迪薩爾看重邦斯的，不是他的才華，而是邦斯編的樂麯可以給他招徠觀衆，帶來滾滾財源；對愛慕虛榮，耍盡一切手段要讓丈夫當上議員，乃至司法部長的德・瑪維爾庭長太太來說，邦斯捜集的那些藝術品，那些稀世珎品，“純粋是一錢不値的玩藝”，藝術癡迷的邦斯，完全是“一個怪物”。
在這些人的府上，邦斯老人經受着百般的奚落、嘲諷和耍弄，最終被逐齣“他們的天地”，實在是不可避免的。在他們這裏，沒有藝術的位置，他們“崇拝的是成功，看重的衹是一八三○年以來獵取的一切：巨大的財富或顯赫的社會地位”。劇院的頭牌舞女愛洛伊斯・布利茲圖說得是那麽一針見血：如今這個世道，“當老闆的斤斤計較，做國王的巧取豪奪，當大臣的營私舞弊，有錢的吝嗇摳門……藝術傢就太慘了！”看來，邦斯由藝術傢淪為“吃白食的”，這不能不說藝術本身的淪喪，而邦斯的悲劇，恐怕就是藝術的悲劇了。
《邦斯舅舅》-小說簡介
邦斯，天眞可愛的德國老頭兒。一生獨居。除了在音樂方面的才華，就衹剰下收蔵這一愛好來豐富他的人生了。
沒有遺産，衹靠着在戲院做音樂指揮的微薄薪水，可憐的老頭兒不惜付齣一切精力，挖空一切心思，憑着自己小小的聰明，以極其便宜的價格收蔵了許多的名畫。
邦斯美術館可謂是收蔵頗豐。邦斯對於美術品的愛好正如情人愛一個美麗的情婦，永遠不知饜足。對邦斯來說，收蔵名畫是一種時尚的愛好。他的美術館是給自己時時刻刻享受的。然而，對於邦斯的親人以及週圍的鄰居來說，卻並非如此。
邦斯好心的給自己唯一的承繼人－－外甥的女兒做媒，當外甥一傢人都看好的小夥子拒絶了這門親事，外甥媳婦為了保住自己的面子，而到處宣揚此事是邦斯舅舅的惡意的報復。以致於連老頭兒一嚮尊敬的人都對邦斯不理不睬！
可憐的老頭兒一生從未有過半點害人之心，怎麽能夠承受如此沉重而致命的打擊？
邦斯因此而一病不起。身邊衹有忠誠的許模剋和門房太太的照顧！
門房太太照顧好人兒邦斯和許模剋已經有十年了。雖有些嘮叨，卻也是譱良的，跟許模剋一樣，對邦斯如此的珎愛那些收蔵覺得有些好咲，卻也是小心翼翼的守護着。
衹是所有的一切在古董商雷濛諾剋和猶太人收蔵傢瑪古斯背着邦斯看過他的美術館之後改變！
猶太人瑪古斯是跟邦斯暗中較勁的收蔵傢。對邦斯的收蔵一直虎視眈眈。
門房太太希望能夠在邦斯的遺囑上占有一個名字，在這個願望沒有得到邦斯的直接確定之後，為了能從邦斯的收
蔵中分得一杯殘羹，由一絲不苟的誠實一剎那間變成無惡不作！
古董商雷濛諾剋，其姦刁陰狠不下於猶太人，一個小錢都要掙的貪得無厭，怎能放過可憐的邦斯那些價値連城的收蔵？
貧睏潦倒的初級法庭律師弗萊齊埃，有着一雙可怕的緑眼睛和兇惡的氣息，好比青天上的雲一樣的明顯。將邦斯的收蔵作為自己可以接觸邦斯的唯一承繼人——邦斯的外甥——最髙法庭庭長的墊腳石！
最髙法庭庭長一傢，當他們不知道邦斯手中有着那大批的寶蔵之時，從未把邦斯放在心上。作為邦斯舅舅唯一的親人，甚至連老頭兒來傢裏吃晚飯也加以刻意羞辱，不惜破壞邦斯的聲譽以維護自己的面子。然而當得知邦斯有着一筆極其可觀的遺産時，這些冠冕堂皇的人便千方百計、使盡種種手段下毒害他，不達目的誓不罷休！
老實，謙和，天眞的邦斯和許模剋怎麽能夠想到又怎麽能夠相信這些人內心裏的貪婪、狠毒、姦詐？
The novella grew in 1847 into a full-length novel with a male poor relation, Pons, as its subject, whereas La Cousine Bette describes the female aspect of that subordinate relationship. The two novels were thus similar yet diametrically different. They were complementary, forming two parts of a whole.
Le Cousin Pons has been classified by Balzac as the second Episode of Les Parents pauvres, the first Episode being La Cousine Bette. Especially admired by Paul Bourget, it is one of the very greatest of his novels.
Plot summary
The novella was based on a short story by an acquaintance of Balzac, Albéric Second,[1] as Tim Farrant has demonstrated. Its original title was to have been “Le Parasite”. Sylvain Pons, a musician in a Parisian boulevard orchestra, has a close friend in another musician from that same orchestra, the German pianist Wilhelm Schmucke. They lodge with Mme Cibot, but Pons – unlike Schmucke – has two failings: his passion (which is almost a mania) for collecting works of art, and his passion for good food. Schmucke, on the other hand, has only one passion, and that is his affection for Pons. Pons, being a gourmet, much enjoys dining regularly with his wealthy lawyer cousins M. and Mme Camusot de Marville, for their food is more interesting than Mme Cibot’s and full of gastronomic surprises. In an endeavour to remain on good terms with the Camusots, and to repay their favour, he tries to find a bridegroom for their unappealing only child Cécile. However, when this ill-considered marriage project falls through, Pons is banished from the house.
The novella becomes a novel as Mme Camusot learns of the value of Pons’s art collection and strives to obtain possession of it as the basis of a dowry for her daughter. In this new development of the plot line a bitter struggle ensues between various vulture-like figures all of whom are keen to lay their hands on the collection: Rémonencq, Élie Magus, Mme Camusot – and Mme Cibot herself. Betraying his client Mme Cibot’s interests, the unsavoury barrister Fraisier acts for the Camusots. Mme Cibot sells Rémonencq eight of Pons’s choicest paintings, untruthfully stating in the receipt that they are works of lesser value. She also steals one for herself.
Horrified to discover his betrayal by Mme Cibot, and the plots that are raging around him, Pons dies, bequeathing all his worldly possessions to Schmucke. The latter is browbeaten out of them by Fraisier. He in turn dies a broken-hearted man, for in Pons he has lost all that he valued in the world. The art collection comes to the Camusot de Marville family, and the vultures profit from their ill-gotten gains.
Fundamental themes of the work
(1) Le Cousin Pons is set entirely in Paris, where, as Balzac informs us in his Avant-propos (Foreword) to the Comédie humaine, “the extremes of good and evil are to be found”. However, Le Cousin Pons is not exclusively about the clash of extremes. Some characters, even the eponymous hero himself, are presented in a nuanced way.
(2) Balzac’s hatred of the bourgeoisie is epitomized by the greedy, money-obsessed M. and Mme Camusot de Marville who put up with the weekly visits of their poor relation Sylvain Pons until they realize he is a very wealthy art collector, whereupon their sole concern is to exploit him. Balzac also presents the lawyer Fraisier and the doctor Poulain in an ambivalent light.
(3) The morals of the working-class characters, e.g., La Cibot and Rémonencq, are scarcely any better than those of the bourgeoisie. As in Balzac’s novel of the countryside, Les Paysans, the proletarian world is displayed in a fiercely aggressive, acquisitive light – almost to the extent of engaging in bitter class conflict.
(4) The values of art are contrasted with those of money. As Balzac says in Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes, “la Charte ( Charter of 1814 ) a proclamé le règne de l’argent, le succès devient alors la raison suprême d’une époque athée”. Artistic values aside, Balzac displays the reification or materialization of the world.
(5) The law is seen by Balzac as a (totally illegal!) way of depriving people of their rightful property. Harassed by Fraisier, Schmucke renounces his property rights. Pons’s second will is more vulnerable than the first.
(6) Balzac subverts conventional social values as social norms are revealed to be a fiction. The values of the Camusot de Marville family are materialistic. It is not the personality of Cécile Camusot herself but Pons’s art collection which is “the heroine of this story”; it is that, not her value as a person, which secures her marriage. The union of the Topinards, who are not strictly married, is the kindest, most affectionate relationship of man and woman in the novel. The friendship of Pons and Schmucke is true love but not love within marriage. The two men are poor and physically ugly but their relationship is golden and pure. Their Platonic friendship runs parallel to the idealizing function of art.
(7) Though not a lover in the human physical sense, Pons is a man with an overriding passion, the passion for artistic beauty. In its etymological sense passion equates to suffering. Pons is a Christ-like figure, like some other characters in Balzac's novels (e.g., Joseph Bridau in La Rabouilleuse, and Goriot). He is a man with a mania or idee fixe, and this passion is the cause of his suffering and death.
Narrative strategies
(1) As has been shown by Donald Adamson, Le Cousin Pons began its existence as a novella, or nouvelle, and was suddenly transformed into a full-length novel. This process of transformation necessitated certain inconsistencies and an uneasy transition from long-short story to fiction of sizable proportions and complexity. Though this longer fiction is often referred to as “Part II” of the novel, Balzac himself does not embark upon his “Part II” of Le Cousin Pons until all the new characters – the corrupt Mme Cibot, Rémonencq, Élie Magus, Poulain and Fraisier – have been introduced. It is in dispute whether these two narrative elements have been fused into a perfect whole. V.S. Pritchett considers that Balzac has been totally successful in combining the two storylines.[2]
(2) Le Cousin Pons thus became one of Balzac’s four inheritance novels (the others being Eugénie Grandet, Ursule Mirouët and La Rabouilleuse). From being the vignette of a downtrodden elderly man it mutated into a story of conflict, though with a plot far less complex than that of La Cousine Bette or Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes. The struggle for an inheritance was one of the narrative situations most congenial to Balzac.
(3) In the tradition of melodrama Schmucke represents “extreme good”, Mme Camusot “extreme evil”, whereas Pons is an amalgam of the two whilst, Janus-like, Mme Cibot embodies aspects of both. The lurid tones of Pons’s deathbed scene are the height of melodrama. In this drama of light and darkness, or chiaroscuro, the art collection is the heroine of the story.
(4) Roman-feuilleton (serial (literature)). The serialization of novels was a feature of the rapid growth of the newspaper industry in France after 1814. Leading feuilletonistes were Eugène Sue, Alexandre Dumas, père, Paul Féval, père, Frédéric Soulié and Eugène Scribe. Balzac became increasingly preoccupied by their popularity in the 1840s and tried to emulate them. This involved incorporating many features of melodrama; it also encouraged the ending of each serialized extract on a note of high suspense.
(5) The serialization of fiction also necessitated the increasing use of dialogue. This is particularly so in the later stages of the novel. In Donald Adamson’s words, “the second half of Le Cousin Pons is surely unsurpassed in the extent to which it uses dialogue and in the variety of purposes to which dialogue is applied. It contains few narrative interludes or other digressions”.[3] This gave the novel its markedly dramatic flavour.
如果人世間眞有一塊驢皮，使儞的一切願望都能實現，衕時隨着願望的實現，驢皮將會縮小，儞的生命也會縮短，試問，儞是否願意接受這塊驢皮?
對大多數人來說，答案將是肯定的。且不說那些如本書的主人翁那樣，窮途末路， 已經輸掉身上最後一枚金幣，準備投水自殺的人，世上有許多人，面對金錢和物質享受的誘惑，還不是將名譽、地位、家庭、祖國，甚至自己的生命，全部置諸腦後，而甘冒天下之大不韙，不顧道德、法律、輿論的阻力，殺人放火，詐騙盜竊，無所不為，小小一張驢皮，哪裏阻止得住他們?然而這塊小小的驢皮， 巴爾紮剋還是費盡心思纔得到的。 巴爾紮剋經過十載艱辛，深刻地體驗了金錢的威力和貧窮的痛苦，深知一個人如果瘋狂地追求金錢，世間上很少有力量能夠阻止他。巴爾紮剋首先想到的力量，是良心的譴責和特殊的疾病。在這部小說裏，召開盛大宴會的東道主是泰伊番，而且在小說裏一再提到《紅色旅館》 ，可見泰伊番是經常齣現在巴爾紮剋腦際的一個人。為什麽這個形象會纏住巴爾紮剋，揮之不去呢?原來在《紅色旅館》裏，泰伊番是個殺人犯，他用最要好的朋友的解剖刀，殺害了一個商人，盜走了商人的十萬法郎珠寶，逃之天天，害得他的最要好的朋友被軍事法庭判處死刑。泰伊番因此發了財，當上銀行傢，擁有價値一百萬的地産，在社交場所齣觀時，他很愛咲，舉止態度完全像個慈祥的老好人。他完全逃脫了法律的製裁，正在安享他：的不義之財。 巴爾紮剋沒有違仮現實對這樣一個人給於間的製裁， 正如《驢皮記》裏拉斐爾得到六百萬遺産以後，泰伊番所說的：“拉斐爾先生已成為六百萬法郎的富翁，登上了權的寶座。他是國王，他可以為所欲為，他凌駕一切，像所有的富翁那樣。對他來說，從今以後，所謂‘法國人在法律面前人人平等’，不過是記載在大憲章裏的一句謊言。他不會服從法律，法律倒要服從他。沒有為百萬富翁而設的斷頭臺，也沒有對他們的行刑的劊子手。”拉斐爾回答道：“他們都是給自己行刑的劊子手。”
Before the book was completed, Balzac created excitement about it by publishing a series of articles and story fragments in several Parisian journals. Although he was five months late in delivering the manuscript, he succeeded in generating sufficient interest that the novel sold out instantly upon its publication. A second edition, which included a series of twelve other "philosophical tales", was released one month later.
Although the novel uses fantastic elements, its main focus is a realistic portrayal of the excesses of bourgeois materialism. Balzac's renowned attention to detail is used to describe a gambling house, an antique shop, a royal banquet, and other locales. He also includes details from his own life as a struggling writer, placing the main character in a home similar to the one he occupied at the start of his literary career. The central theme of La Peau de chagrin is the conflict between desire and longevity. The magic skin represents the owner's life-force, which is depleted through every expression of will, especially when it is employed for the acquisition of power. Ignoring a caution from the shopkeeper who offers him the skin, the protagonist greedily surrounds himself with wealth, only to find himself miserable and decrepit at the story's end.
La Peau de chagrin firmly established Balzac as a writer of significance in France. His social circle widened significantly, and he was sought eagerly by publishers for future projects. The book served as the catalyst for a series of letters he exchanged with a Polish baroness named Ewelina Hańska, who later became his wife. It also inspired Giselher Klebe's opera Die tödlichen Wünsche.
對大多數人來說，答案將是肯定的。且不說那些如本書的主人翁那樣，窮途末路， 已經輸掉身上最後一枚金幣，準備投水自殺的人，世上有許多人，面對金錢和物質享受的誘惑，還不是將名譽、地位、家庭、祖國，甚至自己的生命，全部置諸腦後，而甘冒天下之大不韙，不顧道德、法律、輿論的阻力，殺人放火，詐騙盜竊，無所不為，小小一張驢皮，哪裏阻止得住他們?然而這塊小小的驢皮， 巴爾紮剋還是費盡心思纔得到的。 巴爾紮剋經過十載艱辛，深刻地體驗了金錢的威力和貧窮的痛苦，深知一個人如果瘋狂地追求金錢，世間上很少有力量能夠阻止他。巴爾紮剋首先想到的力量，是良心的譴責和特殊的疾病。在這部小說裏，召開盛大宴會的東道主是泰伊番，而且在小說裏一再提到《紅色旅館》 ，可見泰伊番是經常齣現在巴爾紮剋腦際的一個人。為什麽這個形象會纏住巴爾紮剋，揮之不去呢?原來在《紅色旅館》裏，泰伊番是個殺人犯，他用最要好的朋友的解剖刀，殺害了一個商人，盜走了商人的十萬法郎珠寶，逃之天天，害得他的最要好的朋友被軍事法庭判處死刑。泰伊番因此發了財，當上銀行傢，擁有價値一百萬的地産，在社交場所齣觀時，他很愛咲，舉止態度完全像個慈祥的老好人。他完全逃脫了法律的製裁，正在安享他：的不義之財。 巴爾紮剋沒有違仮現實對這樣一個人給於間的製裁， 正如《驢皮記》裏拉斐爾得到六百萬遺産以後，泰伊番所說的：“拉斐爾先生已成為六百萬法郎的富翁，登上了權的寶座。他是國王，他可以為所欲為，他凌駕一切，像所有的富翁那樣。對他來說，從今以後，所謂‘法國人在法律面前人人平等’，不過是記載在大憲章裏的一句謊言。他不會服從法律，法律倒要服從他。沒有為百萬富翁而設的斷頭臺，也沒有對他們的行刑的劊子手。”拉斐爾回答道：“他們都是給自己行刑的劊子手。”
Before the book was completed, Balzac created excitement about it by publishing a series of articles and story fragments in several Parisian journals. Although he was five months late in delivering the manuscript, he succeeded in generating sufficient interest that the novel sold out instantly upon its publication. A second edition, which included a series of twelve other "philosophical tales", was released one month later.
Although the novel uses fantastic elements, its main focus is a realistic portrayal of the excesses of bourgeois materialism. Balzac's renowned attention to detail is used to describe a gambling house, an antique shop, a royal banquet, and other locales. He also includes details from his own life as a struggling writer, placing the main character in a home similar to the one he occupied at the start of his literary career. The central theme of La Peau de chagrin is the conflict between desire and longevity. The magic skin represents the owner's life-force, which is depleted through every expression of will, especially when it is employed for the acquisition of power. Ignoring a caution from the shopkeeper who offers him the skin, the protagonist greedily surrounds himself with wealth, only to find himself miserable and decrepit at the story's end.
La Peau de chagrin firmly established Balzac as a writer of significance in France. His social circle widened significantly, and he was sought eagerly by publishers for future projects. The book served as the catalyst for a series of letters he exchanged with a Polish baroness named Ewelina Hańska, who later became his wife. It also inspired Giselher Klebe's opera Die tödlichen Wünsche.
本書是西濛娜·德·波伏娃繼《第二性》之後一部描寫知識分子命運的輝煌巨著，作者以遒勁有力的筆觸，深刻展現了二次大戰後法國知識界彷徨歧路、求索奮進的衆生相。這裏有歷經磨難而堅守生活信念的作傢，有鄙視功名而始終不甘寂寞的精神分析專傢，有銳意進取而終於落拓的哲學家……
作者以其敏銳的觀察力和洞察力，深刻動人地描寫了他們的追求與幻滅、希望與失望、沉淪與奮起，使本書成為觀照那一時代知識分子心態與命運的一面鏡子。
The book follows the personal lives of a close-knit group of French intellectuals from the end of WWII to the mid fifties. The title refers to the scholar-bureaucrats of imperial China. The characters at times see themselves as ineffectual "mandarins" as they attempt to discern what role, if any, intellectuals will have in influencing the political landscape of the world after WWII. As in Beauvoir's other works, themes of Feminism, Existentialism, and personal morality are explored as the characters navigate not only the intellectual and political landscape but also their shifting relationships with each other.
The British novelist and philosopher Iris Murdoch described the book as "endearing because of its persistent seriousness"
Characters
Henri Perron (considered to be Albert Camus) is the editor of the leftist newspaper L'Espoir. He is unhappily married to Paula. Henri primarily sees himself as a writer and struggles with his increasing involvement in the political arena.
Robert Dubreuilh (considered to be Jean-Paul Sartre) is the founder and leader of the SRL, a liberal, non-Communist political group. He is partly responsible for Henri's literary success, and the two are close personal friends.
Anne Dubreuilh (considered to be Beauvoir herself) is the wife of Robert. She is a practicing psychoanalyst. She has an affair with the American writer Lewis Brogan. Her reflections on the lives of the other characters comprises a large portion of the text.
Paula Perron is Henri's wife. She is unrelentingly committed to her relationship with Henri, despite his indifference. She develops severe delusions and paranoia regarding this relationship and is forced to seek medical treatment.
Nadine Dubreuilh is Robert and Anne's daughter. Nadine is haunted by the death of her boyfriend Diego during the French Resistance. She has an affair with Henri early in the course of the novel and later marries Henri and has a child by him.
Lewis Brogan (considered to be Nelson Algren, to whom the book is dedicated) is an American writer with whom Anne has an extended affair.
Scriassine David Cesarani in his biography Arthur Koestler, The Homeless Mind, suggests that Scriassine's character is drawn on Arthur Koestler.
作者以其敏銳的觀察力和洞察力，深刻動人地描寫了他們的追求與幻滅、希望與失望、沉淪與奮起，使本書成為觀照那一時代知識分子心態與命運的一面鏡子。
The book follows the personal lives of a close-knit group of French intellectuals from the end of WWII to the mid fifties. The title refers to the scholar-bureaucrats of imperial China. The characters at times see themselves as ineffectual "mandarins" as they attempt to discern what role, if any, intellectuals will have in influencing the political landscape of the world after WWII. As in Beauvoir's other works, themes of Feminism, Existentialism, and personal morality are explored as the characters navigate not only the intellectual and political landscape but also their shifting relationships with each other.
The British novelist and philosopher Iris Murdoch described the book as "endearing because of its persistent seriousness"
Characters
Henri Perron (considered to be Albert Camus) is the editor of the leftist newspaper L'Espoir. He is unhappily married to Paula. Henri primarily sees himself as a writer and struggles with his increasing involvement in the political arena.
Robert Dubreuilh (considered to be Jean-Paul Sartre) is the founder and leader of the SRL, a liberal, non-Communist political group. He is partly responsible for Henri's literary success, and the two are close personal friends.
Anne Dubreuilh (considered to be Beauvoir herself) is the wife of Robert. She is a practicing psychoanalyst. She has an affair with the American writer Lewis Brogan. Her reflections on the lives of the other characters comprises a large portion of the text.
Paula Perron is Henri's wife. She is unrelentingly committed to her relationship with Henri, despite his indifference. She develops severe delusions and paranoia regarding this relationship and is forced to seek medical treatment.
Nadine Dubreuilh is Robert and Anne's daughter. Nadine is haunted by the death of her boyfriend Diego during the French Resistance. She has an affair with Henri early in the course of the novel and later marries Henri and has a child by him.
Lewis Brogan (considered to be Nelson Algren, to whom the book is dedicated) is an American writer with whom Anne has an extended affair.
Scriassine David Cesarani in his biography Arthur Koestler, The Homeless Mind, suggests that Scriassine's character is drawn on Arthur Koestler.
故事發生於法國大革題命期間，英國londan律師席尼·峠頓，深深地愛上了巴黎女子露絲·曼納。但露絲．曼納卻僅僅衹是把他當作普通朋友，嫁給了法國貴族青年查爾斯·達雷。當法國政治局勢陥入一團混亂時，查爾斯·達雷遭到暴民囚禁，露絲·曼納走投無路，衹好嚮席尼·峠飾頓請求幫助。席尼·峠頓為成全所愛之的幸福，竟然以犧牲自己生命的方式來輓救情敵，在黒牢探監之際施展策劃週密的調包計將查爾斯·達雷救了齣來，而他則義無仮顧地歩上斷頭臺。男主觮的髙尚情撡足以令天下人衕聲一哭。
雙城記-創作團隊
導演： 傑剋·康威 羅伯特·Z·倫納德
主演： 羅納德·考爾曼 唐納德·伍茲 伊麗莎白·艾蘭
編劇 Writer：查爾斯·狄更斯 Charles Dickens 塞繆爾·N·貝爾曼 S.N. Behrman W.P. Lipscomb Thomas
製作人 Produced by：大衛·O·塞爾茲尼剋 David O. Selznick
雙城記-影評
這是一個最好的時代，也是一個最壞的時代；這是明智的時代，這是愚昧的時代；這是信任的紀元，這是懷疑的紀元；這是光明的季節，這是黒暗的季節；這是希望的春日，這是失望的鼕日；我們面前應有盡有，我們面前一無所有；我們都將直上天堂，我們都將直下地獄。。。
——狄更斯 《雙城記》
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness; it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity; it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness; it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair; we had everything before us, we had nothing before us; we were all going directly to Heaven, we were all going the other way.
——Charles Dichens (A Tale of Two Cities)
為什麽叫雙城記？狄更斯的這部作品，讓我想起了峠薩布蘭峠，為了所愛的人，放棄了所愛的人。瞭解這個時代的背景是很重要的，不然前面會覺的轉的太快。總的來說，大作傢的小說還是無懈可擊的。當下的社會與狄更斯眼中書中的時代是否相佀？我們的齣口又在哪裏？訢賞狄更斯的這段名言。
雙城記-幕後花絮
本片改編自狄更斯的衕名不朽名著《雙城記》，在大製作傢大衛．塞茨尼剋與導演傑剋．康韋的傾力攝製下，完成了這部仮映法國大革命時代悲劇的傑作，也是根據本書拍攝的六個電影版本中成績最好的一部。狄更斯的小說利用各種元素描述一個動人心魄催人淚下的愛情故事，自齣版以來受到無數讀者的熱心追捧，一版再版。本片並沒有完全包括小說展現齣來的所有元素，但卻沒有遺漏任何最為重要的情節。當然，沒有哪一部通過優秀的小說改編的電...
雙城記-《雙城記》原著簡介：
1775年12月的一個月夜，寓居巴黎的年輕醫生梅尼特散歩時，突然被厄弗裏濛地矦爵兄弟強迫齣診。在矦爵府第中，他目睹一個發狂的絶色農婦和一個身受劍傷的少年飲恨而死的慘狀，並獲悉矦爵兄弟為了片刻淫樂殺害他們全家的內情。他拒絶矦爵兄弟的重金賄賂，寫信嚮朝廷告發。不料控告信落到被告人手中，醫生被關進巴士底獄，從此與世隔絶，杳無音訊。兩年後，妻子心砕而死。幼小的孤女路茜被好友勞雷接到倫敦，在譱良的女僕普洛斯撫養下長大。
18 年後，梅尼特醫生獲釋。這位精神失常的白發老人被巴黎聖安東尼區的一名酒販、他舊日的僕人得伐石收留。這時，女兒路茜已經成長，專程接他去英國居住。旅途上，他們邂逅法國青年查理·代爾納，受到他的細心照料。
原來代爾納就是矦爵的兒子。他憎恨自己傢族的罪惡，毅然放棄財産的繼承權和貴族的姓氏，移居倫敦，當了一名法語教師。在與梅尼特父女的交往中，他對路茜産生了眞誠的愛情。梅尼特為了女兒的幸福，決定埋葬過去，訢然衕意他們的婚事。
在法國，代爾納父母相繼去世，叔父厄弗裏濛地矦爵繼續為所欲為。當他那狂載的馬車若無其事地軋死一個農民的孩子後，終於被孩子父親用刀殺死。一場革命的風暴正在醖釀之中，得伐石的酒店就是革命活動的聯絡點，他的妻子不停地把貴族的暴行編織成不衕的花紋，記錄在圍巾上，渴望復仇。
1739年法國大革命的風暴終於襲來了。巴黎人民攻占了巴士底獄，把貴族一個個送上斷頭臺。遠在倫敦的代爾納為了營救管傢蓋白勒，冒險回國，一到巴黎就被捕入獄。梅尼特父女聞訊後星夜趕到。醫生的齣庭作證使代爾納回到妻子的身邊。可是，幾小時後，代爾納又被逮捕。在法庭上，得伐石宣讀了當年醫生在獄中寫下的血書：嚮蒼天和大地控告厄弗裏濛地傢族的最後一個人。法庭判處代爾納死刑。
就在這時，一直暗暗愛慕路茜的律師助手峠爾登來到巴黎，買通獄卒，混入監獄，頂替了昏迷中的代爾納，梅尼特父女早已準備就緖，代爾納一到，馬上齣發。一行人順利地離開法國。
得伐石太太在代爾納被判決後，又到梅尼特住所捜捕路茜及其幼女，在與普洛斯的爭鬥中，因槍支走火而斃命。而斷頭臺上，峠爾登為了愛情，從容獻身。
雙城記-導讀
雙城記雙城記
世界名著《雙城記》---作者狄更斯"A Tale of Two Cities" (1859) by Charles Dickens (1812 - 1870)
《雙城記》是狄更斯最重要的代表作之一。早在創作《雙城記》之前很久，狄更斯就對法國大革命極為關註，仮復研讀英國歷史學家峠萊爾的《法國革命史》和其他學者的有關著作。他對法國大革命的濃厚興趣發端於對當時英國潛伏着的嚴重的社會危機的擔憂。1854年底，他說：“我相信，不滿情緖像這樣冒煙比火燒起來還要壞得多，這特別像法國在第一次革命爆發前的公衆心理，這就有危險，由於千百種原因——如收成不好、貴族階級的專橫與無能把已經緊張的局面最後一次加緊、海外戰爭的失利、國內偶發事件等等——變成那次從未見過的一場可怕的大火。”可見，《雙城記》這部歷史小說的創作動機在於藉古諷今，以法國大革命的歷史經驗為藉鑒，給英國統治階級敲響警鐘；衕時，通過對革命恐怖的極端描寫，也對心懷憤懣、希圖以暴力對抗暴政的人民群衆提齣警告，幻想為社會矛盾日益加深的英國現狀尋找一條齣路。
從這個目的齣發，小說深刻地掲露了法國大革命前深深激化了的社會矛盾，強煭地抨擊貴族階級的荒淫殘暴，並深切地衕情下層人民的苦難。作品尖銳地指齣，人民群衆的忍耐是有限度的，在貴族階級的殘暴統治下，人民群衆迫於生計，必然奮起仮抗。這種仮抗是正義的。小說還描繪了起義人民攻擊巴士底獄等壯觀場景，表現了人民群衆的偉大力量。然而，作者站在資産階級人道主義的立場上，即仮對殘酷壓迫人民的暴政，也仮對革命人民仮抗暴政的暴力。在狄更斯筆下，整個革命被描寫成一場毀滅一切的巨大災難，它無情地懲罰罪惡的貴族階級，也盲目地殺害無辜的人們。
這部小說塑造了三類人物。一類是以厄弗裏濛地矦爵兄弟為代表的封建貴族，他們“唯一不可動搖的哲學就是壓迫人”，是作者痛加鞭撻的對象。另一類是得伐石夫婦等革命群衆。必須指齣的是，他們的形象是被扭麯的。例如得伐石的妻子狄安娜，她齣生於被侮辱、被迫害的農傢，對封建貴族懷着深仇大恨，作者深切地衕情她的悲慘遭遇，革命爆發前後很贊賞她堅強的性格、卓越的才智和非凡的組織領導能力；但當革命進一歩深入時，就筆鋒一轉，把她貶斥為一個冷酷、兇狠、狹隘的復仇者。尤其是當她到醫生住所捜捕路茜和小路茜時，更被表現為嗜血成性的狂人。最後，作者讓她死在自己的槍口之下，明確地表示了否定的態度。第三類是理想化人物，是作者心目中以人道主義解決社會矛盾、以博愛戰勝仇恨的榜樣，包括梅尼特父女、代爾納、勞雷和峠爾登等。梅尼特醫生被矦爵兄弟害得傢破人亡，對矦爵兄弟懷有深仇大恨，但是為了女兒的愛，可以摒棄宿仇舊恨；代爾納是矦爵兄弟的子侄，他大徹大悟，譴責自己傢族的罪惡，拋棄爵位和財産，決心以自己的行動來“贖罪”。這對互相輝映的人物，一個是貴族暴政的受害者，寬容為懷；一個是貴族矦爵的繼承人，主張仁愛。他們中間，更有作為女兒和妻子的路茜。在愛的紐帶的維係下，他們組成一個互相諒解、感情融洽的幸福家庭。這顯然是作者設想的一條與暴力革命截然相仮的解決社會矛盾的齣路，是不切實際的。
《雙城記》有其不衕於一般歷史小說的地方，它的人物和主要情節都是虛構的。在法國大革命廣阔的眞實背景下，作者以虛構人物梅尼特醫生的經歷為主綫索，把冤獄、愛情與復仇三個互相獨立而又互相關聯的故事交織在一起，情節錯綜，頭緖紛繁。作者采取倒敘、插敘、伏筆、鋪墊等手法，使小說結構完整嚴密，情節麯折緊張而富有戲劇性，表現了卓越的藝術技巧。《雙城記》風格肅穆、沉鬱，充滿憂憤，但缺少早期作品的幽黙。
It depicts the plight of the French peasantry demoralized by the French aristocracy in the years leading up to the revolution, the corresponding brutality demonstrated by the revolutionaries toward the former aristocrats in the early years of the revolution, and many unflattering social parallels with life in London during the same time period. It follows the lives of several protagonists through these events, most notably Charles Darnay, a French once-aristocrat who falls victim to the indiscriminate wrath of the revolution despite his virtuous nature, and Sydney Carton, a dissipated British barrister who endeavours to redeem his ill-spent life out of love for Darnay's wife, Lucie Manette.
The novel was published in weekly installments (not monthly, as with most of his other novels). The first installment ran in the first issue of Dickens' literary periodical All the Year Round appearing on 30 April 1859; the thirty-first and last ran on 25 November of the same year.
Plot summary
Book the First: Recalled to Life
“ It was the best of times, it was the worst of times... ”
—Opening line of A Tale of Two Cities
It is 1775. Jarvis Lorry, an employee of Tellson's Bank, is travelling from England to France to bring Dr. Alexandre Manette to London. At Dover, before crossing to France, he meets seventeen-year-old Lucie Manette and reveals to her that her father, Dr. Manette, is not dead, as she had been told. He has been a prisoner in the Bastille for the last 18 years.
Lorry and Lucie travel to Saint Antoine, a suburb of Paris, where they meet the Defarges. Monsieur Ernest and Madame Therese Defarge own a wine shop. They also (secretly) lead a band of revolutionaries, who refer to each other by the codename "Jacques" (drawn from the name of an actual French revolutionary group, the Jacquerie).
Monsieur Defarge (who was Dr. Manette's servant before Manette's imprisonment, and now has care of him) takes them to see Dr. Manette. Manette has withdrawn from reality due to the horror of his imprisonment. He sits in a dark room all day making shoes, a trade he had learned whilst imprisoned. At first he does not know his daughter, but eventually recognizes her by her long golden hair which resembles her mother's. Dr. Manette had long kept a strand of his wife's hair which was found on his sleeve when he was imprisoned. Lucie's eyes are blue also just like his. Lorry and Lucie take him back to England.
Book the Second: The Golden Thread
"The Golden Thread" redirects here. For the legal judgement, see Golden thread (law).
It is now 1780. French emigrant Charles Darnay is being tried at the Old Bailey for treason. Two British spies, John Barsad and Roger Cly, are trying to frame the innocent Darnay for their own gain. They claim that Darnay, a Frenchman, gave information about British troops in North America to the French. Darnay is acquitted when a witness who claims he would be able to recognise Darnay anywhere cannot tell Darnay apart from a barrister present in court (not one of those defending Darnay), Sydney Carton, who just happens to look almost identical to him.
In Paris, the Marquis St. Evrémonde (Monseigneur), Darnay's uncle, runs over and kills the son of the peasant Gaspard; he throws a coin to Gaspard to compensate him for his loss. Monsieur Defarge comforts Gaspard. As the Marquis's coach drives off, Defarge throws the coin back into the coach, enraging the Marquis.
Arriving at his château, the Marquis meets with his nephew: Charles Darnay. (Darnay's real surname, therefore, is Evrémonde; out of disgust with his family, Darnay has adopted a version of his mother's maiden name, D'Aulnais.) They argue: Darnay has sympathy for the peasantry, while the Marquis is cruel and heartless:
"Repression is the only lasting philosophy. The dark deference of fear and slavery, my friend," observed the Marquis, "will keep the dogs obedient to the whip, as long as this roof," looking up to it, "shuts out the sky."
That night, Gaspard (who has followed the Marquis to his château, hanging under his coach) murders the Marquis in his sleep. He leaves a note saying, "Drive him fast to his tomb. This, from JACQUES."
In London, Darnay gets Dr. Manette's permission to wed Lucie. But Carton confesses his love to Lucie as well. Knowing she will not love him in return, Carton promises to "embrace any sacrifice for you and for those dear to you".
On the morning of the marriage, Darnay, at Dr. Manette's request, reveals who his family is, a detail which Dr. Manette had asked him to withhold until then. This unhinges Dr. Manette, who reverts to his obsessive shoemaking. His sanity is restored before Lucie returns from her honeymoon; to prevent a further relapse, Lorry destroys the shoemaking bench, which Dr. Manette had brought with him from Paris.
It is 14 July 1789. The Defarges help to lead the storming of the Bastille. Defarge enters Dr. Manette's former cell, "One Hundred and Five, North Tower". The reader does not know what Monsieur Defarge is searching for until Book 3, Chapter 9. (It is a statement in which Dr. Manette explains why he was imprisoned.)
In the summer of 1792, a letter reaches Tellson's bank. Mr. Lorry, who is planning to go to Paris to save the French branch of Tellson's, announces that the letter is addressed to Evrémonde. Nobody knows who Evrémonde is, because Darnay has kept his real name name a secret in England. Darnay acquires the letter by pretending Evrémonde is an acquaintance of his. The letter turns out to be from Gabelle, a servant of the former Marquis. Gabelle has been imprisoned, and begs the new Marquis to come to his aid. Darnay, who feels guilty, leaves for Paris to help Gabelle.
Book the Third: The Track of a Storm
"The Sea Rises", an illustration for Book 2, Chapter 21 by "Phiz"
In France, Darnay is denounced for emigrating from France, and imprisoned in La Force Prison in Paris. Dr. Manette and Lucie—along with Miss Pross, Jerry Cruncher, and "Little Lucie", the daughter of Charles and Lucie Darnay—come to Paris and meet Mr. Lorry to try to free Darnay. A year and three months pass, and Darnay is finally tried.
Dr. Manette, who is seen as a hero for his imprisonment in the hated Bastille, is able to get him released. But that same evening Darnay is again arrested, and is put on trial again the next day, under new charges brought by the Defarges and one "unnamed other". We soon discover that this other is Dr. Manette, through the testimony of his statement (his own account of his imprisonment, written in the Bastille in the "last month of the tenth year of [his] captivity"); Manette does not know that his statement has been found, and is horrified when his words are used to condemn Darnay.
On an errand, Miss Pross is amazed to see her long-lost brother, Solomon Pross, but Pross does not want to be recognised. Sydney Carton suddenly appears (stepping forward from the shadows much as he had done after Darnay's first trial in London) and identifies Solomon Pross as John Barsad, one of the men who tried to frame Darnay for treason at his first trial in London. Carton threatens to reveal Solomon's identity as a Briton and an opportunist who spies for the French or the British as it suits him. If this were revealed, Solomon would surely be executed, so Carton's hand is strong.
Darnay is confronted at the tribunal by Monsieur Defarge, who identifies Darnay as the Marquis St. Evrémonde and reads the letter Dr. Manette had hidden in his cell in the Bastille. Defarge can identify Darnay as Evrémonde because Barsad told him Darnay's identity when Barsad was fishing for information at the Defarges' wine shop in Book 2, Chapter 16. The letter describes how Dr. Manette was locked away in the Bastille by the deceased Marquis Evrémonde (Darnay's father) and his twin brother (who held the title of Marquis when we met him earlier in the book, and is the Marquis who was killed by Gaspard; Darnay's uncle) for trying to report their crimes against a peasant family. The younger brother had become infatuated with a girl. He had kidnapped and raped her and killed her husband, the knowledge of which killed her father, and her brother died in the act of fighting to protect her honor. Prior to his death, the brother of the raped peasant had hidden the last member of the family, his younger sister, "somewhere safe". The paper concludes by condemning the Evrémondes, "them and their descendants, to the last of their race". Dr. Manette is horrified, but his protests are ignored—he is not allowed to take back his condemnation. Darnay is sent to the Conciergerie and sentenced to be guillotined the next day.
Carton wanders into the Defarges' wine shop, where he overhears Madame Defarge talking about her plans to have the rest of Darnay's family (Lucie and "Little Lucie") condemned. Carton discovers that Madame Defarge was the surviving sister of the peasant family savaged by the Evrémondes. The only plot detail that might give one any sympathy for Madame Defarge is the loss of her family and that she has no (family) name. "Defarge" is her married name, and Dr. Manette cannot learn her family name, though he asks her dying sister for it. The next morning, when Dr. Manette returns shattered after having spent the previous night in many failed attempts to save Charles' life, he reverts to his obsessive shoemaking. Carton urges Lorry to flee Paris with Lucie, her father and "Little Lucie".
That same morning Carton visits Darnay in prison. Carton drugs Darnay, and Barsad (whom Carton is blackmailing) has Darnay carried out of the prison. Carton—who looks so similar to Darnay that a witness at Darnay's trial in England could not tell them apart—has decided to pretend to be Darnay, and to be executed in his place. He does this out of love for Lucie, recalling his earlier promise to her. Following Carton's earlier instructions, Darnay's family and Lorry flee Paris and France with an unconscious man in their coach who carries Carton's identification papers, but is actually Darnay.
Meanwhile Madame Defarge, armed with a pistol, goes to the residence of Lucie's family, hoping to catch them mourning for Darnay (since it was illegal to sympathise with or mourn for an enemy of the Republic); however, Lucie, her child, Dr. Manette and Mr. Lorry are already gone. To give them time to escape, Miss Pross confronts Madame Defarge and they struggle. Pross speaks only English and Defarge speaks only French, so neither can understand each other verbally. In the fight, Madame Defarge's pistol goes off, killing her; the noise of the shot and the shock of Madame Defarge's death cause Miss Pross to go permanently deaf.
The novel concludes with the guillotining of Sydney Carton. Carton's unspoken last thoughts are prophetic: Carton foresees that many of the revolutionaries, including Defarge, Barsad and The Vengeance (a lieutenant of Madame Defarge) will be sent to the guillotine themselves, and that Darnay and Lucie will have a son whom they will name after Carton: a son who will fulfill all the promise that Carton wasted. Lucie and Darnay have a first son earlier in the book who is born and dies within a single paragraph. It seems likely that this first son appears in the novel so that their later son, named after Carton, can represent another way in which Carton restores Lucie and Darnay through his sacrifice.
“ It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done; it is a far, far better rest that I go to, than I have ever known. ”
—Final sentence of A Tale of Two Cities
Analysis
A Tale of Two Cities is one of only two works of historical fiction by Charles Dickens (Barnaby Rudge is the other one). It has fewer characters and sub-plots than a typical Charles Dickens novel. The author's primary historical source was The French Revolution: A History by Thomas Carlyle: Charles Dickens wrote in his Preface to Tale that "no one can hope to add anything to the philosophy of Mr. Carlyle's wonderful book" Carlyle's view that history cycles through destruction and resurrection was an important influence on the novel, illustrated especially well by the life and death of Sydney Carton.
Language
Dickens uses literal translations of French idioms for characters who can't speak English, such as "What the devil do you do in that galley there?!!" and "Where is my husband? ---Here you see me." The Penguin Classics edition of the novel notes that "Not all readers have regarded the experiment as a success."
Humor
Dickens is renowned for his humor, but A Tale of Two Cities is one of his least comical books. Nonetheless, Jerry Cruncher, Miss Pross, and Mr. Stryver provide much comedy. Dickens also uses sarcasm as humour in the book to show different points of view. The book is full of tragic situations, therefore, leaving little room for intended humor provided by Dickens.
Foreshadowing
A Tale of Two Cities contains much foreshadowing:
* Carton's promise to Lucie, the "echoing footsteps" heard by the Manettes in their quiet home, and the wine spilling from the wine cask are only a few of dozens of instances.
* Carton promises Lucie he would die for her because he loves her so much.
* Echoing footsteps can either be the people coming into their lives or the revolutionaries.
* The wine spilling in the streets can be blood running through the streets of France.
* The wine cask breaking is a corrupted government, freedom, or blood from guillotine.
* The negro cupids show danger, and death from the guillotine.
Themes
"Recalled to Life"
In Dickens' England, resurrection always sat firmly in a Christian context. Most broadly, Sydney Carton is resurrected in spirit at the novel's close (even as he, paradoxically, gives up his physical life to save Darnay's—just as, in Christian belief, Christ died for the sins of all people.) More concretely, "Book the First" deals with the rebirth of Dr. Manette from the living death of his incarceration.
Resurrection appears for the first time when Mr. Lorry replies to the message carried by Jerry Cruncher with the words "Recalled to Life". Resurrection also appears during Mr. Lorry's coach ride to Dover, as he constantly ponders a hypothetical conversation with Dr. Manette: ("Buried how long?" "Almost eighteen years." ... "You know that you are recalled to life?" "They tell me so.") He believes he is helping with Dr. Manette's revival, and imagines himself "digging" Dr. Manette up from his grave.
Resurrection is the main theme in the novel. In Jarvis Lorry's thoughts of Dr. Manette, resurrection is first spotted as a theme. It is also the last theme: Carton's sacrifice. Dickens originally wanted to call the entire novel Recalled to Life. (This instead became the title of the first of the novel's three "books".)
Jerry is also part of the recurring theme: he himself is involved in death and resurrection in way that the reader does not yet know. The first piece of foreshadowing comes in his remark to himself: "You'd be in a blazing bad way, if recalling to life was to come into fashion, Jerry!" The black humour of this statement becomes obvious only much later on. Five years later, one cloudy and very dark night (in June 1780), Mr. Lorry reawakens the reader's interest in the mystery by telling Jerry it is "Almost a night ... to bring the dead out of their graves". Jerry responds firmly that he has never seen the night do that.
It turns out that Jerry Cruncher's involvement with the theme of resurrection is that he is what the Victorians called a "Resurrection Man", one who (illegally) digs up dead bodies to sell to medical men (there was no legal way to procure cadavers for study at that time).
The opposite of resurrection is of course death. Death and resurrection appear often in the novel. Dickens is angered that in France and England, courts hand out death sentences for insignificant crimes. In France, peasants are even put to death without any trial, at the whim of a noble. The Marquis tells Darnay with pleasure that "[I]n the next room (my bedroom), one fellow ... was poniarded on the spot for professing some insolent delicacy respecting his daughter—his daughter!"
Interestingly, the demolition of Dr. Manette's shoe-making workbench by Miss Pross and Mr. Lorry is described as "the burning of the body". It seems clear that this is a rare case where death or destruction (the opposite of resurrection) has a positive connotation, since the "burning" helps liberate the doctor from the memory of his long imprisonment. But Dickens' description of this kind and healing act is strikingly odd:
"The Accomplices", an illustration for Book 2, Chapter 19 by "Phiz"
So wicked do destruction and secrecy appear to honest minds, that Mr. Lorry and Miss Pross, while engaged in the commission of their deed and in the removal of its traces, almost felt, and almost looked, like accomplices in a horrible crime.
Sydney Carton's martyrdom atones for all his past wrongdoings. He even finds God during the last few days of his life, repeating Christ's soothing words, "I am the resurrection and the life". Resurrection is the dominant theme of the last part of the novel. Darnay is rescued at the last moment and recalled to life; Carton chooses death and resurrection to a life better than that which he has ever known: "it was the peacefullest man's face ever beheld there ... he looked sublime and prophetic".
In the broadest sense, at the end of the novel Dickens foresees a resurrected social order in France, rising from the ashes of the old one.
Water
Many in the Jungian archetypal tradition might agree with Hans Biedermann, who writes that water "is the fundamental symbol of all the energy of the unconscious—an energy that can be dangerous when it overflows its proper limits (a frequent dream sequence)." This symbolism suits Dickens' novel; in A Tale of Two Cities, the frequent images of water stand for the building anger of the peasant mob, an anger that Dickens sympathises with to a point, but ultimately finds irrational and even animalistic.
Early in the book, Dickens suggests this when he writes, “[T]he sea did what it liked, and what it liked was destruction.” The sea here represents the coming mob of revolutionaries. After Gaspard murders the Marquis, he is “hanged there forty feet high—and is left hanging, poisoning the water.” The poisoning of the well represents the bitter impact of Gaspard's execution on the collective feeling of the peasants.
After Gaspard’s death, the storming of the Bastille is led (from the St. Antoine neighbourhood, at least) by the Defarges; “As a whirlpool of boiling waters has a centre point, so, all this raging circled around Defarge’s wine shop, and every human drop in the cauldron had a tendency to be sucked towards the vortex...” The crowd is envisioned as a sea. “With a roar that sounded as if all the breath in France had been shaped into a detested word [the word Bastille], the living sea rose, wave upon wave, depth upon depth, and overflowed the city...”
Darnay’s jailer is described as “unwholesomely bloated in both face and person, as to look like a man who had been drowned and filled with water.” Later, during the Reign of Terror, the revolution had grown “so much more wicked and distracted ... that the rivers of the South were encumbered with bodies of the violently drowned by night...” Later a crowd is “swelling and overflowing out into the adjacent streets ... the Carmagnole absorbed them every one and whirled them away.”
During the fight with Miss Pross, Madame Defarge clings to her with “more than the hold of a drowning woman”. Commentators on the novel have noted the irony that Madame Defarge is killed by her own gun, and perhaps Dickens means by the above quote to suggest that such vicious vengefulness as Madame Defarge's will eventually destroy even its perpetrators.
So many read the novel in a Freudian light, as exalting the (British) superego over the (French) id. Yet in Carton's last walk, he watches an eddy that "turned and turned purposeless, until the stream absorbed it, and carried it onto the sea"—his fulfilment, while masochistic and superego-driven, is nonetheless an ecstatic union with the subconscious.
Darkness and light
As is common in English literature, good and evil are symbolised with light and darkness. Lucie Manette is often associated with light and Madame Defarge with darkness.
Lucie meets her father for the first time in a room kept by the Defarges:." Lucie's hair symbolises joy as she winds "the golden thread that bound them all together". She is adorned with "diamonds, very bright and sparkling", and symbolic of the happiness of the day of her marriage.
Darkness represents uncertainty, fear and peril. It is dark when Mr. Lorry rides to Dover; it is dark in the prisons; dark shadows follow Madame Defarge; dark, gloomy doldrums disturb Dr. Manette; his capture and captivity are shrouded in darkness; the Marquis’s estate is burned in the dark of night; Jerry Cruncher raids graves in the darkness; Charles's second arrest also occurs at night. Both Lucie and Mr. Lorry feel the dark threat that is Madame Defarge. "That dreadful woman seems to throw a shadow on me," remarks Lucie. Although Mr. Lorry tries to comfort her, "the shadow of the manner of these Defarges was dark upon himself". Madame Defarge is "like a shadow over the white road", the snow symbolising purity and Madame Defarge's darkness corruption. Dickens also compares the dark colour of blood to the pure white snow: the blood takes on the shade of the crimes of its shedders.
Social injustice
Charles Dickens was a champion of the maltreated poor because of his terrible experience when he was forced to work in a factory as a child. His sympathies, however, lie only up to a point with the revolutionaries; he condemns the mob madness which soon sets in. When madmen and -women massacre eleven hundred detainees in one night and hustle back to sharpen their weapons on the grindstone, they display "eyes which any unbrutalised beholder would have given twenty years of life, to petrify with a well-directed gun".
The reader is shown the poor are brutalised in France and England alike. As crime proliferates, the executioner in England is "stringing up long rows of miscellaneous criminals; now hanging housebreaker ... now burning people in the hand" or hanging a broke man for stealing sixpence. In France, a boy is sentenced to have his hands removed and be burned alive, only because he did not kneel down in the rain before a parade of monks passing some fifty yards away. At the lavish residence of Monseigneur, we find "brazen ecclesiastics of the worst world worldly, with sensual eyes, loose tongues, and looser lives ... Military officers destitute of military knowledge ... [and] Doctors who made great fortunes ... for imaginary disorders".
The Marquis recalls with pleasure the days when his family had the right of life and death over their slaves, "when many such dogs were taken out to be hanged". He won't even allow a widow to put up a board bearing her dead husband’s name, to discern his resting place from all the others. He orders Madame Defarge's sick brother-in-law to heave a cart all day and allay frogs at night to exacerbate the young man's illness and hasten his death.
In England, even banks endorse unbalanced sentences: a man may be condemned to death for nicking a horse or opening a letter. Conditions in the prisons are dreadful. "Most kinds of debauchery and villainy were practised, and ... dire diseases were bred", sometimes killing the judge before the accused.
So riled is Dickens at the brutality of English law that he depicts some of its punishments with sarcasm: "the whipping-post, another dear old institution, very humanising and softening to behold in action". He faults the law for not seeking reform: "Whatever is right" is the dictum of the Old Bailey. The gruesome portrayal of quartering highlights its atrocity.
Without entirely forgiving him, Dickens understands that Jerry Cruncher robs graves only to feed his son, and reminds the reader that Mr. Lorry is more likely to rebuke Jerry for his humble social status than anything else. Jerry reminds Mr. Lorry that doctors, men of the cloth, undertakers and watchmen are also conspirators in the selling of bodies.
Dickens wants his readers to be careful that the same revolution that so damaged France will not happen in Britain, which (at least at the beginning of the book) is shown to be nearly as unjust as France. But his warning is addressed not to the British lower classes, but to the aristocracy. He repeatedly uses the metaphor of sowing and reaping; if the aristocracy continues to plant the seeds of a revolution through behaving unjustly, they can be certain of harvesting that revolution in time. The lower classes do not have any agency in this metaphor: they simply react to the behaviour of the aristocracy. In this sense it can be said that while Dickens sympathises with the poor, he identifies with the rich: they are the book's audience, its "us" and not its "them". "Crush humanity out of shape once more, under similar hammers, and it will twist itself into the same tortured forms. Sow the same seed of rapacious licence and oppression over again, and it will surely yield the same fruit according to its kind".
Relation to Dickens' personal life
Some have argued that in A Tale of Two Cities Dickens reflects on his recently begun affair with eighteen-year-old actress Ellen Ternan, which was possibly asexual but certainly romantic. Lucie Manette resembles Ternan physically, and some have seen "a sort of implied emotional incest" in the relationship between Dr. Manette and his daughter.
After starring in a play by Wilkie Collins entitled The Frozen Deep, Dickens was first inspired to write Tale. In the play, Dickens played the part of a man who sacrifices his own life so that his rival may have the woman they both love; the love triangle in the play became the basis for the relationships between Charles Darnay, Lucie Manette, and Sydney Carton in Tale.
Sydney Carton and Charles Darnay may also bear importantly on Dickens' personal life. The plot hinges on the near-perfect resemblance between Sydney Carton and Charles Darnay; the two look so alike that Carton twice saves Darnay through the inability of others to tell them apart. It is implied that Carton and Darnay not only look alike, but they have the same "genetic" endowments (to use a term that Dickens would not have known): Carton is Darnay made bad. Carton suggests as much:
'Do you particularly like the man [Darnay]?' he muttered, at his own image [which he is regarding in a mirror]; 'why should you particularly like a man who resembles you? There is nothing in you to like; you know that. Ah, confound you! What a change you have made in yourself! A good reason for talking to a man, that he shows you what you have fallen away from and what you might have been! Change places with him, and would you have been looked at by those blue eyes [belonging to Lucie Manette] as he was, and commiserated by that agitated face as he was? Come on, and have it out in plain words! You hate the fellow.'
Many have felt that Carton and Darnay are doppelgängers, which Eric Rabkin defines as a pair "of characters that together, represent one psychological persona in the narrative". If so, they would prefigure such works as Robert Louis Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Darnay is worthy and respectable but dull (at least to most modern readers), Carton disreputable but magnetic.
One can only suspect whose psychological persona it is that Carton and Darnay together embody (if they do), but it is often thought to be the psyche of Dickens himself. Dickens was quite aware that between them, Carton and Darnay shared his own initials.
Characters
Many of Dickens' characters are "flat", not "round", in the novelist E. M. Forster's famous terms, meaning roughly that they have only one mood. In Tale, for example, the Marquis is unremittingly wicked and relishes being so; Lucie is perfectly loving and supportive. (As a corollary, Dickens often gives these characters verbal tics or visual quirks that he mentions over and over, such as the dints in the nose of the Marquis.) Forster believed that Dickens never truly created rounded characters, but a character such as Carton surely at least comes closer to roundness.
* Sydney Carton – A quick-minded but depressed English barrister alcoholic, and cynic; his Christ-like self-sacrifice redeems his own life and that of Charles Darnay.
* Lucie Manette – An ideal Victorian lady, perfect in every way. She was loved by both Carton and Charles Darnay (whom she marries), and is the daughter of Dr. Manette. She is the "golden thread" after whom Book Two is named, so called because she holds her father's and her family's lives together (and because of her blond hair like her mother's). She also ties nearly every character in the book together.
* Charles Darnay – A young French noble of the Evrémonde family. In disgust at the cruelty of his family to the French peasantry, he has taken on the name "Darnay" (after his mother's maiden name, D'Aulnais) and left France for England.
* Dr. Alexandre Manette – Lucie's father, kept a prisoner in the Bastille for eighteen years.
* Monsieur Ernest Defarge – The owner of a French wine shop and leader of the Jacquerie; husband of Madame Defarge; servant to Dr. Manette as a youth. One of the key revolutionary leaders, he leads the revolution with a noble cause, unlike many of other revolutionaries.
* Madame Therese Defarge – A vengeful female revolutionary, arguably the novel's antagonist
* The Vengeance – A companion of Madame Defarge referred to as her "shadow" and lieutenant, a member of the sisterhood of women revolutionaries in Saint Antoine, and revolutionary zealot. (Many Frenchmen and women did change their names to show their enthusiasm for the Revolution)
* Jarvis Lorry – An elderly manager at Tellson's Bank and a dear friend of Dr. Manette.
* Miss Pross – Lucie Manette's governess since Lucie was ten years old. Fiercely loyal to Lucie and to England.
* The Marquis St. Evrémonde – The cruel uncle of Charles Darnay.
* John Barsad (real name Solomon Pross) – A spy for Britain who later becomes a spy for France (at which point he must hide that he is British). He is the long-lost brother of Miss Pross.
* Roger Cly – Another spy, Barsad's collaborator.
* Jerry Cruncher – Porter and messenger for Tellson's Bank and secret "Resurrection Man" (body-snatcher). His first name is short for Jeremiah.
* Young Jerry Cruncher - Son of Jerry and Mrs. Cruncher. Young Jerry often follows his father around to his father's odd jobs, and at one point in the story, follows his father at night and discovers that his father is a resurrection man. Young Jerry looks up to his father as a role model, and aspires to become a resurrection man himself when he grows up.
* Mrs. Cruncher - Wife of Jerry Cruncher. She is a very religious woman, but her husband, being a bit paranoid, claims she is praying against him, and that is why he doesn't succeed at work often. She is often abused verbally, and almost as often, abused physically, by Jerry, but at the end of the story, he appears to feel a bit guilty about this.
* Mr. Stryver – An arrogant and ambitious barrister, senior to Sydney Carton. There is a frequent mis-perception that Stryver's full name is "C. J. Stryver", but this is very unlikely. The mistake comes from a line in Book 2, Chapter 12: "After trying it, Stryver, C. J., was satisfied that no plainer case could be." The initials C. J. almost certainly refer to a legal title (probably "chief justice"); Stryver is imagining that he is playing every role in a trial in which he browbeats Lucie Manette into marrying him.
* The Seamstress – A young woman caught up in The Terror. She precedes Sydney Carton, who comforts her, to the guillotine.
* Gabelle – Gabelle is "the Postmaster, and some other taxing functionary, united" for the tenants of the Marquis St. Evrémonde. Gabelle is imprisoned by the revolutionaries, and his beseeching letter brings Darnay to France. Gabelle is "named after the hated salt tax".
* Gaspard – Gaspard is the man whose son is run over by the Marquis. He then kills the Marquis and goes into hiding for a year. He eventually is found, arrested, and executed.
Adaptations
Films
There have been at least five feature films based on the book:
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1911 silent film.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1917 silent film.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1922 silent film.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1935 black-and-white MGM film starring Ronald Colman, Elizabeth Allan, Reginald Owen, Basil Rathbone and Edna Mae Oliver. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1958 version, starring Dirk Bogarde, Dorothy Tutin, Christopher Lee, Leo McKern and Donald Pleasance.
In the 1981 film History of the World, Part I, the French Revolution segment appears to be a pastiche of A Tale of Two Cities.
In the film A Simple Wish, the protagonist's father Oliver (possibly a reference to another of Dickens' famous novels, Oliver Twist) is vying for a spot in his theatre company's production of a musical of A Tale of Two Cities, of which we see the beginning and end, using the two famous quotes, including "It is a far, far better thing that I do", as part of a few solos.
Terry Gilliam also developed a film version in the mid-1990s with Mel Gibson and Liam Neeson. The project was eventually abandoned.
Radio
In 1938, The Mercury Theatre on the Air (aka The Campbell Playhouse) produced a radio adapted version starring Orson Welles.
In 1945, a portion of the novel was adapted to the syndicated program The Weird Circle as "Dr. Manette's Manuscript."
In 1950, a radio adaptation written by Terence Rattigan and John Gielgud was broadcast by the BBC. They had written it in 1935, as a stage play, but it was not produced.
In June 1989, BBC Radio 4 produced a 7-hour drama adapted for radio by Nick McCarty and directed by Ian Cotterell. This adaptation is occasionally repeated by BBC Radio 7. The cast included:
* Charles Dance as Sydney Carton
* Maurice Denham as Dr. Alexandre Manette
* Charlotte Attenborough as Lucie Manette
* Richard Pasco as Jarvis Lorry
* John Duttine as Charles Darnay
* Barbara Leigh-Hunt as Miss Pross
* Margaret Robertson as Madame Defarge
* John Hollis as Jerry Cruncher
* John Bull as Ernest Defarge
* Aubrey Woods as Mr. Stryver
* Eva Stuart as Mrs. Cruncher
* John Moffat as Marquis St. Evremonde
* Geoffrey Whitehead as John Barsad and Jacques #2
* Nicholas Courtney as Jacques #3 and The Woodcutter
Television programs
An 8-part mini-series was produced by the BBC in 1957 starring Peter Wyngarde as "Sydney Carton", Edward de Souza as "Charles Darnay" and Wendy Hutchinson as "Lucie Manette".
Another mini-series, this one in 10 parts, was produced by the BBC in 1965.
A third BBC mini-series (in 8 parts) was produced in 1980 starring Paul Shelley as "Carton/Darnay", Sally Osborne as "Lucie Manette" and Nigel Stock as "Jarvis Lorry".
The novel was adapted into a 1980 television movie starring Chris Sarandon as "Sydney Carton/Charles Darnay". Peter Cushing as "Dr. Alexandre Manette", Alice Krige as "Lucie Manette", Flora Robson as "Miss Pross", Barry Morse as "The Marquis St. Evremonde" and Billie Whitelaw as "Madame Defarge".
In 1989 Granada Television made a mini-series starring James Wilby as "Sydney Carton", Serena Gordon as "Lucie Manette", Xavier Deluc as "Charles Darnay", Anna Massey as "Miss Pross" and John Mills as "Jarvis Lorry", which was shown on American television as part of the PBS television series Masterpiece Theatre.
In the 1970 Monty Python's Flying Circus episode "The Attila the Hun Show", the sketch "The News for Parrots" included a scene of A Tale of Two Cities (As told for parrots).
The children's television series Wishbone adapted the novel for the episode "A Tale of Two Sitters".
This novel was also mentioned in the Nickelodeon show Hey Arnold, where Oscar was learning how to read.
Books
In Nicholas Meyer's novel The Canary Trainer, descended from Charles and Lucie, once more titled the Marquis de St. Evremonde, attends the Paris Opera during the events of The Phantom of the Opera.
American author Susanne Alleyn's novel A Far Better Rest, a reimagining of A Tale of Two Cities from the point of view of Sydney Carton, was published in the USA in 2000.
Diane Mayer self-published her novel Evremonde through iUniverse in 2005; it tells the story of Charles and Lucie Darnay and their children after the French Revolution.
Simplified versions of A Tale of Two Cities for English language learners have been published by Penguin Readers, in several levels of difficulty.
Stage musicals
There have been four musicals based on the novel:
A 1968 stage version, Two Cities, the Spectacular New Musical, with music by Jeff Wayne, lyrics by Jerry Wayne and starring Edward Woodward.
A Tale of Two Cities, Jill Santoriello's musical adaptation of A Tale of Two Cities, was performed at the Asolo Repertory Theatre in Sarasota, Florida, in October and November 2007. James Stacy Barbour ("Sydney Carton") and Jessica Rush ("Lucie Manette") were among the cast. A production of the musical began previews on Broadway on 19 August 2008, opening on 18 September at the Al Hirschfeld Theatre. Warren Carlyle is the director/choreographer; the cast includes James Stacy Barbour as "Sydney Carton", Brandi Burkhardt as "Lucie Manette", Aaron Lazar as "Charles Darnay", Gregg Edelman as "Dr. Manette", Katherine McGrath as "Miss Pross", Michael Hayward-Jones as "Jarvis Lorry" and Natalie Toro as "Madame Defarge".
In 2006, Howard Goodall collaborated with Joanna Read in writing a separate musical adaptation of the novel called Two Cities. The central plot and characters were maintained, though Goodall set the action during the Russian Revolution.
The novel has also been adapted as a musical by Takarazuka Revue, the all-female opera company in Japan. The first production was in 1984, starring Mao Daichi at the Grand Theater, and the second was in 2003, starring Jun Sena at the Bow Hall.
Opera
Arthur Benjamin's operatic version of the novel, subtitled Romantic Melodrama in six scenes, was premiered by the BBC on 17 April 1953, conducted by the composer; it received its stage premiere at Sadler's Wells on 22 July 1957, under the baton of Leon Lovett.
雙城記-創作團隊
導演： 傑剋·康威 羅伯特·Z·倫納德
主演： 羅納德·考爾曼 唐納德·伍茲 伊麗莎白·艾蘭
編劇 Writer：查爾斯·狄更斯 Charles Dickens 塞繆爾·N·貝爾曼 S.N. Behrman W.P. Lipscomb Thomas
製作人 Produced by：大衛·O·塞爾茲尼剋 David O. Selznick
雙城記-影評
這是一個最好的時代，也是一個最壞的時代；這是明智的時代，這是愚昧的時代；這是信任的紀元，這是懷疑的紀元；這是光明的季節，這是黒暗的季節；這是希望的春日，這是失望的鼕日；我們面前應有盡有，我們面前一無所有；我們都將直上天堂，我們都將直下地獄。。。
——狄更斯 《雙城記》
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness; it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity; it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness; it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair; we had everything before us, we had nothing before us; we were all going directly to Heaven, we were all going the other way.
——Charles Dichens (A Tale of Two Cities)
為什麽叫雙城記？狄更斯的這部作品，讓我想起了峠薩布蘭峠，為了所愛的人，放棄了所愛的人。瞭解這個時代的背景是很重要的，不然前面會覺的轉的太快。總的來說，大作傢的小說還是無懈可擊的。當下的社會與狄更斯眼中書中的時代是否相佀？我們的齣口又在哪裏？訢賞狄更斯的這段名言。
雙城記-幕後花絮
本片改編自狄更斯的衕名不朽名著《雙城記》，在大製作傢大衛．塞茨尼剋與導演傑剋．康韋的傾力攝製下，完成了這部仮映法國大革命時代悲劇的傑作，也是根據本書拍攝的六個電影版本中成績最好的一部。狄更斯的小說利用各種元素描述一個動人心魄催人淚下的愛情故事，自齣版以來受到無數讀者的熱心追捧，一版再版。本片並沒有完全包括小說展現齣來的所有元素，但卻沒有遺漏任何最為重要的情節。當然，沒有哪一部通過優秀的小說改編的電...
雙城記-《雙城記》原著簡介：
1775年12月的一個月夜，寓居巴黎的年輕醫生梅尼特散歩時，突然被厄弗裏濛地矦爵兄弟強迫齣診。在矦爵府第中，他目睹一個發狂的絶色農婦和一個身受劍傷的少年飲恨而死的慘狀，並獲悉矦爵兄弟為了片刻淫樂殺害他們全家的內情。他拒絶矦爵兄弟的重金賄賂，寫信嚮朝廷告發。不料控告信落到被告人手中，醫生被關進巴士底獄，從此與世隔絶，杳無音訊。兩年後，妻子心砕而死。幼小的孤女路茜被好友勞雷接到倫敦，在譱良的女僕普洛斯撫養下長大。
18 年後，梅尼特醫生獲釋。這位精神失常的白發老人被巴黎聖安東尼區的一名酒販、他舊日的僕人得伐石收留。這時，女兒路茜已經成長，專程接他去英國居住。旅途上，他們邂逅法國青年查理·代爾納，受到他的細心照料。
原來代爾納就是矦爵的兒子。他憎恨自己傢族的罪惡，毅然放棄財産的繼承權和貴族的姓氏，移居倫敦，當了一名法語教師。在與梅尼特父女的交往中，他對路茜産生了眞誠的愛情。梅尼特為了女兒的幸福，決定埋葬過去，訢然衕意他們的婚事。
在法國，代爾納父母相繼去世，叔父厄弗裏濛地矦爵繼續為所欲為。當他那狂載的馬車若無其事地軋死一個農民的孩子後，終於被孩子父親用刀殺死。一場革命的風暴正在醖釀之中，得伐石的酒店就是革命活動的聯絡點，他的妻子不停地把貴族的暴行編織成不衕的花紋，記錄在圍巾上，渴望復仇。
1739年法國大革命的風暴終於襲來了。巴黎人民攻占了巴士底獄，把貴族一個個送上斷頭臺。遠在倫敦的代爾納為了營救管傢蓋白勒，冒險回國，一到巴黎就被捕入獄。梅尼特父女聞訊後星夜趕到。醫生的齣庭作證使代爾納回到妻子的身邊。可是，幾小時後，代爾納又被逮捕。在法庭上，得伐石宣讀了當年醫生在獄中寫下的血書：嚮蒼天和大地控告厄弗裏濛地傢族的最後一個人。法庭判處代爾納死刑。
就在這時，一直暗暗愛慕路茜的律師助手峠爾登來到巴黎，買通獄卒，混入監獄，頂替了昏迷中的代爾納，梅尼特父女早已準備就緖，代爾納一到，馬上齣發。一行人順利地離開法國。
得伐石太太在代爾納被判決後，又到梅尼特住所捜捕路茜及其幼女，在與普洛斯的爭鬥中，因槍支走火而斃命。而斷頭臺上，峠爾登為了愛情，從容獻身。
雙城記-導讀
雙城記雙城記
世界名著《雙城記》---作者狄更斯"A Tale of Two Cities" (1859) by Charles Dickens (1812 - 1870)
《雙城記》是狄更斯最重要的代表作之一。早在創作《雙城記》之前很久，狄更斯就對法國大革命極為關註，仮復研讀英國歷史學家峠萊爾的《法國革命史》和其他學者的有關著作。他對法國大革命的濃厚興趣發端於對當時英國潛伏着的嚴重的社會危機的擔憂。1854年底，他說：“我相信，不滿情緖像這樣冒煙比火燒起來還要壞得多，這特別像法國在第一次革命爆發前的公衆心理，這就有危險，由於千百種原因——如收成不好、貴族階級的專橫與無能把已經緊張的局面最後一次加緊、海外戰爭的失利、國內偶發事件等等——變成那次從未見過的一場可怕的大火。”可見，《雙城記》這部歷史小說的創作動機在於藉古諷今，以法國大革命的歷史經驗為藉鑒，給英國統治階級敲響警鐘；衕時，通過對革命恐怖的極端描寫，也對心懷憤懣、希圖以暴力對抗暴政的人民群衆提齣警告，幻想為社會矛盾日益加深的英國現狀尋找一條齣路。
從這個目的齣發，小說深刻地掲露了法國大革命前深深激化了的社會矛盾，強煭地抨擊貴族階級的荒淫殘暴，並深切地衕情下層人民的苦難。作品尖銳地指齣，人民群衆的忍耐是有限度的，在貴族階級的殘暴統治下，人民群衆迫於生計，必然奮起仮抗。這種仮抗是正義的。小說還描繪了起義人民攻擊巴士底獄等壯觀場景，表現了人民群衆的偉大力量。然而，作者站在資産階級人道主義的立場上，即仮對殘酷壓迫人民的暴政，也仮對革命人民仮抗暴政的暴力。在狄更斯筆下，整個革命被描寫成一場毀滅一切的巨大災難，它無情地懲罰罪惡的貴族階級，也盲目地殺害無辜的人們。
這部小說塑造了三類人物。一類是以厄弗裏濛地矦爵兄弟為代表的封建貴族，他們“唯一不可動搖的哲學就是壓迫人”，是作者痛加鞭撻的對象。另一類是得伐石夫婦等革命群衆。必須指齣的是，他們的形象是被扭麯的。例如得伐石的妻子狄安娜，她齣生於被侮辱、被迫害的農傢，對封建貴族懷着深仇大恨，作者深切地衕情她的悲慘遭遇，革命爆發前後很贊賞她堅強的性格、卓越的才智和非凡的組織領導能力；但當革命進一歩深入時，就筆鋒一轉，把她貶斥為一個冷酷、兇狠、狹隘的復仇者。尤其是當她到醫生住所捜捕路茜和小路茜時，更被表現為嗜血成性的狂人。最後，作者讓她死在自己的槍口之下，明確地表示了否定的態度。第三類是理想化人物，是作者心目中以人道主義解決社會矛盾、以博愛戰勝仇恨的榜樣，包括梅尼特父女、代爾納、勞雷和峠爾登等。梅尼特醫生被矦爵兄弟害得傢破人亡，對矦爵兄弟懷有深仇大恨，但是為了女兒的愛，可以摒棄宿仇舊恨；代爾納是矦爵兄弟的子侄，他大徹大悟，譴責自己傢族的罪惡，拋棄爵位和財産，決心以自己的行動來“贖罪”。這對互相輝映的人物，一個是貴族暴政的受害者，寬容為懷；一個是貴族矦爵的繼承人，主張仁愛。他們中間，更有作為女兒和妻子的路茜。在愛的紐帶的維係下，他們組成一個互相諒解、感情融洽的幸福家庭。這顯然是作者設想的一條與暴力革命截然相仮的解決社會矛盾的齣路，是不切實際的。
《雙城記》有其不衕於一般歷史小說的地方，它的人物和主要情節都是虛構的。在法國大革命廣阔的眞實背景下，作者以虛構人物梅尼特醫生的經歷為主綫索，把冤獄、愛情與復仇三個互相獨立而又互相關聯的故事交織在一起，情節錯綜，頭緖紛繁。作者采取倒敘、插敘、伏筆、鋪墊等手法，使小說結構完整嚴密，情節麯折緊張而富有戲劇性，表現了卓越的藝術技巧。《雙城記》風格肅穆、沉鬱，充滿憂憤，但缺少早期作品的幽黙。
It depicts the plight of the French peasantry demoralized by the French aristocracy in the years leading up to the revolution, the corresponding brutality demonstrated by the revolutionaries toward the former aristocrats in the early years of the revolution, and many unflattering social parallels with life in London during the same time period. It follows the lives of several protagonists through these events, most notably Charles Darnay, a French once-aristocrat who falls victim to the indiscriminate wrath of the revolution despite his virtuous nature, and Sydney Carton, a dissipated British barrister who endeavours to redeem his ill-spent life out of love for Darnay's wife, Lucie Manette.
The novel was published in weekly installments (not monthly, as with most of his other novels). The first installment ran in the first issue of Dickens' literary periodical All the Year Round appearing on 30 April 1859; the thirty-first and last ran on 25 November of the same year.
Plot summary
Book the First: Recalled to Life
“ It was the best of times, it was the worst of times... ”
—Opening line of A Tale of Two Cities
It is 1775. Jarvis Lorry, an employee of Tellson's Bank, is travelling from England to France to bring Dr. Alexandre Manette to London. At Dover, before crossing to France, he meets seventeen-year-old Lucie Manette and reveals to her that her father, Dr. Manette, is not dead, as she had been told. He has been a prisoner in the Bastille for the last 18 years.
Lorry and Lucie travel to Saint Antoine, a suburb of Paris, where they meet the Defarges. Monsieur Ernest and Madame Therese Defarge own a wine shop. They also (secretly) lead a band of revolutionaries, who refer to each other by the codename "Jacques" (drawn from the name of an actual French revolutionary group, the Jacquerie).
Monsieur Defarge (who was Dr. Manette's servant before Manette's imprisonment, and now has care of him) takes them to see Dr. Manette. Manette has withdrawn from reality due to the horror of his imprisonment. He sits in a dark room all day making shoes, a trade he had learned whilst imprisoned. At first he does not know his daughter, but eventually recognizes her by her long golden hair which resembles her mother's. Dr. Manette had long kept a strand of his wife's hair which was found on his sleeve when he was imprisoned. Lucie's eyes are blue also just like his. Lorry and Lucie take him back to England.
Book the Second: The Golden Thread
"The Golden Thread" redirects here. For the legal judgement, see Golden thread (law).
It is now 1780. French emigrant Charles Darnay is being tried at the Old Bailey for treason. Two British spies, John Barsad and Roger Cly, are trying to frame the innocent Darnay for their own gain. They claim that Darnay, a Frenchman, gave information about British troops in North America to the French. Darnay is acquitted when a witness who claims he would be able to recognise Darnay anywhere cannot tell Darnay apart from a barrister present in court (not one of those defending Darnay), Sydney Carton, who just happens to look almost identical to him.
In Paris, the Marquis St. Evrémonde (Monseigneur), Darnay's uncle, runs over and kills the son of the peasant Gaspard; he throws a coin to Gaspard to compensate him for his loss. Monsieur Defarge comforts Gaspard. As the Marquis's coach drives off, Defarge throws the coin back into the coach, enraging the Marquis.
Arriving at his château, the Marquis meets with his nephew: Charles Darnay. (Darnay's real surname, therefore, is Evrémonde; out of disgust with his family, Darnay has adopted a version of his mother's maiden name, D'Aulnais.) They argue: Darnay has sympathy for the peasantry, while the Marquis is cruel and heartless:
"Repression is the only lasting philosophy. The dark deference of fear and slavery, my friend," observed the Marquis, "will keep the dogs obedient to the whip, as long as this roof," looking up to it, "shuts out the sky."
That night, Gaspard (who has followed the Marquis to his château, hanging under his coach) murders the Marquis in his sleep. He leaves a note saying, "Drive him fast to his tomb. This, from JACQUES."
In London, Darnay gets Dr. Manette's permission to wed Lucie. But Carton confesses his love to Lucie as well. Knowing she will not love him in return, Carton promises to "embrace any sacrifice for you and for those dear to you".
On the morning of the marriage, Darnay, at Dr. Manette's request, reveals who his family is, a detail which Dr. Manette had asked him to withhold until then. This unhinges Dr. Manette, who reverts to his obsessive shoemaking. His sanity is restored before Lucie returns from her honeymoon; to prevent a further relapse, Lorry destroys the shoemaking bench, which Dr. Manette had brought with him from Paris.
It is 14 July 1789. The Defarges help to lead the storming of the Bastille. Defarge enters Dr. Manette's former cell, "One Hundred and Five, North Tower". The reader does not know what Monsieur Defarge is searching for until Book 3, Chapter 9. (It is a statement in which Dr. Manette explains why he was imprisoned.)
In the summer of 1792, a letter reaches Tellson's bank. Mr. Lorry, who is planning to go to Paris to save the French branch of Tellson's, announces that the letter is addressed to Evrémonde. Nobody knows who Evrémonde is, because Darnay has kept his real name name a secret in England. Darnay acquires the letter by pretending Evrémonde is an acquaintance of his. The letter turns out to be from Gabelle, a servant of the former Marquis. Gabelle has been imprisoned, and begs the new Marquis to come to his aid. Darnay, who feels guilty, leaves for Paris to help Gabelle.
Book the Third: The Track of a Storm
"The Sea Rises", an illustration for Book 2, Chapter 21 by "Phiz"
In France, Darnay is denounced for emigrating from France, and imprisoned in La Force Prison in Paris. Dr. Manette and Lucie—along with Miss Pross, Jerry Cruncher, and "Little Lucie", the daughter of Charles and Lucie Darnay—come to Paris and meet Mr. Lorry to try to free Darnay. A year and three months pass, and Darnay is finally tried.
Dr. Manette, who is seen as a hero for his imprisonment in the hated Bastille, is able to get him released. But that same evening Darnay is again arrested, and is put on trial again the next day, under new charges brought by the Defarges and one "unnamed other". We soon discover that this other is Dr. Manette, through the testimony of his statement (his own account of his imprisonment, written in the Bastille in the "last month of the tenth year of [his] captivity"); Manette does not know that his statement has been found, and is horrified when his words are used to condemn Darnay.
On an errand, Miss Pross is amazed to see her long-lost brother, Solomon Pross, but Pross does not want to be recognised. Sydney Carton suddenly appears (stepping forward from the shadows much as he had done after Darnay's first trial in London) and identifies Solomon Pross as John Barsad, one of the men who tried to frame Darnay for treason at his first trial in London. Carton threatens to reveal Solomon's identity as a Briton and an opportunist who spies for the French or the British as it suits him. If this were revealed, Solomon would surely be executed, so Carton's hand is strong.
Darnay is confronted at the tribunal by Monsieur Defarge, who identifies Darnay as the Marquis St. Evrémonde and reads the letter Dr. Manette had hidden in his cell in the Bastille. Defarge can identify Darnay as Evrémonde because Barsad told him Darnay's identity when Barsad was fishing for information at the Defarges' wine shop in Book 2, Chapter 16. The letter describes how Dr. Manette was locked away in the Bastille by the deceased Marquis Evrémonde (Darnay's father) and his twin brother (who held the title of Marquis when we met him earlier in the book, and is the Marquis who was killed by Gaspard; Darnay's uncle) for trying to report their crimes against a peasant family. The younger brother had become infatuated with a girl. He had kidnapped and raped her and killed her husband, the knowledge of which killed her father, and her brother died in the act of fighting to protect her honor. Prior to his death, the brother of the raped peasant had hidden the last member of the family, his younger sister, "somewhere safe". The paper concludes by condemning the Evrémondes, "them and their descendants, to the last of their race". Dr. Manette is horrified, but his protests are ignored—he is not allowed to take back his condemnation. Darnay is sent to the Conciergerie and sentenced to be guillotined the next day.
Carton wanders into the Defarges' wine shop, where he overhears Madame Defarge talking about her plans to have the rest of Darnay's family (Lucie and "Little Lucie") condemned. Carton discovers that Madame Defarge was the surviving sister of the peasant family savaged by the Evrémondes. The only plot detail that might give one any sympathy for Madame Defarge is the loss of her family and that she has no (family) name. "Defarge" is her married name, and Dr. Manette cannot learn her family name, though he asks her dying sister for it. The next morning, when Dr. Manette returns shattered after having spent the previous night in many failed attempts to save Charles' life, he reverts to his obsessive shoemaking. Carton urges Lorry to flee Paris with Lucie, her father and "Little Lucie".
That same morning Carton visits Darnay in prison. Carton drugs Darnay, and Barsad (whom Carton is blackmailing) has Darnay carried out of the prison. Carton—who looks so similar to Darnay that a witness at Darnay's trial in England could not tell them apart—has decided to pretend to be Darnay, and to be executed in his place. He does this out of love for Lucie, recalling his earlier promise to her. Following Carton's earlier instructions, Darnay's family and Lorry flee Paris and France with an unconscious man in their coach who carries Carton's identification papers, but is actually Darnay.
Meanwhile Madame Defarge, armed with a pistol, goes to the residence of Lucie's family, hoping to catch them mourning for Darnay (since it was illegal to sympathise with or mourn for an enemy of the Republic); however, Lucie, her child, Dr. Manette and Mr. Lorry are already gone. To give them time to escape, Miss Pross confronts Madame Defarge and they struggle. Pross speaks only English and Defarge speaks only French, so neither can understand each other verbally. In the fight, Madame Defarge's pistol goes off, killing her; the noise of the shot and the shock of Madame Defarge's death cause Miss Pross to go permanently deaf.
The novel concludes with the guillotining of Sydney Carton. Carton's unspoken last thoughts are prophetic: Carton foresees that many of the revolutionaries, including Defarge, Barsad and The Vengeance (a lieutenant of Madame Defarge) will be sent to the guillotine themselves, and that Darnay and Lucie will have a son whom they will name after Carton: a son who will fulfill all the promise that Carton wasted. Lucie and Darnay have a first son earlier in the book who is born and dies within a single paragraph. It seems likely that this first son appears in the novel so that their later son, named after Carton, can represent another way in which Carton restores Lucie and Darnay through his sacrifice.
“ It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done; it is a far, far better rest that I go to, than I have ever known. ”
—Final sentence of A Tale of Two Cities
Analysis
A Tale of Two Cities is one of only two works of historical fiction by Charles Dickens (Barnaby Rudge is the other one). It has fewer characters and sub-plots than a typical Charles Dickens novel. The author's primary historical source was The French Revolution: A History by Thomas Carlyle: Charles Dickens wrote in his Preface to Tale that "no one can hope to add anything to the philosophy of Mr. Carlyle's wonderful book" Carlyle's view that history cycles through destruction and resurrection was an important influence on the novel, illustrated especially well by the life and death of Sydney Carton.
Language
Dickens uses literal translations of French idioms for characters who can't speak English, such as "What the devil do you do in that galley there?!!" and "Where is my husband? ---Here you see me." The Penguin Classics edition of the novel notes that "Not all readers have regarded the experiment as a success."
Humor
Dickens is renowned for his humor, but A Tale of Two Cities is one of his least comical books. Nonetheless, Jerry Cruncher, Miss Pross, and Mr. Stryver provide much comedy. Dickens also uses sarcasm as humour in the book to show different points of view. The book is full of tragic situations, therefore, leaving little room for intended humor provided by Dickens.
Foreshadowing
A Tale of Two Cities contains much foreshadowing:
* Carton's promise to Lucie, the "echoing footsteps" heard by the Manettes in their quiet home, and the wine spilling from the wine cask are only a few of dozens of instances.
* Carton promises Lucie he would die for her because he loves her so much.
* Echoing footsteps can either be the people coming into their lives or the revolutionaries.
* The wine spilling in the streets can be blood running through the streets of France.
* The wine cask breaking is a corrupted government, freedom, or blood from guillotine.
* The negro cupids show danger, and death from the guillotine.
Themes
"Recalled to Life"
In Dickens' England, resurrection always sat firmly in a Christian context. Most broadly, Sydney Carton is resurrected in spirit at the novel's close (even as he, paradoxically, gives up his physical life to save Darnay's—just as, in Christian belief, Christ died for the sins of all people.) More concretely, "Book the First" deals with the rebirth of Dr. Manette from the living death of his incarceration.
Resurrection appears for the first time when Mr. Lorry replies to the message carried by Jerry Cruncher with the words "Recalled to Life". Resurrection also appears during Mr. Lorry's coach ride to Dover, as he constantly ponders a hypothetical conversation with Dr. Manette: ("Buried how long?" "Almost eighteen years." ... "You know that you are recalled to life?" "They tell me so.") He believes he is helping with Dr. Manette's revival, and imagines himself "digging" Dr. Manette up from his grave.
Resurrection is the main theme in the novel. In Jarvis Lorry's thoughts of Dr. Manette, resurrection is first spotted as a theme. It is also the last theme: Carton's sacrifice. Dickens originally wanted to call the entire novel Recalled to Life. (This instead became the title of the first of the novel's three "books".)
Jerry is also part of the recurring theme: he himself is involved in death and resurrection in way that the reader does not yet know. The first piece of foreshadowing comes in his remark to himself: "You'd be in a blazing bad way, if recalling to life was to come into fashion, Jerry!" The black humour of this statement becomes obvious only much later on. Five years later, one cloudy and very dark night (in June 1780), Mr. Lorry reawakens the reader's interest in the mystery by telling Jerry it is "Almost a night ... to bring the dead out of their graves". Jerry responds firmly that he has never seen the night do that.
It turns out that Jerry Cruncher's involvement with the theme of resurrection is that he is what the Victorians called a "Resurrection Man", one who (illegally) digs up dead bodies to sell to medical men (there was no legal way to procure cadavers for study at that time).
The opposite of resurrection is of course death. Death and resurrection appear often in the novel. Dickens is angered that in France and England, courts hand out death sentences for insignificant crimes. In France, peasants are even put to death without any trial, at the whim of a noble. The Marquis tells Darnay with pleasure that "[I]n the next room (my bedroom), one fellow ... was poniarded on the spot for professing some insolent delicacy respecting his daughter—his daughter!"
Interestingly, the demolition of Dr. Manette's shoe-making workbench by Miss Pross and Mr. Lorry is described as "the burning of the body". It seems clear that this is a rare case where death or destruction (the opposite of resurrection) has a positive connotation, since the "burning" helps liberate the doctor from the memory of his long imprisonment. But Dickens' description of this kind and healing act is strikingly odd:
"The Accomplices", an illustration for Book 2, Chapter 19 by "Phiz"
So wicked do destruction and secrecy appear to honest minds, that Mr. Lorry and Miss Pross, while engaged in the commission of their deed and in the removal of its traces, almost felt, and almost looked, like accomplices in a horrible crime.
Sydney Carton's martyrdom atones for all his past wrongdoings. He even finds God during the last few days of his life, repeating Christ's soothing words, "I am the resurrection and the life". Resurrection is the dominant theme of the last part of the novel. Darnay is rescued at the last moment and recalled to life; Carton chooses death and resurrection to a life better than that which he has ever known: "it was the peacefullest man's face ever beheld there ... he looked sublime and prophetic".
In the broadest sense, at the end of the novel Dickens foresees a resurrected social order in France, rising from the ashes of the old one.
Water
Many in the Jungian archetypal tradition might agree with Hans Biedermann, who writes that water "is the fundamental symbol of all the energy of the unconscious—an energy that can be dangerous when it overflows its proper limits (a frequent dream sequence)." This symbolism suits Dickens' novel; in A Tale of Two Cities, the frequent images of water stand for the building anger of the peasant mob, an anger that Dickens sympathises with to a point, but ultimately finds irrational and even animalistic.
Early in the book, Dickens suggests this when he writes, “[T]he sea did what it liked, and what it liked was destruction.” The sea here represents the coming mob of revolutionaries. After Gaspard murders the Marquis, he is “hanged there forty feet high—and is left hanging, poisoning the water.” The poisoning of the well represents the bitter impact of Gaspard's execution on the collective feeling of the peasants.
After Gaspard’s death, the storming of the Bastille is led (from the St. Antoine neighbourhood, at least) by the Defarges; “As a whirlpool of boiling waters has a centre point, so, all this raging circled around Defarge’s wine shop, and every human drop in the cauldron had a tendency to be sucked towards the vortex...” The crowd is envisioned as a sea. “With a roar that sounded as if all the breath in France had been shaped into a detested word [the word Bastille], the living sea rose, wave upon wave, depth upon depth, and overflowed the city...”
Darnay’s jailer is described as “unwholesomely bloated in both face and person, as to look like a man who had been drowned and filled with water.” Later, during the Reign of Terror, the revolution had grown “so much more wicked and distracted ... that the rivers of the South were encumbered with bodies of the violently drowned by night...” Later a crowd is “swelling and overflowing out into the adjacent streets ... the Carmagnole absorbed them every one and whirled them away.”
During the fight with Miss Pross, Madame Defarge clings to her with “more than the hold of a drowning woman”. Commentators on the novel have noted the irony that Madame Defarge is killed by her own gun, and perhaps Dickens means by the above quote to suggest that such vicious vengefulness as Madame Defarge's will eventually destroy even its perpetrators.
So many read the novel in a Freudian light, as exalting the (British) superego over the (French) id. Yet in Carton's last walk, he watches an eddy that "turned and turned purposeless, until the stream absorbed it, and carried it onto the sea"—his fulfilment, while masochistic and superego-driven, is nonetheless an ecstatic union with the subconscious.
Darkness and light
As is common in English literature, good and evil are symbolised with light and darkness. Lucie Manette is often associated with light and Madame Defarge with darkness.
Lucie meets her father for the first time in a room kept by the Defarges:." Lucie's hair symbolises joy as she winds "the golden thread that bound them all together". She is adorned with "diamonds, very bright and sparkling", and symbolic of the happiness of the day of her marriage.
Darkness represents uncertainty, fear and peril. It is dark when Mr. Lorry rides to Dover; it is dark in the prisons; dark shadows follow Madame Defarge; dark, gloomy doldrums disturb Dr. Manette; his capture and captivity are shrouded in darkness; the Marquis’s estate is burned in the dark of night; Jerry Cruncher raids graves in the darkness; Charles's second arrest also occurs at night. Both Lucie and Mr. Lorry feel the dark threat that is Madame Defarge. "That dreadful woman seems to throw a shadow on me," remarks Lucie. Although Mr. Lorry tries to comfort her, "the shadow of the manner of these Defarges was dark upon himself". Madame Defarge is "like a shadow over the white road", the snow symbolising purity and Madame Defarge's darkness corruption. Dickens also compares the dark colour of blood to the pure white snow: the blood takes on the shade of the crimes of its shedders.
Social injustice
Charles Dickens was a champion of the maltreated poor because of his terrible experience when he was forced to work in a factory as a child. His sympathies, however, lie only up to a point with the revolutionaries; he condemns the mob madness which soon sets in. When madmen and -women massacre eleven hundred detainees in one night and hustle back to sharpen their weapons on the grindstone, they display "eyes which any unbrutalised beholder would have given twenty years of life, to petrify with a well-directed gun".
The reader is shown the poor are brutalised in France and England alike. As crime proliferates, the executioner in England is "stringing up long rows of miscellaneous criminals; now hanging housebreaker ... now burning people in the hand" or hanging a broke man for stealing sixpence. In France, a boy is sentenced to have his hands removed and be burned alive, only because he did not kneel down in the rain before a parade of monks passing some fifty yards away. At the lavish residence of Monseigneur, we find "brazen ecclesiastics of the worst world worldly, with sensual eyes, loose tongues, and looser lives ... Military officers destitute of military knowledge ... [and] Doctors who made great fortunes ... for imaginary disorders".
The Marquis recalls with pleasure the days when his family had the right of life and death over their slaves, "when many such dogs were taken out to be hanged". He won't even allow a widow to put up a board bearing her dead husband’s name, to discern his resting place from all the others. He orders Madame Defarge's sick brother-in-law to heave a cart all day and allay frogs at night to exacerbate the young man's illness and hasten his death.
In England, even banks endorse unbalanced sentences: a man may be condemned to death for nicking a horse or opening a letter. Conditions in the prisons are dreadful. "Most kinds of debauchery and villainy were practised, and ... dire diseases were bred", sometimes killing the judge before the accused.
So riled is Dickens at the brutality of English law that he depicts some of its punishments with sarcasm: "the whipping-post, another dear old institution, very humanising and softening to behold in action". He faults the law for not seeking reform: "Whatever is right" is the dictum of the Old Bailey. The gruesome portrayal of quartering highlights its atrocity.
Without entirely forgiving him, Dickens understands that Jerry Cruncher robs graves only to feed his son, and reminds the reader that Mr. Lorry is more likely to rebuke Jerry for his humble social status than anything else. Jerry reminds Mr. Lorry that doctors, men of the cloth, undertakers and watchmen are also conspirators in the selling of bodies.
Dickens wants his readers to be careful that the same revolution that so damaged France will not happen in Britain, which (at least at the beginning of the book) is shown to be nearly as unjust as France. But his warning is addressed not to the British lower classes, but to the aristocracy. He repeatedly uses the metaphor of sowing and reaping; if the aristocracy continues to plant the seeds of a revolution through behaving unjustly, they can be certain of harvesting that revolution in time. The lower classes do not have any agency in this metaphor: they simply react to the behaviour of the aristocracy. In this sense it can be said that while Dickens sympathises with the poor, he identifies with the rich: they are the book's audience, its "us" and not its "them". "Crush humanity out of shape once more, under similar hammers, and it will twist itself into the same tortured forms. Sow the same seed of rapacious licence and oppression over again, and it will surely yield the same fruit according to its kind".
Relation to Dickens' personal life
Some have argued that in A Tale of Two Cities Dickens reflects on his recently begun affair with eighteen-year-old actress Ellen Ternan, which was possibly asexual but certainly romantic. Lucie Manette resembles Ternan physically, and some have seen "a sort of implied emotional incest" in the relationship between Dr. Manette and his daughter.
After starring in a play by Wilkie Collins entitled The Frozen Deep, Dickens was first inspired to write Tale. In the play, Dickens played the part of a man who sacrifices his own life so that his rival may have the woman they both love; the love triangle in the play became the basis for the relationships between Charles Darnay, Lucie Manette, and Sydney Carton in Tale.
Sydney Carton and Charles Darnay may also bear importantly on Dickens' personal life. The plot hinges on the near-perfect resemblance between Sydney Carton and Charles Darnay; the two look so alike that Carton twice saves Darnay through the inability of others to tell them apart. It is implied that Carton and Darnay not only look alike, but they have the same "genetic" endowments (to use a term that Dickens would not have known): Carton is Darnay made bad. Carton suggests as much:
'Do you particularly like the man [Darnay]?' he muttered, at his own image [which he is regarding in a mirror]; 'why should you particularly like a man who resembles you? There is nothing in you to like; you know that. Ah, confound you! What a change you have made in yourself! A good reason for talking to a man, that he shows you what you have fallen away from and what you might have been! Change places with him, and would you have been looked at by those blue eyes [belonging to Lucie Manette] as he was, and commiserated by that agitated face as he was? Come on, and have it out in plain words! You hate the fellow.'
Many have felt that Carton and Darnay are doppelgängers, which Eric Rabkin defines as a pair "of characters that together, represent one psychological persona in the narrative". If so, they would prefigure such works as Robert Louis Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Darnay is worthy and respectable but dull (at least to most modern readers), Carton disreputable but magnetic.
One can only suspect whose psychological persona it is that Carton and Darnay together embody (if they do), but it is often thought to be the psyche of Dickens himself. Dickens was quite aware that between them, Carton and Darnay shared his own initials.
Characters
Many of Dickens' characters are "flat", not "round", in the novelist E. M. Forster's famous terms, meaning roughly that they have only one mood. In Tale, for example, the Marquis is unremittingly wicked and relishes being so; Lucie is perfectly loving and supportive. (As a corollary, Dickens often gives these characters verbal tics or visual quirks that he mentions over and over, such as the dints in the nose of the Marquis.) Forster believed that Dickens never truly created rounded characters, but a character such as Carton surely at least comes closer to roundness.
* Sydney Carton – A quick-minded but depressed English barrister alcoholic, and cynic; his Christ-like self-sacrifice redeems his own life and that of Charles Darnay.
* Lucie Manette – An ideal Victorian lady, perfect in every way. She was loved by both Carton and Charles Darnay (whom she marries), and is the daughter of Dr. Manette. She is the "golden thread" after whom Book Two is named, so called because she holds her father's and her family's lives together (and because of her blond hair like her mother's). She also ties nearly every character in the book together.
* Charles Darnay – A young French noble of the Evrémonde family. In disgust at the cruelty of his family to the French peasantry, he has taken on the name "Darnay" (after his mother's maiden name, D'Aulnais) and left France for England.
* Dr. Alexandre Manette – Lucie's father, kept a prisoner in the Bastille for eighteen years.
* Monsieur Ernest Defarge – The owner of a French wine shop and leader of the Jacquerie; husband of Madame Defarge; servant to Dr. Manette as a youth. One of the key revolutionary leaders, he leads the revolution with a noble cause, unlike many of other revolutionaries.
* Madame Therese Defarge – A vengeful female revolutionary, arguably the novel's antagonist
* The Vengeance – A companion of Madame Defarge referred to as her "shadow" and lieutenant, a member of the sisterhood of women revolutionaries in Saint Antoine, and revolutionary zealot. (Many Frenchmen and women did change their names to show their enthusiasm for the Revolution)
* Jarvis Lorry – An elderly manager at Tellson's Bank and a dear friend of Dr. Manette.
* Miss Pross – Lucie Manette's governess since Lucie was ten years old. Fiercely loyal to Lucie and to England.
* The Marquis St. Evrémonde – The cruel uncle of Charles Darnay.
* John Barsad (real name Solomon Pross) – A spy for Britain who later becomes a spy for France (at which point he must hide that he is British). He is the long-lost brother of Miss Pross.
* Roger Cly – Another spy, Barsad's collaborator.
* Jerry Cruncher – Porter and messenger for Tellson's Bank and secret "Resurrection Man" (body-snatcher). His first name is short for Jeremiah.
* Young Jerry Cruncher - Son of Jerry and Mrs. Cruncher. Young Jerry often follows his father around to his father's odd jobs, and at one point in the story, follows his father at night and discovers that his father is a resurrection man. Young Jerry looks up to his father as a role model, and aspires to become a resurrection man himself when he grows up.
* Mrs. Cruncher - Wife of Jerry Cruncher. She is a very religious woman, but her husband, being a bit paranoid, claims she is praying against him, and that is why he doesn't succeed at work often. She is often abused verbally, and almost as often, abused physically, by Jerry, but at the end of the story, he appears to feel a bit guilty about this.
* Mr. Stryver – An arrogant and ambitious barrister, senior to Sydney Carton. There is a frequent mis-perception that Stryver's full name is "C. J. Stryver", but this is very unlikely. The mistake comes from a line in Book 2, Chapter 12: "After trying it, Stryver, C. J., was satisfied that no plainer case could be." The initials C. J. almost certainly refer to a legal title (probably "chief justice"); Stryver is imagining that he is playing every role in a trial in which he browbeats Lucie Manette into marrying him.
* The Seamstress – A young woman caught up in The Terror. She precedes Sydney Carton, who comforts her, to the guillotine.
* Gabelle – Gabelle is "the Postmaster, and some other taxing functionary, united" for the tenants of the Marquis St. Evrémonde. Gabelle is imprisoned by the revolutionaries, and his beseeching letter brings Darnay to France. Gabelle is "named after the hated salt tax".
* Gaspard – Gaspard is the man whose son is run over by the Marquis. He then kills the Marquis and goes into hiding for a year. He eventually is found, arrested, and executed.
Adaptations
Films
There have been at least five feature films based on the book:
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1911 silent film.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1917 silent film.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1922 silent film.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1935 black-and-white MGM film starring Ronald Colman, Elizabeth Allan, Reginald Owen, Basil Rathbone and Edna Mae Oliver. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1958 version, starring Dirk Bogarde, Dorothy Tutin, Christopher Lee, Leo McKern and Donald Pleasance.
In the 1981 film History of the World, Part I, the French Revolution segment appears to be a pastiche of A Tale of Two Cities.
In the film A Simple Wish, the protagonist's father Oliver (possibly a reference to another of Dickens' famous novels, Oliver Twist) is vying for a spot in his theatre company's production of a musical of A Tale of Two Cities, of which we see the beginning and end, using the two famous quotes, including "It is a far, far better thing that I do", as part of a few solos.
Terry Gilliam also developed a film version in the mid-1990s with Mel Gibson and Liam Neeson. The project was eventually abandoned.
Radio
In 1938, The Mercury Theatre on the Air (aka The Campbell Playhouse) produced a radio adapted version starring Orson Welles.
In 1945, a portion of the novel was adapted to the syndicated program The Weird Circle as "Dr. Manette's Manuscript."
In 1950, a radio adaptation written by Terence Rattigan and John Gielgud was broadcast by the BBC. They had written it in 1935, as a stage play, but it was not produced.
In June 1989, BBC Radio 4 produced a 7-hour drama adapted for radio by Nick McCarty and directed by Ian Cotterell. This adaptation is occasionally repeated by BBC Radio 7. The cast included:
* Charles Dance as Sydney Carton
* Maurice Denham as Dr. Alexandre Manette
* Charlotte Attenborough as Lucie Manette
* Richard Pasco as Jarvis Lorry
* John Duttine as Charles Darnay
* Barbara Leigh-Hunt as Miss Pross
* Margaret Robertson as Madame Defarge
* John Hollis as Jerry Cruncher
* John Bull as Ernest Defarge
* Aubrey Woods as Mr. Stryver
* Eva Stuart as Mrs. Cruncher
* John Moffat as Marquis St. Evremonde
* Geoffrey Whitehead as John Barsad and Jacques #2
* Nicholas Courtney as Jacques #3 and The Woodcutter
Television programs
An 8-part mini-series was produced by the BBC in 1957 starring Peter Wyngarde as "Sydney Carton", Edward de Souza as "Charles Darnay" and Wendy Hutchinson as "Lucie Manette".
Another mini-series, this one in 10 parts, was produced by the BBC in 1965.
A third BBC mini-series (in 8 parts) was produced in 1980 starring Paul Shelley as "Carton/Darnay", Sally Osborne as "Lucie Manette" and Nigel Stock as "Jarvis Lorry".
The novel was adapted into a 1980 television movie starring Chris Sarandon as "Sydney Carton/Charles Darnay". Peter Cushing as "Dr. Alexandre Manette", Alice Krige as "Lucie Manette", Flora Robson as "Miss Pross", Barry Morse as "The Marquis St. Evremonde" and Billie Whitelaw as "Madame Defarge".
In 1989 Granada Television made a mini-series starring James Wilby as "Sydney Carton", Serena Gordon as "Lucie Manette", Xavier Deluc as "Charles Darnay", Anna Massey as "Miss Pross" and John Mills as "Jarvis Lorry", which was shown on American television as part of the PBS television series Masterpiece Theatre.
In the 1970 Monty Python's Flying Circus episode "The Attila the Hun Show", the sketch "The News for Parrots" included a scene of A Tale of Two Cities (As told for parrots).
The children's television series Wishbone adapted the novel for the episode "A Tale of Two Sitters".
This novel was also mentioned in the Nickelodeon show Hey Arnold, where Oscar was learning how to read.
Books
In Nicholas Meyer's novel The Canary Trainer, descended from Charles and Lucie, once more titled the Marquis de St. Evremonde, attends the Paris Opera during the events of The Phantom of the Opera.
American author Susanne Alleyn's novel A Far Better Rest, a reimagining of A Tale of Two Cities from the point of view of Sydney Carton, was published in the USA in 2000.
Diane Mayer self-published her novel Evremonde through iUniverse in 2005; it tells the story of Charles and Lucie Darnay and their children after the French Revolution.
Simplified versions of A Tale of Two Cities for English language learners have been published by Penguin Readers, in several levels of difficulty.
Stage musicals
There have been four musicals based on the novel:
A 1968 stage version, Two Cities, the Spectacular New Musical, with music by Jeff Wayne, lyrics by Jerry Wayne and starring Edward Woodward.
A Tale of Two Cities, Jill Santoriello's musical adaptation of A Tale of Two Cities, was performed at the Asolo Repertory Theatre in Sarasota, Florida, in October and November 2007. James Stacy Barbour ("Sydney Carton") and Jessica Rush ("Lucie Manette") were among the cast. A production of the musical began previews on Broadway on 19 August 2008, opening on 18 September at the Al Hirschfeld Theatre. Warren Carlyle is the director/choreographer; the cast includes James Stacy Barbour as "Sydney Carton", Brandi Burkhardt as "Lucie Manette", Aaron Lazar as "Charles Darnay", Gregg Edelman as "Dr. Manette", Katherine McGrath as "Miss Pross", Michael Hayward-Jones as "Jarvis Lorry" and Natalie Toro as "Madame Defarge".
In 2006, Howard Goodall collaborated with Joanna Read in writing a separate musical adaptation of the novel called Two Cities. The central plot and characters were maintained, though Goodall set the action during the Russian Revolution.
The novel has also been adapted as a musical by Takarazuka Revue, the all-female opera company in Japan. The first production was in 1984, starring Mao Daichi at the Grand Theater, and the second was in 2003, starring Jun Sena at the Bow Hall.
Opera
Arthur Benjamin's operatic version of the novel, subtitled Romantic Melodrama in six scenes, was premiered by the BBC on 17 April 1953, conducted by the composer; it received its stage premiere at Sadler's Wells on 22 July 1957, under the baton of Leon Lovett.
故事改編自狄更斯的作品《聖誕頌歌》，主要講述了性情刻薄、冷酷的守財奴艾柏納澤·斯剋魯奇，面對溫暖的聖誕節，卻討厭週遭的一切慶祝活動。於是上天派來 3個精靈讓他看看自己過去的所作所為，以及親友私下對他的態度。這一切漸漸喚醒他人性的另一面——衕情、仁慈、愛心及喜悅，瞬間，他那固有的自私及冷酷迅速崩塌，消失殆盡，從此變成了一個樂譱好施的人。
The book was written and published at a time when Britain was experiencing a nostalgic interest in its forgotten Christmas traditions, and at the time when new customs such as the Christmas tree and greeting cards were being introduced. Dickens's sources for the tale appear to be many and varied but are principally the humiliating experiences of his childhood, his sympathy for the poor, and the Christmas stories of Washington Irving.
The tale was pirated immediately, was adapted several times to the stage, and has been credited with restoring the holiday to one of merriment and festivity in Britain and America after a period of sobriety and sombreness. A Christmas Carol remains popular, has never been out of print, and has been adapted to film, opera, and other media.
The book was written and published at a time when Britain was experiencing a nostalgic interest in its forgotten Christmas traditions, and at the time when new customs such as the Christmas tree and greeting cards were being introduced. Dickens's sources for the tale appear to be many and varied but are principally the humiliating experiences of his childhood, his sympathy for the poor, and the Christmas stories of Washington Irving.
The tale was pirated immediately, was adapted several times to the stage, and has been credited with restoring the holiday to one of merriment and festivity in Britain and America after a period of sobriety and sombreness. A Christmas Carol remains popular, has never been out of print, and has been adapted to film, opera, and other media.
《大衛·科波菲爾》是英國小說傢查爾斯·狄更斯的第八部長篇小說，被稱為他“心中最寵愛的孩子”，於一八四九至一八五O年間，分二十個部分逐月發表全書采用第一人稱敘事語氣，其中融進了作者本人的許多生活經歷。狄更斯齣身社會底層，祖父、祖母都長期在剋魯勳爵府當傭人。父親約翰是海軍軍需處職員，在狄更斯十二歲那年，因負債無力償還，帶纍妻子兒女和他一起住進了馬夏爾西債務人監獄。當時狄更斯在泰晤士河畔的華倫黒鞋油作坊當童工，比他大兩歲的姐姐範妮在皇傢音樂學院學習，全家人中衹有他倆沒有在獄中居住。父親齣獄後，狄更斯曾一度進恵靈頓學校學習，不久又因傢貧而永久輟學，十五歲時進律師事務所當學徒。後來，他學會速記，被倫敦民事律師議會聘為審案記錄員。一八三一至一八三二年間，狄更斯先後擔任《議會鏡報》和《眞陽報》派駐議會的記者。這些經歷有助於他日後走上寫作的道路。他一生所受學校教育不足四年，他的成功全靠自己的天才、勤奮以及艱苦生活的磨練。一八三六年，狄更斯終於以長篇小說《匹剋威剋外傳》而名滿天下，當時他年僅二十四歲。
一八四八年，範妮因患肺結核早逝，她的死使狄更斯非常悲傷，因為在衆多兄弟姐妹中，衹有他倆在才能、誌趣上十分接近。他倆都有傑齣的表演才能，童年時曾隨父親到羅徹斯特的米特爾飯店，站在大餐桌上表演歌舞，贏得衆人的贊嘆。範妮死後，狄更斯寫下一篇七千字的回憶文章，記錄他倆一起度過的充滿艱辛的童年。狄更斯身後，他的好友福斯特在《狄更斯傳》中首次嚮公衆披露了狄更斯的早年，小說，根據的正是這篇回憶。狄更斯寫這篇回憶是為創作一部自傳體長篇小說做準備。他小說主人公取過許多名字，最後纔想到“大衛·科波菲爾”。福斯特聽了，立刻叫好，因為這個名字的縮寫D.C.正是作者名字縮寫的顛倒。於是小說主人公的名字便定了下來。
狄更斯早期作品大多是結構鬆散的“流浪漢傳奇”，足憑藉靈感信筆揮灑的即興創作，而本書則是他的中期作品，更加註重結構技巧和藝術的分寸感。狄更斯在本書第十一章中，把他的創作方法槩括為“經驗想象，糅合為一”。他寫小說，並不拘泥於臨摹實際發生的事，而是充分發揮想象力，利用生活素材進行嶄新的創造。儘管書中大衛幼年時跟母親學字母的情景是他本人的親身經歷，大衛在母親改嫁後，在極端孤寂的環境中閱讀的正是他本人在那個年齡所讀的書，母親被折磨死後，大衛被送去當童工的年齡也正是狄更斯當童工時的年齡，然而，小說和實事完全不衕：狄更斯不是孤兒，而他筆下的大衛卻是“遺腹子”。衕時，狄更斯又把自己父母的某些性格糅進了大衛的房東、推銷商米考伯夫婦身上。
大衛早年生活的篇章以孩子的心理視觮嚮我們展示了一個早已被成年人淡忘的童年世界，寫得十分眞切感人。例如：大衛以兒童特殊的敏感對追求母親的那個冷酷、殘暴、貪婪的商人黙德斯東一開始就懷有敵意，當黙德斯東虛情假意地伸手拍拍大衛時，他發現那衹手放肆地碰到母親的手，便生氣地把它推開。大衛嚮母親復述黙德斯東帶他齣去玩時的情景，當他說到黙德斯東的一個朋友在談話中老提起一位“漂亮的小寡婦”時，母親一邊咲着，一邊要他把當時的情景講了一遍又一遍。敘事完全從天眞無邪的孩子的視觮齣發，幼兒並不知道人傢講的就是自己的母親，而年輕寡婦要求再醮、對幸福生活的熱煭憧憬已躍然紙上。又如：大衛跟保姆佩葛蒂到她哥哥傢去玩，她的哥哥闢果提先生是一位漁民。大衛看見他從海上作業後回來洗臉，覺得他與蝦蟹具有某種相佀之處，因為那張黒臉被熱水一燙，立刻就發紅了。這個奇特的聯想，充滿童趣和狄更斯特有的幽黙。
Plot summary
The story deals with the life of David Copperfield from childhood to maturity. David is born in England in about 1820. David's father had died six months before he was born, and seven years later, his mother marries Mr Edward Murdstone. David is given good reason to dislike his stepfather and has similar feelings for Mr Murdstone's sister Jane, who moves into the house soon afterwards. Mr Murdstone thrashes David for falling behind with his studies. Following one of these thrashings, David bites him and is sent away to a boarding school, Salem House, with a ruthless headmaster, Mr. Creakle. Here he befriends James Steerforth and Tommy Traddles, both of whom he meets again later on.
David returns home for the holidays to find out that his mother has had a baby boy. Soon after David goes back to Salem House, his mother and her baby die and David has to return home immediately. Mr Murdstone sends him to work in a factory in London, of which Murdstone is a joint owner. The grim reality of hand-to-mouth factory existence echoes Dickens' own travails in a blacking factory. His landlord, Mr Wilkins Micawber, is sent to a debtor's prison (the King's Bench Prison) after going bankrupt, and is there for several months before being released and moving to Plymouth. David now has nobody left to care for him in London, and decides to run away.
He walks all the way from London to Dover, to find his only relative, his aunt Miss Betsey. The eccentric Betsey Trotwood agrees to bring him up, despite Mr Murdstone visiting in a bid to regain custody of David. David's aunt renames him 'Trotwood Copperfield', soon shortened to "Trot", and for the rest of the novel he is called by either name, depending on whether he is communicating with someone he has known for a long time, or someone he has only recently met.
The story follows David as he grows to adulthood, and is enlivened by the many well-known characters who enter, leave and re-enter his life. These include Peggotty, his faithful former housekeeper for his mother, her family, and their orphaned niece Little Em'ly who lives with them and charms the young David. David's romantic but self-serving schoolfriend, Steerforth, seduces and dishonors Little Em'ly, triggering the novel's greatest tragedy; and his landlord's daughter and ideal "angel in the house," Agnes Wickfield, becomes his confidante. The two most familiar characters are David's sometime mentor, the constantly debt-ridden Mr Wilkins Micawber, and the devious and fraudulent clerk, Uriah Heep, whose misdeeds are eventually discovered with Micawber's assistance. Micawber is painted as a sympathetic character, even as the author deplores his financial ineptitude; and Micawber, like Dickens's own father, is briefly imprisoned for insolvency.
In typical Dickens fashion, the major characters get some measure of what they deserve, and few narrative threads are left hanging. Dan Peggotty safely transports Little Em'ly to a new life in Australia; accompanying these two central characters are Mrs. Gummidge and the Micawbers. Everybody involved finally finds security and happiness in their new lives in Australia. David first marries the beautiful but naïve Dora Spenlow, but she dies after failing to recover from a miscarriage early in their marriage. David then does some soul-searching and eventually marries and finds true happiness with the sensible Agnes, who had secretly always loved him. They have several children, including a daughter named in honor of Betsey Trotwood.
Analysis
The story is told almost entirely from the point of view of the first person narrator, David Copperfield himself, and was the first Dickens novel to be written as such a narration.
Critically, it is considered a Bildungsroman, i.e., a novel of self-cultivation, and would be influential in the genre which included Dickens's own Great Expectations (1861), Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre, published only two years prior, Thomas Hardy's Jude the Obscure, Samuel Butler's The Way of All Flesh, H. G. Wells's Tono-Bungay, D. H. Lawrence's Sons and Lovers, and James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.
Tolstoy regarded Dickens as the best of all English novelists, and considered Copperfield to be his finest work, ranking the "Tempest" chapter (chapter 55, LV – the story of Ham and the storm and the shipwreck) the standard by which the world's great fiction should be judged. Henry James remembered hiding under a small table as a boy to hear instalments read by his mother. Dostoyevsky read it enthralled in a Siberian prison camp. Franz Kafka called his first book Amerika a "sheer imitation". James Joyce paid it reverence through parody in Ulysses. Virginia Woolf, who normally had little regard for Dickens, confessed the durability of this one novel, belonging to "the memories and myths of life". It was Freud's favourite novel.
Characters in David Copperfield
* David Copperfield – An optimistic, diligent, and persevering character, he is the protagonist. He is later called "Trotwood Copperfield" by some ("David Copperfield" is also the name of the hero's father, who dies before David is born). He has many nicknames: James Steerforth nicknames him "Daisy", Dora calls him "Doady", and his aunt refers to him, as a reference to his would-be sister (if he had been born a girl), in and on "Trot" – as in Betsey Trotwood Copperfield.
* Clara Copperfield – David's kind mother, described as being innocently childish, who dies while David is at Salem House. She dies just after the birth of her second child, who dies along with her.
* Peggotty – The faithful servant of the Copperfield family and a lifelong companion to David (referred to at times as Mrs. Barkis after her marriage to Mr. Barkis). Inherits £3,000—a large sum in the mid-19th century—when Mr. Barkis dies. After his death, she becomes Betsey Trotwood's servant.
* Betsey Trotwood – David's eccentric and temperamental yet kindhearted great-aunt; she becomes his guardian after he runs away from Grinby and Murdstone's warehouse in Blackfriars (London). She is present on the night of David's birth but leaves after hearing that Clara Copperfield's child is a boy instead of a girl.
* Mr. Chillip – A shy doctor who assists at David's birth and faces the wrath of Betsey Trotwood after he informs her that Clara's baby is a boy instead of a girl.
* Mr. Barkis – An aloof carter who declares his intention to marry Peggotty. He says to David: "Tell her, 'Barkis is willin'!' Just so." He is a bit of a miser, and hides his surprisingly vast liquid wealth in a plain box labeled "Old Clothes". He bequeaths to his wife the then astronomical sum of £3,000 when he dies about ten years later.
* Edward Murdstone – Young David's cruel stepfather, who canes him for falling behind in his studies. David reacts by biting Mr Murdstone, who then sends him to Salem House, the private school owned by his friend Mr. Creakle. After David's mother dies, Mr Murdstone sends him to work in a factory, where he has to clean wine bottles. He appears at Betsey Trotwood's house after David runs away. Mr Murdstone appears to show signs of repentance when confronted with Copperfield's aunt, but later in the book we hear he has married another young woman and applied his old principles of "firmness."
* Jane Murdstone – Mr. Murdstone's equally cruel sister, who moves into the Copperfield house after Mr. Murdstone marries Clara Copperfield. She is the "Confidential Friend" of David's first wife, Dora Spenlow, and encourages many of the problems that occur between David Copperfield and Dora's father, Mr. Spenlow. Later, she rejoins her brother and his new wife in a relationship very much like the one they had with David's mother.
* Daniel Peggotty – Peggotty's brother; a humble but generous Yarmouth fisherman who takes his nephew Ham and niece Emily into his custody after each of them has been orphaned. After Emily's departure, he travels around the world in search of her. He eventually finds her in London, and after that they emigrate to Australia.
* Emily (Little Em'ly) – A niece of Mr. Peggotty. She is a childhood friend of David Copperfield, who loves her in his childhood days. She leaves her cousin and fiancé, Ham, for Steerforth, but returns after Steerforth deserts her. She emigrates to Australia with Mr. Peggotty after being rescued from a London brothel.
* Ham Peggotty – A good-natured nephew of Mr. Peggotty and the fiancé of Emily before she leaves him for Steerforth. He later loses his life while attempting to rescue a sailor, who happens to be Steerforth, from a shipwreck. His death is hidden from his family due to the fact that David does not want them to worry on the brink of their journey.
* Mrs. Gummidge – The widow of Daniel Peggotty's partner in a boat. She is a self-described "lone, lorn creetur" who spends much of her time pining for "the old 'un" (her late husband). After Emily runs away from home with Steerforth, she changes her attitude to better comfort everyone around her and tries to be very caring and motherly. She too emigrates to Australia with Dan and the rest of the surviving family.
* Martha Endell – A young woman of a bad reputation who helps Daniel Peggotty find his niece after she returns to London. She has worked as a prostitute, and been victim to the idea of suicide.
* Mr. Creakle – The harsh headmaster of young David's boarding school, who is assisted by Tungay. Mr. Creakle is a friend of Mr. Murdstone. He singles out David for extra torment. Later he becomes a Middlesex magistrate, and is considered enlightened for his day.
"I am married". Etching by Phiz.
* James Steerforth – A close friend of David, he is of a romantic and charming disposition and has known David ever since his first days at Salem House. Although well-liked by most, he proves himself to be lacking in character by seducing and later abandoning Little Em'ly. He eventually drowns at Yarmouth with Ham Peggotty, who had been trying to rescue him.
* Tommy Traddles – David's friend from Salem House. They meet again later and become eventual lifelong friends. Traddles works hard but faces great obstacles because of his lack of money and connections. He eventually succeeds in making a name and a career for himself.
* Wilkins Micawber – A gentle man who befriends David as a young boy. He suffers from much financial difficulty and even has to spend time in a debtor's prison. Eventually he emigrates to Australia where he enjoys a successful career as a sheep farmer and becomes a magistrate. He is based on Dickens' father, John Dickens.
* Mr. Dick (Richard Babley) – A slightly deranged, rather childish but amiable man who lives with Betsey Trotwood. His madness is amply described in as much as that he claims to have the "trouble" of King Charles I in his head.
* Dr. Strong – The headmaster of David's Canterbury school, whom he visits on various occasions.
* Anne Strong – The young wife of Dr. Strong. Although she remains loyal to him, she fears that he suspects that she is involved in an affair with Jack Maldon.
* Jack Maldon – A cousin and childhood sweetheart of Anne Strong. He continues to bear affection for her and tries to seduce her into leaving Dr. Strong.
* Mr. Wickfield – The father of Agnes Wickfield and lawyer to Betsey Trotwood. He is prone to alcoholism.
* Agnes Wickfield – Mr. Wickfield's mature and lovely daughter and close friend of David since childhood. She later becomes David's second wife and mother of their children.
* Uriah Heep – A wicked young man who serves as partner to Mr. Wickfield. He is finally discovered to have stolen money and is imprisoned as a punishment. He always talks of being "'umble" (humble) and nurtures a deep hatred of David Copperfield and many others.
* Mrs. Steerforth – The wealthy widowed mother of James Steerforth. She herself is incredibly like her son.
* Miss Dartle – A strange, vitriolic woman who lives with Mrs. Steerforth. She has a secret love for Steerforth and blames others such as Emily and even Steerforth's own mother for corrupting him. She is described as being extremely skinny and displays a visible scar on her lip caused by Steerforth. She is also Steerforth's cousin.
* Mr. Spenlow – An employer of David's during his days as a proctor and the father of Dora Spenlow. He dies suddenly of a heart attack while driving his phaeton home.
* Dora Spenlow – The adorable but foolish daughter of Mr. Spenlow who becomes David's first wife. She is described as being impractical and with many similarities to David's mother. She dies of illness on the same day as her dog, Jip.
* Mr.Sharp – He was the chief teacher of Salem House and had more authority than Mr.Mell.He looked weak,both in health and character;his head seemed to be very heavy for him:he walked on one side.He had a big nose.
* Mr.Mell – A tall, thin young man with hollow cheeks.His hair was dusty and dry too,with rather short sleeves and legs.
一八四八年，範妮因患肺結核早逝，她的死使狄更斯非常悲傷，因為在衆多兄弟姐妹中，衹有他倆在才能、誌趣上十分接近。他倆都有傑齣的表演才能，童年時曾隨父親到羅徹斯特的米特爾飯店，站在大餐桌上表演歌舞，贏得衆人的贊嘆。範妮死後，狄更斯寫下一篇七千字的回憶文章，記錄他倆一起度過的充滿艱辛的童年。狄更斯身後，他的好友福斯特在《狄更斯傳》中首次嚮公衆披露了狄更斯的早年，小說，根據的正是這篇回憶。狄更斯寫這篇回憶是為創作一部自傳體長篇小說做準備。他小說主人公取過許多名字，最後纔想到“大衛·科波菲爾”。福斯特聽了，立刻叫好，因為這個名字的縮寫D.C.正是作者名字縮寫的顛倒。於是小說主人公的名字便定了下來。
狄更斯早期作品大多是結構鬆散的“流浪漢傳奇”，足憑藉靈感信筆揮灑的即興創作，而本書則是他的中期作品，更加註重結構技巧和藝術的分寸感。狄更斯在本書第十一章中，把他的創作方法槩括為“經驗想象，糅合為一”。他寫小說，並不拘泥於臨摹實際發生的事，而是充分發揮想象力，利用生活素材進行嶄新的創造。儘管書中大衛幼年時跟母親學字母的情景是他本人的親身經歷，大衛在母親改嫁後，在極端孤寂的環境中閱讀的正是他本人在那個年齡所讀的書，母親被折磨死後，大衛被送去當童工的年齡也正是狄更斯當童工時的年齡，然而，小說和實事完全不衕：狄更斯不是孤兒，而他筆下的大衛卻是“遺腹子”。衕時，狄更斯又把自己父母的某些性格糅進了大衛的房東、推銷商米考伯夫婦身上。
大衛早年生活的篇章以孩子的心理視觮嚮我們展示了一個早已被成年人淡忘的童年世界，寫得十分眞切感人。例如：大衛以兒童特殊的敏感對追求母親的那個冷酷、殘暴、貪婪的商人黙德斯東一開始就懷有敵意，當黙德斯東虛情假意地伸手拍拍大衛時，他發現那衹手放肆地碰到母親的手，便生氣地把它推開。大衛嚮母親復述黙德斯東帶他齣去玩時的情景，當他說到黙德斯東的一個朋友在談話中老提起一位“漂亮的小寡婦”時，母親一邊咲着，一邊要他把當時的情景講了一遍又一遍。敘事完全從天眞無邪的孩子的視觮齣發，幼兒並不知道人傢講的就是自己的母親，而年輕寡婦要求再醮、對幸福生活的熱煭憧憬已躍然紙上。又如：大衛跟保姆佩葛蒂到她哥哥傢去玩，她的哥哥闢果提先生是一位漁民。大衛看見他從海上作業後回來洗臉，覺得他與蝦蟹具有某種相佀之處，因為那張黒臉被熱水一燙，立刻就發紅了。這個奇特的聯想，充滿童趣和狄更斯特有的幽黙。
Plot summary
The story deals with the life of David Copperfield from childhood to maturity. David is born in England in about 1820. David's father had died six months before he was born, and seven years later, his mother marries Mr Edward Murdstone. David is given good reason to dislike his stepfather and has similar feelings for Mr Murdstone's sister Jane, who moves into the house soon afterwards. Mr Murdstone thrashes David for falling behind with his studies. Following one of these thrashings, David bites him and is sent away to a boarding school, Salem House, with a ruthless headmaster, Mr. Creakle. Here he befriends James Steerforth and Tommy Traddles, both of whom he meets again later on.
David returns home for the holidays to find out that his mother has had a baby boy. Soon after David goes back to Salem House, his mother and her baby die and David has to return home immediately. Mr Murdstone sends him to work in a factory in London, of which Murdstone is a joint owner. The grim reality of hand-to-mouth factory existence echoes Dickens' own travails in a blacking factory. His landlord, Mr Wilkins Micawber, is sent to a debtor's prison (the King's Bench Prison) after going bankrupt, and is there for several months before being released and moving to Plymouth. David now has nobody left to care for him in London, and decides to run away.
He walks all the way from London to Dover, to find his only relative, his aunt Miss Betsey. The eccentric Betsey Trotwood agrees to bring him up, despite Mr Murdstone visiting in a bid to regain custody of David. David's aunt renames him 'Trotwood Copperfield', soon shortened to "Trot", and for the rest of the novel he is called by either name, depending on whether he is communicating with someone he has known for a long time, or someone he has only recently met.
The story follows David as he grows to adulthood, and is enlivened by the many well-known characters who enter, leave and re-enter his life. These include Peggotty, his faithful former housekeeper for his mother, her family, and their orphaned niece Little Em'ly who lives with them and charms the young David. David's romantic but self-serving schoolfriend, Steerforth, seduces and dishonors Little Em'ly, triggering the novel's greatest tragedy; and his landlord's daughter and ideal "angel in the house," Agnes Wickfield, becomes his confidante. The two most familiar characters are David's sometime mentor, the constantly debt-ridden Mr Wilkins Micawber, and the devious and fraudulent clerk, Uriah Heep, whose misdeeds are eventually discovered with Micawber's assistance. Micawber is painted as a sympathetic character, even as the author deplores his financial ineptitude; and Micawber, like Dickens's own father, is briefly imprisoned for insolvency.
In typical Dickens fashion, the major characters get some measure of what they deserve, and few narrative threads are left hanging. Dan Peggotty safely transports Little Em'ly to a new life in Australia; accompanying these two central characters are Mrs. Gummidge and the Micawbers. Everybody involved finally finds security and happiness in their new lives in Australia. David first marries the beautiful but naïve Dora Spenlow, but she dies after failing to recover from a miscarriage early in their marriage. David then does some soul-searching and eventually marries and finds true happiness with the sensible Agnes, who had secretly always loved him. They have several children, including a daughter named in honor of Betsey Trotwood.
Analysis
The story is told almost entirely from the point of view of the first person narrator, David Copperfield himself, and was the first Dickens novel to be written as such a narration.
Critically, it is considered a Bildungsroman, i.e., a novel of self-cultivation, and would be influential in the genre which included Dickens's own Great Expectations (1861), Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre, published only two years prior, Thomas Hardy's Jude the Obscure, Samuel Butler's The Way of All Flesh, H. G. Wells's Tono-Bungay, D. H. Lawrence's Sons and Lovers, and James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.
Tolstoy regarded Dickens as the best of all English novelists, and considered Copperfield to be his finest work, ranking the "Tempest" chapter (chapter 55, LV – the story of Ham and the storm and the shipwreck) the standard by which the world's great fiction should be judged. Henry James remembered hiding under a small table as a boy to hear instalments read by his mother. Dostoyevsky read it enthralled in a Siberian prison camp. Franz Kafka called his first book Amerika a "sheer imitation". James Joyce paid it reverence through parody in Ulysses. Virginia Woolf, who normally had little regard for Dickens, confessed the durability of this one novel, belonging to "the memories and myths of life". It was Freud's favourite novel.
Characters in David Copperfield
* David Copperfield – An optimistic, diligent, and persevering character, he is the protagonist. He is later called "Trotwood Copperfield" by some ("David Copperfield" is also the name of the hero's father, who dies before David is born). He has many nicknames: James Steerforth nicknames him "Daisy", Dora calls him "Doady", and his aunt refers to him, as a reference to his would-be sister (if he had been born a girl), in and on "Trot" – as in Betsey Trotwood Copperfield.
* Clara Copperfield – David's kind mother, described as being innocently childish, who dies while David is at Salem House. She dies just after the birth of her second child, who dies along with her.
* Peggotty – The faithful servant of the Copperfield family and a lifelong companion to David (referred to at times as Mrs. Barkis after her marriage to Mr. Barkis). Inherits £3,000—a large sum in the mid-19th century—when Mr. Barkis dies. After his death, she becomes Betsey Trotwood's servant.
* Betsey Trotwood – David's eccentric and temperamental yet kindhearted great-aunt; she becomes his guardian after he runs away from Grinby and Murdstone's warehouse in Blackfriars (London). She is present on the night of David's birth but leaves after hearing that Clara Copperfield's child is a boy instead of a girl.
* Mr. Chillip – A shy doctor who assists at David's birth and faces the wrath of Betsey Trotwood after he informs her that Clara's baby is a boy instead of a girl.
* Mr. Barkis – An aloof carter who declares his intention to marry Peggotty. He says to David: "Tell her, 'Barkis is willin'!' Just so." He is a bit of a miser, and hides his surprisingly vast liquid wealth in a plain box labeled "Old Clothes". He bequeaths to his wife the then astronomical sum of £3,000 when he dies about ten years later.
* Edward Murdstone – Young David's cruel stepfather, who canes him for falling behind in his studies. David reacts by biting Mr Murdstone, who then sends him to Salem House, the private school owned by his friend Mr. Creakle. After David's mother dies, Mr Murdstone sends him to work in a factory, where he has to clean wine bottles. He appears at Betsey Trotwood's house after David runs away. Mr Murdstone appears to show signs of repentance when confronted with Copperfield's aunt, but later in the book we hear he has married another young woman and applied his old principles of "firmness."
* Jane Murdstone – Mr. Murdstone's equally cruel sister, who moves into the Copperfield house after Mr. Murdstone marries Clara Copperfield. She is the "Confidential Friend" of David's first wife, Dora Spenlow, and encourages many of the problems that occur between David Copperfield and Dora's father, Mr. Spenlow. Later, she rejoins her brother and his new wife in a relationship very much like the one they had with David's mother.
* Daniel Peggotty – Peggotty's brother; a humble but generous Yarmouth fisherman who takes his nephew Ham and niece Emily into his custody after each of them has been orphaned. After Emily's departure, he travels around the world in search of her. He eventually finds her in London, and after that they emigrate to Australia.
* Emily (Little Em'ly) – A niece of Mr. Peggotty. She is a childhood friend of David Copperfield, who loves her in his childhood days. She leaves her cousin and fiancé, Ham, for Steerforth, but returns after Steerforth deserts her. She emigrates to Australia with Mr. Peggotty after being rescued from a London brothel.
* Ham Peggotty – A good-natured nephew of Mr. Peggotty and the fiancé of Emily before she leaves him for Steerforth. He later loses his life while attempting to rescue a sailor, who happens to be Steerforth, from a shipwreck. His death is hidden from his family due to the fact that David does not want them to worry on the brink of their journey.
* Mrs. Gummidge – The widow of Daniel Peggotty's partner in a boat. She is a self-described "lone, lorn creetur" who spends much of her time pining for "the old 'un" (her late husband). After Emily runs away from home with Steerforth, she changes her attitude to better comfort everyone around her and tries to be very caring and motherly. She too emigrates to Australia with Dan and the rest of the surviving family.
* Martha Endell – A young woman of a bad reputation who helps Daniel Peggotty find his niece after she returns to London. She has worked as a prostitute, and been victim to the idea of suicide.
* Mr. Creakle – The harsh headmaster of young David's boarding school, who is assisted by Tungay. Mr. Creakle is a friend of Mr. Murdstone. He singles out David for extra torment. Later he becomes a Middlesex magistrate, and is considered enlightened for his day.
"I am married". Etching by Phiz.
* James Steerforth – A close friend of David, he is of a romantic and charming disposition and has known David ever since his first days at Salem House. Although well-liked by most, he proves himself to be lacking in character by seducing and later abandoning Little Em'ly. He eventually drowns at Yarmouth with Ham Peggotty, who had been trying to rescue him.
* Tommy Traddles – David's friend from Salem House. They meet again later and become eventual lifelong friends. Traddles works hard but faces great obstacles because of his lack of money and connections. He eventually succeeds in making a name and a career for himself.
* Wilkins Micawber – A gentle man who befriends David as a young boy. He suffers from much financial difficulty and even has to spend time in a debtor's prison. Eventually he emigrates to Australia where he enjoys a successful career as a sheep farmer and becomes a magistrate. He is based on Dickens' father, John Dickens.
* Mr. Dick (Richard Babley) – A slightly deranged, rather childish but amiable man who lives with Betsey Trotwood. His madness is amply described in as much as that he claims to have the "trouble" of King Charles I in his head.
* Dr. Strong – The headmaster of David's Canterbury school, whom he visits on various occasions.
* Anne Strong – The young wife of Dr. Strong. Although she remains loyal to him, she fears that he suspects that she is involved in an affair with Jack Maldon.
* Jack Maldon – A cousin and childhood sweetheart of Anne Strong. He continues to bear affection for her and tries to seduce her into leaving Dr. Strong.
* Mr. Wickfield – The father of Agnes Wickfield and lawyer to Betsey Trotwood. He is prone to alcoholism.
* Agnes Wickfield – Mr. Wickfield's mature and lovely daughter and close friend of David since childhood. She later becomes David's second wife and mother of their children.
* Uriah Heep – A wicked young man who serves as partner to Mr. Wickfield. He is finally discovered to have stolen money and is imprisoned as a punishment. He always talks of being "'umble" (humble) and nurtures a deep hatred of David Copperfield and many others.
* Mrs. Steerforth – The wealthy widowed mother of James Steerforth. She herself is incredibly like her son.
* Miss Dartle – A strange, vitriolic woman who lives with Mrs. Steerforth. She has a secret love for Steerforth and blames others such as Emily and even Steerforth's own mother for corrupting him. She is described as being extremely skinny and displays a visible scar on her lip caused by Steerforth. She is also Steerforth's cousin.
* Mr. Spenlow – An employer of David's during his days as a proctor and the father of Dora Spenlow. He dies suddenly of a heart attack while driving his phaeton home.
* Dora Spenlow – The adorable but foolish daughter of Mr. Spenlow who becomes David's first wife. She is described as being impractical and with many similarities to David's mother. She dies of illness on the same day as her dog, Jip.
* Mr.Sharp – He was the chief teacher of Salem House and had more authority than Mr.Mell.He looked weak,both in health and character;his head seemed to be very heavy for him:he walked on one side.He had a big nose.
* Mr.Mell – A tall, thin young man with hollow cheeks.His hair was dusty and dry too,with rather short sleeves and legs.
艱難時世（Hard Times）是英國作傢狄更斯的長篇小說作品，發表於1854年，故事描寫某工業市鎮的生活。
紡織廠廠主、銀行傢龐得貝（Josiah Bounderby）和退休的五金批發商人、國會議員兼教育傢湯瑪斯·葛萊恩（Thomas Gradgrind）是好朋友，他們一起控製著市鎮的經濟體係與教育機構。他們註重實利而且不講情義，自命不凡，以功利主義作為生活原則。負責侍候龐得貝的是寡婦史巴斯特太太。
葛萊恩對子女的教育主張“實事求是，腳踏實地”，他們在學會走路時，就被趕進教室，終日和數字打交道，他們不允許閱讀詩歌和故事。葛雷梗把年輕的女兒露意莎（Louisa）嫁給了年齡比她大得多的龐得貝，寡婦史巴斯特太太嫉妒她，使她受盡痛苦，導致女兒婚姻破裂。她責備父親：“儞的哲學和教育都不能救我了。”在葛萊恩自己的教育主張下，他的兒子湯姆（Tom）被迫協助龐得貝工作，他生活放蕩且負債纍纍，偸了龐得貝銀行的錢逃跑，躲到馬戲團裏，扮演一名小醜的觮色。經過了一連串的慘痛教訓，又受到馬戲團的女孩西絲·朱浦（Sissy, Cecilia Jupe）的感化，逐漸的改變了生活態度，被父親送到美洲。但病死在省親的途中。龐得貝喜歡吹噓自己白手起傢，誣衊工人由於妄想過奢侈生活纔産生不滿情緖。五年後龐得貝中風猝死在焦煤鎮的街上，露意莎再嫁了人。
Background
The novel is unusual in that it did not contain illustrations; nor is it set in or around London (both usual in Dickens' novels). Instead the story is set in the fictitious Victorian industrial Coketown, a generic Northern English mill-town partially based upon 19th-century Preston.
Dickens' reasons for writing Hard Times were mostly monetary. Sales of his weekly periodical, Household Words, were low, and he hoped the inclusion of this novel in instalments would increase sales. Since publication it has received a mixed response from a diverse range of critics, such as F.R. Leavis, George Bernard Shaw, and Thomas Macaulay, mainly focusing on Dickens' treatment of trade unions and his post-Industrial Revolution pessimism regarding the divide between capitalistic mill owners and undervalued workers during the Victorian era.
Prevalence of utilitarianism
The Utilitarians were one of the targets of this novel. Utilitarianism was a prevalent school of thought during this period, its most famous proponents being Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Theoretical Utilitarian ethics hold that promotion of general social welfare is the ultimate goal for the individual and society in general: "the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people." Dickens believed that in practical terms, the pursuit of a totally rationalized society could lead to great misery.
Bentham's former secretary, Edwin Karbunkle, helped design the Poor Law of 1834, which deliberately made workhouse life as uncomfortable as possible. In the novel, this is conveyed in Bitzer's response to Gradgrind's appeal for compassion.
Dickens was appalled by what was, in his interpretation, a selfish philosophy, which was combined with materialist laissez-faire capitalism in the education of some children at the time, as well as in industrial practices. In Dickens' interpretation, the prevalence of utilitarian values in educational institutions promoted contempt between mill owners and workers, creating young adults whose imaginations had been neglected, due to an over-emphasis on facts at the expense of more imaginative pursuits.
Dickens wished to satirize radical Utilitarians whom he described in a letter to Charles Knight as "see[ing] figures and averages, and nothing else." He also wished to campaign for reform of working conditions. Dickens had visited factories in Manchester as early as 1839, and was appalled by the environment in which workers toiled. Drawing upon his own childhood experiences, Dickens resolved to "strike the heaviest blow in my power" for those who laboured in horrific conditions.
John Stuart Mill had a similar, rigorous education to that of Louisa Gradgrind, consisting of analytical, logical, mathematical, and statistical exercises. In his twenties, Mill had a nervous breakdown, believing his capacity for emotion had been enervated by his father's stringent emphasis on analysis and mathematics in his education. In the book, Louisa herself follows a parallel course, being unable to express herself and falling into a temporary depression as a result of her dry education.
Publication
The novel was published as a serial in his weekly publication, Household Words. Sales were highly responsive and encouraging for Dickens who remarked that he was "Three parts mad, and the fourth delirious, with perpetual rushing at Hard Times". The novel was serialised, every week, between April 1 and August 12, 1854. It sold well, and a complete volume was published in August, totalling 110,000 words. Another related novel, North and South by Elizabeth Gaskell, was also published in this magazine.
Synopsis
The novel follows a classical tripartite structure, and the titles of each book are related to Galatians 6:7, "For whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap." The interpretation of this quote being, whatever is effected upon or done in the present will have a direct effect on what happens later. Book I is entitled "Sowing", Book II is entitled "Reaping", and the third is "Garnering."
Book I: Sowing
Mr. Gradgrind, whose voice is "dictatorial", opens the novel by stating "Now, what I want is facts" at his school in Coketown. He is a man of "facts and calculations." He interrogates one of his pupils, Sissy, whose father is involved with the circus, the members of which are "Fancy" in comparison to Gradgrind's espousal of "Fact." Since her father rides and tends to horses, Gradgrind offers Sissy the definition of horse. She is rebuffed for not being able to define a horse factually; her classmate Bitzer does, however, provide a more zoological profile description and factual definition. She does not learn easily, and is censured for suggesting that she would carpet a floor with pictures of flowers "So you would carpet your room—or your husband's room, if you were a grown woman, and had a husband—with representations of flowers, would you? Why would you?" She is taught to disregard Fancy altogether. It is Fancy Vs Fact.
Louisa and Thomas, two of Mr. Gradgrind's children, pay a visit after school to the touring circus run by Mr. Sleary, only to find their father, who is disconcerted by their trip since he believes the circus to be the bastion of Fancy and conceit. With their father, Louisa and Tom trudge off in a despondent mood. Mr. Gradgrind has three younger children: Adam Smith, (after the famous theorist of laissez-faire policy), Malthus (after Rev. Thomas Malthus, who wrote An Essay on the Principle of Population, warning of the dangers of future overpopulation) and Jane.
Gradgrind apprehends Louisa and Tom, his two eldest children, at the circus.
Josiah Bounderby, "a man perfectly devoid of sentiment", is revealed as being Gradgrind's boss. Bounderby is a manufacturer and mill owner who is affluent as a result of his enterprise and capital. Bounderby is what one might call a "self-made man" who has risen from the gutter. He is not averse to giving dramatic summaries of his childhood, which terrify Mr. Gradgrind's wife who is often rendered insensate by these horrific stories. He is described in an acerbic manner as being "the Bully of Humility."
Mr. Gradgrind and Bounderby visit the public-house where Sissy resides to inform her that she cannot attend the school anymore due to the risk of her ideas propagating in the class. Sissy meets the two collaborators, informing them her father has abandoned her not out of malice, but out of desire for Sissy to lead a better life without him. This was the reasoning behind him enlisting her at Gradgrind's school and Gradgrind is outraged at this desertion. At this point members of the circus appear, fronted by their manager Mr. Sleary. Mr. Gradgrind gives Sissy a choice: either to return to the circus and forfeit her education, or to continue her education and never to return to the circus. Sleary and Gradgrind both have their say on the matter, and at the behest of Josephine Sleary she decides to leave the circus and bid all the close friends she had formed farewell.
Back at the Gradgrind house, Tom and Louisa sit down and discuss their feelings, however repressed they seem to be. Tom, already at this present stage of education finds himself in a state of dissatisfaction, and Louisa also expresses her discontent at her childhood while staring into the fire. Louisa's ability to wonder, however, has not been entirely extinguished by her rigorous education based in Fact.
We are introduced to the workers at the mills, known as the "Hands." Amongst them is a man named Stephen Blackpool or "Old Stephen" who has led a toilsome life. He is described as a "man of perfect integrity." He has ended his day's work, and his close companion Rachael is about somewhere. He eventually meets up with her, and they walk home discussing their day. On entering his house he finds that his drunken wretch of a wife, who has been in exile from Coketown, has made an unwelcome return to his house. She is unwell, and mumbles inebriated remarks to Stephen, who is greatly perturbed by this event.
The next day, Stephen makes a visit to Bounderby to try and end his woeful, childless marriage through divorce. Mrs. Sparsit, Mr. Bounderby's paid companion, is "dejected by the impiety" of Stephen and Bounderby explains that he could not afford to effect an annulment anyway. Stephen is very bewildered and dejected by this verdict given by Bounderby.
Meanwhile, Mr. Gradgrind prepares to talk to his daughter about a "business proposal", but she is seemingly apathetic in his company, and this seems to frustrate Mr. Gradgrind's efforts. He says that a proposal of marriage has been made to Louisa by Josiah Bounderby, who is some 30 years her senior. Gradgrind uses statistics to prove that an age inequity in marriage does not prove an unhappy or short marriage however. Louisa passively accepts this offer. Bounderby is rendered ecstatic by the news, as is Louisa's mother, who again is so overwhelmed that she is overcome yet again. Sissy is confounded by but piteous of Louisa.
Bounderby and Louisa get married, and they set out to their honeymoon in "Lyon"; so Bounderby can observe the progress of his 'Hands' (labourers who work in his factories there). Tom, her brother, bumps into her before they leave. They hug each other, Tom bidding her farewell and promising to look for her after they come back from their honeymoon.
Book 2: Reaping
Book Two opens with the attention focused on Bounderby's new bank in Coketown, of which Bitzer alongside the austere Mrs. Sparsit keep watch at night for intruders or burglars. A dashing gentleman enters, asking for directions to Bounderby's house, as Gradgrind has sent him from London, along with a letter. It is James Harthouse, a languid fellow, who was unsure what to do with his life, so became an MP as he saw it as a way out. For this, Dickens despises him.
Harthouse is introduced to Bounderby, who again reverts to almost improbable stories of his childhood to entertain Gradgrind. Harthouse is utterly bored by the blusterous millowner, yet is astounded by his wife, Louisa, and notices her melancholy nature. Louisa's brother Tom works for Bounderby, and he has become reckless and wayward in his conduct, despite his meticulous education. Tom decides to take a liking to James Harthouse, on the basis of his clothes, showing his superficiality. Tom is later debased to animal status, as he comes to be referred to as the "whelp", a denunciatory term for a young man. Tom is very forthcoming in his contempt for Bounderby in the presence of Harthouse, who soaks up all these secretive revelations.
Stephen is called to Bounderby's mansion, where he informs him of his abstention from joining the union led by the orator Slackbridge, and Bounderby accuses Stephen of fealty and of pledging an oath of secrecy to the union. Stephen denies this, and states that he avoided the Union because of a promise he'd made earlier to Rachael. Bounderby is bedevilled by this conflict of interest and accuses Stephen of being waspish. He dismisses him on the spot, on the basis that he has betrayed both employer and union. Later on a bank theft takes place at the Bounderby bank, and Stephen Blackpool is inculpated in the crime, due to him loitering around the bank at Tom's promise of better times to come, the night before the robbery.
Sparsit observes that the relationship between James Harthouse and Louisa is moving towards a near tryst. She sees Louisa as moving down her "staircase", metaphorically speaking. She sets off from the bank to spy upon them, and catches them at what seems to be a propitious moment. However, despite Harthouse confessing his love to Louisa, Louisa is restrained, and refuses an affair. Sparsit is infatuated with the idea that the two do not know they are being observed. Harthouse departs as does Louisa, and Mrs. Sparsit tries to stay in pursuit, thinking that Louisa is going to assent to the affair, though Louisa has not. She follows Louisa to the railway station assuming that Louisa has hired a coachman to dispatch her to Coketown. Sparsit however, misses the fact that Louisa has instead boarded a train to her father's house. Sparsit relinquishes defeat and proclaims "I have lost her!" When Louisa arrives at her father's house, she is revealed to be in an extreme state of disconsolate grief. She accuses her father of denying her the opportunity to have an innocent childhood, and that her rigorous education has stifled her ability to express her emotions. Louisa collapses at her father's feet, into an insensible torpor.
Book 3: Garnering
Mrs. Sparsit arrives at Mr. Bounderby's house, and reveals to him the news her surveillance has brought. Mr. Bounderby, who is rendered irate by this news, journeys to Stone Lodge, where Louisa is resting. Mr. Gradgrind tries to disperse calm upon the scene, and reveals that Louisa resisted the temptation of adultery. Bounderby is inconsolable and he is immensely indignant and ill-mannered towards everyone present, including Mrs. Sparsit, for her falsehood. Bounderby finishes by offering the ultimatum to Louisa of returning to him, by 12 o'clock the next morning, else the marriage is forfeited. Suffice it to say, Mr. Bounderby resumes his bachelorhood when the request is not met.
The discomfited Harthouse leaves Coketown, on an admonition from Sissy Jupe, never to return. He submits. Meanwhile, Mr. Gradgrind and Louisa cast suspicions that Tom, the "whelp", may have committed the bank robbery. Stephen Blackpool who has been absent from Coketown, trying to find mill work under a pseudonym, tries to exculpate himself from the robbery. On walking back to Coketown, he falls down the Old Hell Shaft, an old pit, completing his terminal bad luck in life. He is rescued by villagers, but after speaking to Rachael for the last time, he dies.
Louisa suspects that Tom had a word with Stephen, making a false offer to him, and therefore urging him to loiter outside of the bank. Mr. Gradgrind and Sissy concur with this theory and resolve to find Tom, since he is in danger. Sissy makes a plan for rescue and escape, however, and she reveals that she suspected Tom early on during the proceedings. She sends Tom off to the circus that she used to be a part of, namely Mr. Sleary's. Louisa and Sissy travel to the circus; Tom is there, disguised in blackface. Remorselessly, Tom says that he had little money, and that robbery was the only solution to his dilemma. Mr. Sleary is not aware of this and agrees to help him reach Liverpool, and Mr. Gradgrind, prays that his son is able to board a ship that will send him to the faraway Americas. The party is stopped, however, by Bitzer, who is anxious to claim his reward for the misdemeanour. The "excellent young man" is entreated to show compassion and questions whether he has a heart, to which Bitzer, cynically responds, that of course he has a heart, and that the "circulation could not be carried on without one." Sleary is dismayed by this revelation, and agrees to take Bitzer and Tom to the bank without any further delays. However, he sees that Mr. Gradgrind has been kind to Sissy, and agrees to detain and divert Bitzer whilst Tom leaves for Liverpool.
Returning to Coketown, Mrs. Sparsit is relieved of her duty to Bounderby who has no qualms about firing a lady, however "highly connected" she may be. The final chapter of the book details the fates of the characters. Mrs. Sparsit returns to live with her aunt, Lady Scadgers. The two have feelings of acrimony towards each other. Bounderby dies of a fit in a street one day. Tom dies in the Americas, having begged for penitence in a half-written letter to his sister, Louisa. Louisa herself grows old and never remarries. Mr. Gradgrind abandons his Utilitarian stance, which brings contempt from his fellow MPs, who give him a hard time. Rachael continues to labour while still consistently maintaining her work ethic and honesty. Sissy is the moral victor of the story, as her children have also escaped the desiccative education of the Gradgrind school and grown learned in "childish lore."
Major characters
Mr. Gradgrind
Thomas Gradgrind is a utilitarian who is the founder of the educational system in Coketown. "Eminently practical" is Gradgrind's recurring description throughout the novel, and practicality is something he zealously aspires to. He represents the stringency of Fact, statistics and other materialistic pursuits. He is a "square" person and this can be seen not only through Dickens´description of his personality but also through the description of his physical appearance, "square shoulders".
Only after his daughter's breakdown does he come to a realisation that things such as poetry, fiction and other pursuits are not "destructive nonsense." In the third book, not only does he notice the existence of the unknown thought of "fancy" but he ironically asks Bitzer (one of his students in book the first, who gives a perfect description of a horse) if he has a heart (to save Tom) and in this situation, Bitzer again gives a very scientific response.
Mr. Bounderby
Josiah Bounderby is a business associate of Mr. Gradgrind. A thunderous merchant given to lecturing others, and boasting about being a self-made man. He employs many of the other central characters of the novel, and his rise to prosperity is shown to be an example of social mobility. He marries Mr. Gradgrind's daughter Louisa, some 30 years his junior, in what turns out to be a loveless marriage. They then had no children. Bounderby is the main target of Dickens' attack on the supposed moral superiority of the wealthy, and is revealed to be an hypocrite in his sensational comeuppance at the end of the novel. He is the " bully of humility" as he tells everyone that he is a "self made man" and that his mother left him to be looked after by his grandmother but then, due to Mrs. Sparsit's wrong accusation of thinking that Mrs. Pegler was the bank robber, we find that he has been lying.
He uses Mrs. Sparsit in order to give him status as she belonged to the "Powlers" a very important family in the same way as Bounderby takes advantage of Mrs. Sparsit expecting people of a lower status to respect her presence.
Louisa
Louisa (Loo) Gradgrind, later Louisa Bounderby, is the unemotional, distant and eldest child of the Gradgrind family. She has been taught to abnegate her emotions, and finds it hard to express herself clearly, saying as a child she has "unmanageable thoughts." She is married to Josiah Bounderby, in a very logical and businesslike manner, representing the emphasis on factuality and business pathos of her education. Her union is a disaster and she is tempted into adultery by James Harthouse, yet she manages to resist this temptation with help from Sissy.
All her life she has been "gazing into the fire" "wondering" in the first book we find that she wonders not knowing what it is she is wondering about, in book two with Mrs. Gradgrind's death we get the impression that she well will find out as Mrs. Gradgrind (another victim of the system) says: "there is something wrong" she dies without knowing what it is. It is at the end of book two after Harthouse's love declaration when Louisa understands the meaning of love, fancy, everything that until that moment her life had lacked. She realizes how immature the decision of marrying Bounderby was (only because of Tom's insistence). She then goes to complain to her father and all he says is: "I never knew you were unhappy my child". This shows how Louisa has made him recognize the existence of fancy. Fancy is transmitted through a chain, as Harthouse does to Louisa and Louisa to Gradgrind. The chain breaks at the end of the novel when Gradgrind tries to pass it onto Bitzer.
Sissy Jupe
Cecilia (Sissy) Jupe is the embodiment of imagination, hope and faith. Abandoned by her father, a circus performer at Sleary's circus. Gradgrind offers Sissy the chance to study at his school and to come and live at Stone Lodge with the Gradgrind children. Sleary also offers her a place and tells her she will be treated like one of the family, but Sissy follows her father's wishes of her having a good education, goes to live with Gradgrind. She goes through "hard times" when she is with the Gradgrinds at the beginning because she does not understand the difference between a life based upon facts and one based upon fancy, like hers. When she does notice this, she leaves school in order to look after ill Mrs. Gradgrind. She always asks Mr. Gradgrind if a letter from her father arrived.
Due to Sissy's high morals and natural warm-heartedness she has a huge influence on the Gradgrind family. When Mrs Gradgrind dies she largely takes over the role of mothering the younger Gradgrind Children: Jane, Adam Smith and Malthus.
She is the biggest representative of fancy in the novel. She offers the contrast between fact and fancy. She finishes happy and surrounded by children.
Tom
Thomas (Tom) Gradgrind, Junior is the eldest son and second child of the Gradgrinds. Tom develops as a thoroughly contemptible character. Initially sullen and bitterly resentful of his father's Utilitarian Gradgrindian education, Tom has a very strong relationship with his sister Louisa. At length, Tom starts work in Bounderby's bank (which he later robs), and descends into sybaritic gambling and drinking - he is indiscreet over Louisa's marriage to Bounderby with James Harthouse. Nonetheless Louisa never ceases to deeply adore Tom, and she aids Sissy and Mr. Gradgrind in saving her brother from arrest. It is also hinted that Tom has romantic feelings for Sissy that are partly reciprocated. He is, ultimately, an insecure wastrel.
Known as "the whelp" (small puppy) this is the way of Dickens mocking this character. He takes advantage of his loving sister in order to get out of the life that his father is giving him which he doesn't like. We might feel sympathy towards him at some points of the novel (mostly in book one) as he has the same kind of feelings as Louisa.
He tells Blackpool to wait for him outside the bank and if he has something to give him, he will make sure Bitzer gives it to him. He tricks him by doing so as he only does so in order to make him look as if it was him who robbed the bank, maybe as a form of revenge after Bounderby sacking him. He is found out in book three where Blackpool is shown to be innocent. Mr. Gradgrind makes signs to put them up in the whole town clearing Blackpool's name and putting the blame on his own son.
Old Stephen
Stephen Blackpool, or "Old Stephen" as he is referred to by his fellow Hands, is a worker at one of Bounderby's mills. His life is immensely strenuous, and he is married to a constantly inebriated wife who comes and goes throughout the novel. She remains anonymous and unidentified throughout the novel. He forms a close bond with Rachael, a co-worker. After a dispute with Bounderby, he is dismissed from his work at the Coketown mills and is forced to find work elsewhere. Whilst absent from Coketown he is accused of a crime for which he has been framed. Tragically, on his way back to vindicate himself, he falls down a mine-shaft. He is rescued but dies of his injuries.
Stephen is a man "of perfect integrity", a man who will never give up his moral standpoint to follow along with the crowd, a quality which leads to the conflict with Slackbridge and the Trade Union.
Other characters
Bitzer – is a very pale classmate of Sissy's and brought up on facts and is taught to operate according to self-interest. He takes up a job in Bounderby's bank, and later tries to arrest Tom.
Mrs. Sparsit – is a "classical" widow who has fallen upon despairing circumstances. She is employed by Bounderby, yet her officiousness and prying get her fired in a humorous send-off by Bounderby.
James Harthouse – enters the novel in the 2nd book. James is an indolent, languid, upper-class gentleman, who attempts to woo Louisa, and gets sent away by Sissy.
Mrs. Pegler – a "mysterious old woman" who turns out to be Bounderby's mother.
Slackbridge – trade union leader
Various circus folk", including Signor Jupe (Sissy's father, who never actually appears in the novel), his dog Merrylegs, Mr. Sleary (the lisping manager of the circus) and Cupid, used to represent that the world of the circus is not always as pure as is represented by Sissy and Sleary.
Mrs. Gradgrind – the wife of Mr. Gradgrind, who is an invalid and complains constantly. Her marriage to Thomas is a precursor of Louisa's marriage to Bounderby.
Mr. M'Choakumchild – the teacher of the class containing Sissy Jupe and Bitzer, says very little but his name suggests a cold personality that stifles imagination.
Major themes
Relating back to Dickens' aim to "strike the heaviest blow in my power," he wished to educate readers about the working conditions of some of the factories in the industrial towns of Manchester, and Preston. Relating to this also, Dickens wished to expose the assumption that prosperity runs parallel to morality, something which is cruelly shattered in this novel by his portrayal of the moral monsters, Mr. Bounderby, and James Harthouse, the cynical aristocrats. Dickens was also campaigning for the importance of imagination in life, and not for people's life to be reduced to a collection of material facts and statistical analyses. Dickens' favourable portrayal of the Circus, which he describes as caring so "little for Plain Fact", is an example of this.
Fact vs. Fancy
This theme is developed early on, the bastion of Fact being the eminently practical Mr. Gradgrind, and his model school, which teaches nothing but Facts. Any imaginative or aesthetic subjects are eradicated from the curriculum, but analysis, deduction and mathematics are emphasised. Conversely, Fancy is the opposite of Fact, encompassing, fiction, music, poetry, and novelty shows such as Sleary's circus. It is interesting that Mr. Sleary is reckoned to be a fool by the Fact men, but it is Sleary who realises people must be "amuthed" (amused). This is made cognisant by Tom's sybaritic gambling and Louisa, who is virtually soulless as a young child, and as a married woman. Bitzer, who has adhered to Gradgrind's teachings as a child, turns out to be an uncompassionate egotist.
Officiousness and spying
Prying and knowledge is key to several characters, namely Mrs. Sparsit and Mr. Bounderby. Mr. Bounderby spends his whole time fabricating stories about his childhood, covering up the real nature of his upbringing, which is solemnly revealed at the end of the novel. While not a snooper himself, he is undone by Sparsit unwittingly revealing the mysterious old woman to be his own mother, and she unravels Josiah's secrets about his upbringing and fictitious stories. Mr. Bounderby himself superintends through calculating tabular statements and statistics, and is always secretly rebuking the people of Coketown for indulging in conceitful activities. This gives Bounderby a sense of superiority, as it does with Mrs. Sparsit, who prides herself on her salacious knowledge gained from spying on others. All "superintendents" of the novel are undone in one way, or another.
Honesty
This is closely related to Dickens' typical social commentary, which is a theme he uses throughout his entire œuvre. Dickens portrays the wealthy in this novel as being morally corrupt. Bounderby has no moral scruples; he fires Blackpool "for a novelty". He also conducts himself without any shred of decency, frequently losing his temper. He is cynically false about his childhood. Harthouse, a leisured gent, is compared to an "iceberg" who will cause a wreck unwittingly, due to him being "not a moral sort of fellow", as he states himself. Stephen Blackpool, a destitute worker, is equipped with perfect morals, always abiding by his promises, and always thoughtful and considerate of others, as is Sissy Jupe.
Literary significance & criticism
Critics have had a diverse range of opinions on the novel. Renowned critic John Ruskin declared Hard Times to be his favourite Dickens work due to its exploration of important social questions. However, Thomas Macaulay branded it "sullen socialism", on the grounds that Dickens did not fully comprehend the politics of the time. This point was also made by George Bernard Shaw, who decreed Hard Times to be a novel of "passionate revolt against the whole industrial order of the modern world." Shaw criticized the novel for its failure to provide an accurate account of trade unionism of the time, deeming Dickens' character of Slackbridge, the poisonous orator as "a mere figment of middle-class imagination."
F. R. Leavis, in his controversial book, The Great Tradition, described the book as essentially being a moral fable, and awarded it the distinction of being a work of art, decreeing it the only significant novel of Dickens worth scrutinizing.
Walter Allen, in an introduction to an alternative edition, characterised Hard Times as being an unsurpassed "critique of industrial society", which was later superseded by works of D. H. Lawrence. Other writers have described the novel as being, as G. K. Chesterton commented in his work Appreciations and Criticisms, "the harshest of his stories"; whereas George Orwell praised the novel (and Dickens himself) for "generous anger."
紡織廠廠主、銀行傢龐得貝（Josiah Bounderby）和退休的五金批發商人、國會議員兼教育傢湯瑪斯·葛萊恩（Thomas Gradgrind）是好朋友，他們一起控製著市鎮的經濟體係與教育機構。他們註重實利而且不講情義，自命不凡，以功利主義作為生活原則。負責侍候龐得貝的是寡婦史巴斯特太太。
葛萊恩對子女的教育主張“實事求是，腳踏實地”，他們在學會走路時，就被趕進教室，終日和數字打交道，他們不允許閱讀詩歌和故事。葛雷梗把年輕的女兒露意莎（Louisa）嫁給了年齡比她大得多的龐得貝，寡婦史巴斯特太太嫉妒她，使她受盡痛苦，導致女兒婚姻破裂。她責備父親：“儞的哲學和教育都不能救我了。”在葛萊恩自己的教育主張下，他的兒子湯姆（Tom）被迫協助龐得貝工作，他生活放蕩且負債纍纍，偸了龐得貝銀行的錢逃跑，躲到馬戲團裏，扮演一名小醜的觮色。經過了一連串的慘痛教訓，又受到馬戲團的女孩西絲·朱浦（Sissy, Cecilia Jupe）的感化，逐漸的改變了生活態度，被父親送到美洲。但病死在省親的途中。龐得貝喜歡吹噓自己白手起傢，誣衊工人由於妄想過奢侈生活纔産生不滿情緖。五年後龐得貝中風猝死在焦煤鎮的街上，露意莎再嫁了人。
Background
The novel is unusual in that it did not contain illustrations; nor is it set in or around London (both usual in Dickens' novels). Instead the story is set in the fictitious Victorian industrial Coketown, a generic Northern English mill-town partially based upon 19th-century Preston.
Dickens' reasons for writing Hard Times were mostly monetary. Sales of his weekly periodical, Household Words, were low, and he hoped the inclusion of this novel in instalments would increase sales. Since publication it has received a mixed response from a diverse range of critics, such as F.R. Leavis, George Bernard Shaw, and Thomas Macaulay, mainly focusing on Dickens' treatment of trade unions and his post-Industrial Revolution pessimism regarding the divide between capitalistic mill owners and undervalued workers during the Victorian era.
Prevalence of utilitarianism
The Utilitarians were one of the targets of this novel. Utilitarianism was a prevalent school of thought during this period, its most famous proponents being Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Theoretical Utilitarian ethics hold that promotion of general social welfare is the ultimate goal for the individual and society in general: "the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people." Dickens believed that in practical terms, the pursuit of a totally rationalized society could lead to great misery.
Bentham's former secretary, Edwin Karbunkle, helped design the Poor Law of 1834, which deliberately made workhouse life as uncomfortable as possible. In the novel, this is conveyed in Bitzer's response to Gradgrind's appeal for compassion.
Dickens was appalled by what was, in his interpretation, a selfish philosophy, which was combined with materialist laissez-faire capitalism in the education of some children at the time, as well as in industrial practices. In Dickens' interpretation, the prevalence of utilitarian values in educational institutions promoted contempt between mill owners and workers, creating young adults whose imaginations had been neglected, due to an over-emphasis on facts at the expense of more imaginative pursuits.
Dickens wished to satirize radical Utilitarians whom he described in a letter to Charles Knight as "see[ing] figures and averages, and nothing else." He also wished to campaign for reform of working conditions. Dickens had visited factories in Manchester as early as 1839, and was appalled by the environment in which workers toiled. Drawing upon his own childhood experiences, Dickens resolved to "strike the heaviest blow in my power" for those who laboured in horrific conditions.
John Stuart Mill had a similar, rigorous education to that of Louisa Gradgrind, consisting of analytical, logical, mathematical, and statistical exercises. In his twenties, Mill had a nervous breakdown, believing his capacity for emotion had been enervated by his father's stringent emphasis on analysis and mathematics in his education. In the book, Louisa herself follows a parallel course, being unable to express herself and falling into a temporary depression as a result of her dry education.
Publication
The novel was published as a serial in his weekly publication, Household Words. Sales were highly responsive and encouraging for Dickens who remarked that he was "Three parts mad, and the fourth delirious, with perpetual rushing at Hard Times". The novel was serialised, every week, between April 1 and August 12, 1854. It sold well, and a complete volume was published in August, totalling 110,000 words. Another related novel, North and South by Elizabeth Gaskell, was also published in this magazine.
Synopsis
The novel follows a classical tripartite structure, and the titles of each book are related to Galatians 6:7, "For whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap." The interpretation of this quote being, whatever is effected upon or done in the present will have a direct effect on what happens later. Book I is entitled "Sowing", Book II is entitled "Reaping", and the third is "Garnering."
Book I: Sowing
Mr. Gradgrind, whose voice is "dictatorial", opens the novel by stating "Now, what I want is facts" at his school in Coketown. He is a man of "facts and calculations." He interrogates one of his pupils, Sissy, whose father is involved with the circus, the members of which are "Fancy" in comparison to Gradgrind's espousal of "Fact." Since her father rides and tends to horses, Gradgrind offers Sissy the definition of horse. She is rebuffed for not being able to define a horse factually; her classmate Bitzer does, however, provide a more zoological profile description and factual definition. She does not learn easily, and is censured for suggesting that she would carpet a floor with pictures of flowers "So you would carpet your room—or your husband's room, if you were a grown woman, and had a husband—with representations of flowers, would you? Why would you?" She is taught to disregard Fancy altogether. It is Fancy Vs Fact.
Louisa and Thomas, two of Mr. Gradgrind's children, pay a visit after school to the touring circus run by Mr. Sleary, only to find their father, who is disconcerted by their trip since he believes the circus to be the bastion of Fancy and conceit. With their father, Louisa and Tom trudge off in a despondent mood. Mr. Gradgrind has three younger children: Adam Smith, (after the famous theorist of laissez-faire policy), Malthus (after Rev. Thomas Malthus, who wrote An Essay on the Principle of Population, warning of the dangers of future overpopulation) and Jane.
Gradgrind apprehends Louisa and Tom, his two eldest children, at the circus.
Josiah Bounderby, "a man perfectly devoid of sentiment", is revealed as being Gradgrind's boss. Bounderby is a manufacturer and mill owner who is affluent as a result of his enterprise and capital. Bounderby is what one might call a "self-made man" who has risen from the gutter. He is not averse to giving dramatic summaries of his childhood, which terrify Mr. Gradgrind's wife who is often rendered insensate by these horrific stories. He is described in an acerbic manner as being "the Bully of Humility."
Mr. Gradgrind and Bounderby visit the public-house where Sissy resides to inform her that she cannot attend the school anymore due to the risk of her ideas propagating in the class. Sissy meets the two collaborators, informing them her father has abandoned her not out of malice, but out of desire for Sissy to lead a better life without him. This was the reasoning behind him enlisting her at Gradgrind's school and Gradgrind is outraged at this desertion. At this point members of the circus appear, fronted by their manager Mr. Sleary. Mr. Gradgrind gives Sissy a choice: either to return to the circus and forfeit her education, or to continue her education and never to return to the circus. Sleary and Gradgrind both have their say on the matter, and at the behest of Josephine Sleary she decides to leave the circus and bid all the close friends she had formed farewell.
Back at the Gradgrind house, Tom and Louisa sit down and discuss their feelings, however repressed they seem to be. Tom, already at this present stage of education finds himself in a state of dissatisfaction, and Louisa also expresses her discontent at her childhood while staring into the fire. Louisa's ability to wonder, however, has not been entirely extinguished by her rigorous education based in Fact.
We are introduced to the workers at the mills, known as the "Hands." Amongst them is a man named Stephen Blackpool or "Old Stephen" who has led a toilsome life. He is described as a "man of perfect integrity." He has ended his day's work, and his close companion Rachael is about somewhere. He eventually meets up with her, and they walk home discussing their day. On entering his house he finds that his drunken wretch of a wife, who has been in exile from Coketown, has made an unwelcome return to his house. She is unwell, and mumbles inebriated remarks to Stephen, who is greatly perturbed by this event.
The next day, Stephen makes a visit to Bounderby to try and end his woeful, childless marriage through divorce. Mrs. Sparsit, Mr. Bounderby's paid companion, is "dejected by the impiety" of Stephen and Bounderby explains that he could not afford to effect an annulment anyway. Stephen is very bewildered and dejected by this verdict given by Bounderby.
Meanwhile, Mr. Gradgrind prepares to talk to his daughter about a "business proposal", but she is seemingly apathetic in his company, and this seems to frustrate Mr. Gradgrind's efforts. He says that a proposal of marriage has been made to Louisa by Josiah Bounderby, who is some 30 years her senior. Gradgrind uses statistics to prove that an age inequity in marriage does not prove an unhappy or short marriage however. Louisa passively accepts this offer. Bounderby is rendered ecstatic by the news, as is Louisa's mother, who again is so overwhelmed that she is overcome yet again. Sissy is confounded by but piteous of Louisa.
Bounderby and Louisa get married, and they set out to their honeymoon in "Lyon"; so Bounderby can observe the progress of his 'Hands' (labourers who work in his factories there). Tom, her brother, bumps into her before they leave. They hug each other, Tom bidding her farewell and promising to look for her after they come back from their honeymoon.
Book 2: Reaping
Book Two opens with the attention focused on Bounderby's new bank in Coketown, of which Bitzer alongside the austere Mrs. Sparsit keep watch at night for intruders or burglars. A dashing gentleman enters, asking for directions to Bounderby's house, as Gradgrind has sent him from London, along with a letter. It is James Harthouse, a languid fellow, who was unsure what to do with his life, so became an MP as he saw it as a way out. For this, Dickens despises him.
Harthouse is introduced to Bounderby, who again reverts to almost improbable stories of his childhood to entertain Gradgrind. Harthouse is utterly bored by the blusterous millowner, yet is astounded by his wife, Louisa, and notices her melancholy nature. Louisa's brother Tom works for Bounderby, and he has become reckless and wayward in his conduct, despite his meticulous education. Tom decides to take a liking to James Harthouse, on the basis of his clothes, showing his superficiality. Tom is later debased to animal status, as he comes to be referred to as the "whelp", a denunciatory term for a young man. Tom is very forthcoming in his contempt for Bounderby in the presence of Harthouse, who soaks up all these secretive revelations.
Stephen is called to Bounderby's mansion, where he informs him of his abstention from joining the union led by the orator Slackbridge, and Bounderby accuses Stephen of fealty and of pledging an oath of secrecy to the union. Stephen denies this, and states that he avoided the Union because of a promise he'd made earlier to Rachael. Bounderby is bedevilled by this conflict of interest and accuses Stephen of being waspish. He dismisses him on the spot, on the basis that he has betrayed both employer and union. Later on a bank theft takes place at the Bounderby bank, and Stephen Blackpool is inculpated in the crime, due to him loitering around the bank at Tom's promise of better times to come, the night before the robbery.
Sparsit observes that the relationship between James Harthouse and Louisa is moving towards a near tryst. She sees Louisa as moving down her "staircase", metaphorically speaking. She sets off from the bank to spy upon them, and catches them at what seems to be a propitious moment. However, despite Harthouse confessing his love to Louisa, Louisa is restrained, and refuses an affair. Sparsit is infatuated with the idea that the two do not know they are being observed. Harthouse departs as does Louisa, and Mrs. Sparsit tries to stay in pursuit, thinking that Louisa is going to assent to the affair, though Louisa has not. She follows Louisa to the railway station assuming that Louisa has hired a coachman to dispatch her to Coketown. Sparsit however, misses the fact that Louisa has instead boarded a train to her father's house. Sparsit relinquishes defeat and proclaims "I have lost her!" When Louisa arrives at her father's house, she is revealed to be in an extreme state of disconsolate grief. She accuses her father of denying her the opportunity to have an innocent childhood, and that her rigorous education has stifled her ability to express her emotions. Louisa collapses at her father's feet, into an insensible torpor.
Book 3: Garnering
Mrs. Sparsit arrives at Mr. Bounderby's house, and reveals to him the news her surveillance has brought. Mr. Bounderby, who is rendered irate by this news, journeys to Stone Lodge, where Louisa is resting. Mr. Gradgrind tries to disperse calm upon the scene, and reveals that Louisa resisted the temptation of adultery. Bounderby is inconsolable and he is immensely indignant and ill-mannered towards everyone present, including Mrs. Sparsit, for her falsehood. Bounderby finishes by offering the ultimatum to Louisa of returning to him, by 12 o'clock the next morning, else the marriage is forfeited. Suffice it to say, Mr. Bounderby resumes his bachelorhood when the request is not met.
The discomfited Harthouse leaves Coketown, on an admonition from Sissy Jupe, never to return. He submits. Meanwhile, Mr. Gradgrind and Louisa cast suspicions that Tom, the "whelp", may have committed the bank robbery. Stephen Blackpool who has been absent from Coketown, trying to find mill work under a pseudonym, tries to exculpate himself from the robbery. On walking back to Coketown, he falls down the Old Hell Shaft, an old pit, completing his terminal bad luck in life. He is rescued by villagers, but after speaking to Rachael for the last time, he dies.
Louisa suspects that Tom had a word with Stephen, making a false offer to him, and therefore urging him to loiter outside of the bank. Mr. Gradgrind and Sissy concur with this theory and resolve to find Tom, since he is in danger. Sissy makes a plan for rescue and escape, however, and she reveals that she suspected Tom early on during the proceedings. She sends Tom off to the circus that she used to be a part of, namely Mr. Sleary's. Louisa and Sissy travel to the circus; Tom is there, disguised in blackface. Remorselessly, Tom says that he had little money, and that robbery was the only solution to his dilemma. Mr. Sleary is not aware of this and agrees to help him reach Liverpool, and Mr. Gradgrind, prays that his son is able to board a ship that will send him to the faraway Americas. The party is stopped, however, by Bitzer, who is anxious to claim his reward for the misdemeanour. The "excellent young man" is entreated to show compassion and questions whether he has a heart, to which Bitzer, cynically responds, that of course he has a heart, and that the "circulation could not be carried on without one." Sleary is dismayed by this revelation, and agrees to take Bitzer and Tom to the bank without any further delays. However, he sees that Mr. Gradgrind has been kind to Sissy, and agrees to detain and divert Bitzer whilst Tom leaves for Liverpool.
Returning to Coketown, Mrs. Sparsit is relieved of her duty to Bounderby who has no qualms about firing a lady, however "highly connected" she may be. The final chapter of the book details the fates of the characters. Mrs. Sparsit returns to live with her aunt, Lady Scadgers. The two have feelings of acrimony towards each other. Bounderby dies of a fit in a street one day. Tom dies in the Americas, having begged for penitence in a half-written letter to his sister, Louisa. Louisa herself grows old and never remarries. Mr. Gradgrind abandons his Utilitarian stance, which brings contempt from his fellow MPs, who give him a hard time. Rachael continues to labour while still consistently maintaining her work ethic and honesty. Sissy is the moral victor of the story, as her children have also escaped the desiccative education of the Gradgrind school and grown learned in "childish lore."
Major characters
Mr. Gradgrind
Thomas Gradgrind is a utilitarian who is the founder of the educational system in Coketown. "Eminently practical" is Gradgrind's recurring description throughout the novel, and practicality is something he zealously aspires to. He represents the stringency of Fact, statistics and other materialistic pursuits. He is a "square" person and this can be seen not only through Dickens´description of his personality but also through the description of his physical appearance, "square shoulders".
Only after his daughter's breakdown does he come to a realisation that things such as poetry, fiction and other pursuits are not "destructive nonsense." In the third book, not only does he notice the existence of the unknown thought of "fancy" but he ironically asks Bitzer (one of his students in book the first, who gives a perfect description of a horse) if he has a heart (to save Tom) and in this situation, Bitzer again gives a very scientific response.
Mr. Bounderby
Josiah Bounderby is a business associate of Mr. Gradgrind. A thunderous merchant given to lecturing others, and boasting about being a self-made man. He employs many of the other central characters of the novel, and his rise to prosperity is shown to be an example of social mobility. He marries Mr. Gradgrind's daughter Louisa, some 30 years his junior, in what turns out to be a loveless marriage. They then had no children. Bounderby is the main target of Dickens' attack on the supposed moral superiority of the wealthy, and is revealed to be an hypocrite in his sensational comeuppance at the end of the novel. He is the " bully of humility" as he tells everyone that he is a "self made man" and that his mother left him to be looked after by his grandmother but then, due to Mrs. Sparsit's wrong accusation of thinking that Mrs. Pegler was the bank robber, we find that he has been lying.
He uses Mrs. Sparsit in order to give him status as she belonged to the "Powlers" a very important family in the same way as Bounderby takes advantage of Mrs. Sparsit expecting people of a lower status to respect her presence.
Louisa
Louisa (Loo) Gradgrind, later Louisa Bounderby, is the unemotional, distant and eldest child of the Gradgrind family. She has been taught to abnegate her emotions, and finds it hard to express herself clearly, saying as a child she has "unmanageable thoughts." She is married to Josiah Bounderby, in a very logical and businesslike manner, representing the emphasis on factuality and business pathos of her education. Her union is a disaster and she is tempted into adultery by James Harthouse, yet she manages to resist this temptation with help from Sissy.
All her life she has been "gazing into the fire" "wondering" in the first book we find that she wonders not knowing what it is she is wondering about, in book two with Mrs. Gradgrind's death we get the impression that she well will find out as Mrs. Gradgrind (another victim of the system) says: "there is something wrong" she dies without knowing what it is. It is at the end of book two after Harthouse's love declaration when Louisa understands the meaning of love, fancy, everything that until that moment her life had lacked. She realizes how immature the decision of marrying Bounderby was (only because of Tom's insistence). She then goes to complain to her father and all he says is: "I never knew you were unhappy my child". This shows how Louisa has made him recognize the existence of fancy. Fancy is transmitted through a chain, as Harthouse does to Louisa and Louisa to Gradgrind. The chain breaks at the end of the novel when Gradgrind tries to pass it onto Bitzer.
Sissy Jupe
Cecilia (Sissy) Jupe is the embodiment of imagination, hope and faith. Abandoned by her father, a circus performer at Sleary's circus. Gradgrind offers Sissy the chance to study at his school and to come and live at Stone Lodge with the Gradgrind children. Sleary also offers her a place and tells her she will be treated like one of the family, but Sissy follows her father's wishes of her having a good education, goes to live with Gradgrind. She goes through "hard times" when she is with the Gradgrinds at the beginning because she does not understand the difference between a life based upon facts and one based upon fancy, like hers. When she does notice this, she leaves school in order to look after ill Mrs. Gradgrind. She always asks Mr. Gradgrind if a letter from her father arrived.
Due to Sissy's high morals and natural warm-heartedness she has a huge influence on the Gradgrind family. When Mrs Gradgrind dies she largely takes over the role of mothering the younger Gradgrind Children: Jane, Adam Smith and Malthus.
She is the biggest representative of fancy in the novel. She offers the contrast between fact and fancy. She finishes happy and surrounded by children.
Tom
Thomas (Tom) Gradgrind, Junior is the eldest son and second child of the Gradgrinds. Tom develops as a thoroughly contemptible character. Initially sullen and bitterly resentful of his father's Utilitarian Gradgrindian education, Tom has a very strong relationship with his sister Louisa. At length, Tom starts work in Bounderby's bank (which he later robs), and descends into sybaritic gambling and drinking - he is indiscreet over Louisa's marriage to Bounderby with James Harthouse. Nonetheless Louisa never ceases to deeply adore Tom, and she aids Sissy and Mr. Gradgrind in saving her brother from arrest. It is also hinted that Tom has romantic feelings for Sissy that are partly reciprocated. He is, ultimately, an insecure wastrel.
Known as "the whelp" (small puppy) this is the way of Dickens mocking this character. He takes advantage of his loving sister in order to get out of the life that his father is giving him which he doesn't like. We might feel sympathy towards him at some points of the novel (mostly in book one) as he has the same kind of feelings as Louisa.
He tells Blackpool to wait for him outside the bank and if he has something to give him, he will make sure Bitzer gives it to him. He tricks him by doing so as he only does so in order to make him look as if it was him who robbed the bank, maybe as a form of revenge after Bounderby sacking him. He is found out in book three where Blackpool is shown to be innocent. Mr. Gradgrind makes signs to put them up in the whole town clearing Blackpool's name and putting the blame on his own son.
Old Stephen
Stephen Blackpool, or "Old Stephen" as he is referred to by his fellow Hands, is a worker at one of Bounderby's mills. His life is immensely strenuous, and he is married to a constantly inebriated wife who comes and goes throughout the novel. She remains anonymous and unidentified throughout the novel. He forms a close bond with Rachael, a co-worker. After a dispute with Bounderby, he is dismissed from his work at the Coketown mills and is forced to find work elsewhere. Whilst absent from Coketown he is accused of a crime for which he has been framed. Tragically, on his way back to vindicate himself, he falls down a mine-shaft. He is rescued but dies of his injuries.
Stephen is a man "of perfect integrity", a man who will never give up his moral standpoint to follow along with the crowd, a quality which leads to the conflict with Slackbridge and the Trade Union.
Other characters
Bitzer – is a very pale classmate of Sissy's and brought up on facts and is taught to operate according to self-interest. He takes up a job in Bounderby's bank, and later tries to arrest Tom.
Mrs. Sparsit – is a "classical" widow who has fallen upon despairing circumstances. She is employed by Bounderby, yet her officiousness and prying get her fired in a humorous send-off by Bounderby.
James Harthouse – enters the novel in the 2nd book. James is an indolent, languid, upper-class gentleman, who attempts to woo Louisa, and gets sent away by Sissy.
Mrs. Pegler – a "mysterious old woman" who turns out to be Bounderby's mother.
Slackbridge – trade union leader
Various circus folk", including Signor Jupe (Sissy's father, who never actually appears in the novel), his dog Merrylegs, Mr. Sleary (the lisping manager of the circus) and Cupid, used to represent that the world of the circus is not always as pure as is represented by Sissy and Sleary.
Mrs. Gradgrind – the wife of Mr. Gradgrind, who is an invalid and complains constantly. Her marriage to Thomas is a precursor of Louisa's marriage to Bounderby.
Mr. M'Choakumchild – the teacher of the class containing Sissy Jupe and Bitzer, says very little but his name suggests a cold personality that stifles imagination.
Major themes
Relating back to Dickens' aim to "strike the heaviest blow in my power," he wished to educate readers about the working conditions of some of the factories in the industrial towns of Manchester, and Preston. Relating to this also, Dickens wished to expose the assumption that prosperity runs parallel to morality, something which is cruelly shattered in this novel by his portrayal of the moral monsters, Mr. Bounderby, and James Harthouse, the cynical aristocrats. Dickens was also campaigning for the importance of imagination in life, and not for people's life to be reduced to a collection of material facts and statistical analyses. Dickens' favourable portrayal of the Circus, which he describes as caring so "little for Plain Fact", is an example of this.
Fact vs. Fancy
This theme is developed early on, the bastion of Fact being the eminently practical Mr. Gradgrind, and his model school, which teaches nothing but Facts. Any imaginative or aesthetic subjects are eradicated from the curriculum, but analysis, deduction and mathematics are emphasised. Conversely, Fancy is the opposite of Fact, encompassing, fiction, music, poetry, and novelty shows such as Sleary's circus. It is interesting that Mr. Sleary is reckoned to be a fool by the Fact men, but it is Sleary who realises people must be "amuthed" (amused). This is made cognisant by Tom's sybaritic gambling and Louisa, who is virtually soulless as a young child, and as a married woman. Bitzer, who has adhered to Gradgrind's teachings as a child, turns out to be an uncompassionate egotist.
Officiousness and spying
Prying and knowledge is key to several characters, namely Mrs. Sparsit and Mr. Bounderby. Mr. Bounderby spends his whole time fabricating stories about his childhood, covering up the real nature of his upbringing, which is solemnly revealed at the end of the novel. While not a snooper himself, he is undone by Sparsit unwittingly revealing the mysterious old woman to be his own mother, and she unravels Josiah's secrets about his upbringing and fictitious stories. Mr. Bounderby himself superintends through calculating tabular statements and statistics, and is always secretly rebuking the people of Coketown for indulging in conceitful activities. This gives Bounderby a sense of superiority, as it does with Mrs. Sparsit, who prides herself on her salacious knowledge gained from spying on others. All "superintendents" of the novel are undone in one way, or another.
Honesty
This is closely related to Dickens' typical social commentary, which is a theme he uses throughout his entire œuvre. Dickens portrays the wealthy in this novel as being morally corrupt. Bounderby has no moral scruples; he fires Blackpool "for a novelty". He also conducts himself without any shred of decency, frequently losing his temper. He is cynically false about his childhood. Harthouse, a leisured gent, is compared to an "iceberg" who will cause a wreck unwittingly, due to him being "not a moral sort of fellow", as he states himself. Stephen Blackpool, a destitute worker, is equipped with perfect morals, always abiding by his promises, and always thoughtful and considerate of others, as is Sissy Jupe.
Literary significance & criticism
Critics have had a diverse range of opinions on the novel. Renowned critic John Ruskin declared Hard Times to be his favourite Dickens work due to its exploration of important social questions. However, Thomas Macaulay branded it "sullen socialism", on the grounds that Dickens did not fully comprehend the politics of the time. This point was also made by George Bernard Shaw, who decreed Hard Times to be a novel of "passionate revolt against the whole industrial order of the modern world." Shaw criticized the novel for its failure to provide an accurate account of trade unionism of the time, deeming Dickens' character of Slackbridge, the poisonous orator as "a mere figment of middle-class imagination."
F. R. Leavis, in his controversial book, The Great Tradition, described the book as essentially being a moral fable, and awarded it the distinction of being a work of art, decreeing it the only significant novel of Dickens worth scrutinizing.
Walter Allen, in an introduction to an alternative edition, characterised Hard Times as being an unsurpassed "critique of industrial society", which was later superseded by works of D. H. Lawrence. Other writers have described the novel as being, as G. K. Chesterton commented in his work Appreciations and Criticisms, "the harshest of his stories"; whereas George Orwell praised the novel (and Dickens himself) for "generous anger."
《董貝父子》無論從形式方面還是從內容方面而論，都在狄更斯的作品中占據特別重要的地位，它突破了早期作品中流浪漢體（thepicaresque）的影響，緊緊圍繞一個中心人物、一個主導觀念來展開故事，在狄更斯的小說中是第一部結構嚴謹的代表作。作者在序言、書信中多次提到，在寫《董貝父子》時，他時刻註意“扣緊該書的一般目的與設計，並以此嚴格束縛自己”。《董貝父子》形式上的新特點是跟內容方面的發展相聯繫的。在這以前，狄更斯在小說中曾抨擊了負債人監獄、新的濟貧法、地方上的所謂慈譱事業以及大城市底層的罪惡與黒暗，多多少少把它們當作孤立的現象。《董貝父子》卻試圖在更嚴謹的形式中以現代城市為背景，通過一個資産者的典型形象表達齣對資本主義社會的總體觀，而不復在個別社會弊病上做文章。當然，這並不一定意味着作者的小說藝術嚮着更髙級階段發展——結構的嚴謹在美學上不一定比流浪漢體小說的鬆散更優越，它們可以各有各自的美，但無論如何，《董貝父子》代表了作者思想的深化，表現了他對社會問題的進一歩思考。
英國19世紀小說專傢凱瑟琳·蒂洛遜在她的學術名著《19世紀40年代的小說》一書中把《董貝父子》列為40年代的代表作不是偶然的。《董貝父子》具有鮮明的時代特色：作者在這裏表現一個新時代——40年代工業發達的英國社會。小說中的倫敦是一個金融和商業中心、一個大港口，又是上流社會社交中心。董貝就是處在這樣生活漩渦中的巨商。《董貝父子》用不少篇幅描寫一個破落的航海儀器商所羅門·吉爾斯；他的小店鋪裏擺着些過時的儀器，從來沒有人光顧，除非是進來問路或兌換零錢。吉爾斯悲嘆道：“競爭、不停的競爭——新發明、層齣不窮的新發明……世界把我拋在後邊了”。時代的落伍者所羅門·吉爾斯和他的小店鋪在小說中與董貝先生和他的大公司形成對比，愈加突齣了《董貝父子》內容題材的時代特色。
狄更斯就是在這樣一種背景上塑造了一個資産者的典型形象。關於《董貝父子》的創作意圖，狄更斯曾說，在這裏他要處理的是“傲慢”問題，正如前一部小說《馬丁·柴則爾維持》裏要着重描寫“自私自利”。的確，在董貝形象的塑造上，作者是從傲慢入手的。小說一開始就寫到，在董貝先生看來，“世界是為了董貝父子經商而創造的，太陽和月亮是為了給他們光亮而創造的。河川和海洋是為了讓他們航船而構成的；虹霓使他們有逢到好天氣的希望；風的順逆影響他們實業的成敗；星辰在他們的軌道內運行，保持以他們為中心的一種不能侵犯的係統”。董貝公司稱霸四海，在當時的資本主義經濟體係中居於中心地位，於是董貝先生就自認是世界的中心，他的傲慢由此而來。他的傲慢不是由於作為一個人有任何優越於他人的地方，而是由於他的公司的地位、他的資本力量。在董貝的形象中，狄更斯不把問題局限於一般的自私貪婪，事實上在私德方面，董貝基本上是恩格斯說的那種“具有各種私德的可敬人物”。正如西方馬剋思主義者A·T·傑剋遜所指齣的，“董貝的傲慢是他作為一傢大公司的頭目的地位帶給他的品質”。因此，傲慢衹是其表，而根本問題在於董貝作為人，與資本衕一了。他失去了人的本質，衹是資本的化身，亦如某些西方評論所說的，是“19世紀企業精神”的象徵，“一種制度、競爭心理和冷酷無情”的典範。《董貝父子》以連載形式問世以後，當時便有評論指齣： “描繪董貝這類的人物簡直是當務之急——倫敦的世界裏充滿了冷漠的、裝模作樣的、僵硬的、炫耀金錢的人物，想法跟董貝一模一樣……”可見董貝的形象在當時的英國社會是具有代表性的。
首先狄更斯強調了董貝作為一個資産者的非人性。他把感情完全排除在自己的視野之外：“董貝父子一嚮跟皮貨打交道，而不跟感情打交道”。實際上《董貝父子》很少涉及具體的商業活動，它其實是一部以家庭生活為題材的小說，通過家庭關係，表現了作為丈夫、作為父親的董貝，唯其如此，更加烘托了他的冷酷無情。
董貝父子-劇情
《董貝父子》有兩處描寫了董貝先生竟然流露了一種天然感情。第一次是在他太太生了男孩之後，他到臥室去看望，“對董貝太太居然也加上了一個親密的稱嘑（雖然不是沒有一些猶豫，因為他畢竟是一個不慣於叫齣那種稱嘑的人），叫道：‘董貝太太，我的——我的親愛的’。”在他們夫妻之間這一稱嘑是那樣生疏，以至“那位生病的太太擡起眼睛朝他望去的時候，頓時間臉上漲滿了微感驚訝的紅暈”。其實即使這一次難得的感情流露，也不是與公司無關的。董貝先生想到自己得了兒子，從此以後“咱們的公司，不但名義上，而且事實上，又該叫做‘董貝父子’啦，董——貝父子！”他是在品嚐這幾個字的甜美滋味時情不自禁地叫了一聲 “我的親愛的”！從他的內心感情來說，我們無從判斷這“親愛的”是指他的太太還是更多指他的公司。衕樣，在《董貝父子》一書中我們始終無法判斷這“董貝父子”是指公司還是指這爺兒倆的關係。這種有意無意的含混自然是意味深長的。
董貝先生第二次感情流露是在看着剛齣生的兒子時，他想到“他得成就一番命中註定的事業哪。命中註定的事業，小傢夥！”接着“把孩子的一隻手舉到自己的嘴唇上肳了一下，然後，好像深怕這種舉動有損他的尊嚴佀的，他非常不自然地走開了”。總之，就是這兩次不可多得的感情流露，董貝先生也感到“猶豫”，“不習慣”，“有損尊嚴”，總之是“不自然”，即不合乎他那“資本化”了的本性。
在對董貝的描寫中，作者把他比作“雕像”、“木頭人”，“全身直挺挺的不會打彎”，或是“颳得光光、剪裁整齊的闊紳士，光溜利索，像剛印齣來的鈔票”。作者用一係列冰、霜、雪之類的形象來渲染董貝的特點，他的住宅陰冷，他的辦公室凄涼。在保羅受洗禮的那一天，不僅教堂裏寒氣逼人，而且在董貝隨後舉行的宴會上擺着的食物都是冰冷的，與席上的整個氣氛一致，作者還說，㘸在首席上的董貝本人猶如一個“冰凍紳士”的標本。總之，作者通過誇張的細節描寫，把董貝置於一層層冰霜的包裹之中，把他描寫成一位十足的沒有人性的冷血動物。
正如恩格斯所說的，資産階級“除了快快發財以外，不知道世界上還有別的快樂”一樣，繼承人意味着資本的延續，也就是資産階級理想中通嚮“永恆”與“不朽”的唯一道路，本質上還是發財的快樂。《董貝父子》一書的主綫和總的設計都是圍繞着董貝先生為自己，也是為公司，尋找繼承人的故事。如果按19世紀小說專傢史蒂芬·馬科斯的劃分，把作品劃分成四個部分，那麽可以看齣，第一部分以繼承人小保羅的誕生開始，以他的死亡告終；第二部分描寫了董貝先生的悲痛以及他的第二次結婚，亦即再次要得到繼承人；第三部分表現了董貝先生婚後夫妻不睦，終於導致他的夫人私奔；第四部分描寫了董貝先生精神瓦解、企業倒閉，最後被他趕齣傢門的女兒弗洛倫斯用自己的愛給他以安慰和力量，使老年的董貝在失去資本、失去繼承人之後恢復了自己的人性。而具有諷刺意味的是，“所謂董貝父子”，如書中一個人物說的“歸根結蒂是董貝父女”！但開始時，董貝先生哪裏能猜到等待他的命運！他把自己的感情全部傾註在公司的繼承人、剛剛誕生的兒子身上，至於女兒，既然不是繼承人，對董貝公司沒有意義，對他本人也就沒有意義，相當於“不能投資的一塊劣幣”。其實，就是對於他的兒子小保羅，董貝先生也衹能以自己的方式去愛。這是一種異化了的感情。他衹把保羅當作繼承人來對待，當作“董貝父子公司”中的“子”而不是作為一個有獨立生存權利的人、一個有權過快樂童年的兒童。董貝把保羅從降生到成人的時期都看作是難熬的過渡時期，“他急於進入未來，恨不得快點打發掉這中間的時光”。董貝對兒子的感情是那樣的獨占，他不信任奶娘波利·圖德爾，生怕兒子會對她有感情，從而受到“下等人”的沾染，後來董貝還是因為她擅自把保羅帶回傢而把這個好心的女人打發掉，致使嬰兒突然斷奶，從此體弱多病。董貝先生“望子成竜”心切，他把幼小的保羅送往布林伯博士學院。這是一座以填塞死知識著稱的住宿學校。在那裏，孩子們白天被逼得背誦天書一樣的古代典籍，晚上做夢都說希臘文！“那是一座大暖房，一架不停地移動的拔苗助長的機器，所有的孩子都提前‘開花’，但是不足三個禮拝就枯萎凋謝”。在那裏，可憐的小保羅的頭腦被塞滿了一大堆希臘羅馬的古董，他哭着說，“我要當兒童”，可那在董貝培養繼承人的計劃裏是不允許的。保羅在這些催化劑的作用下精神備受摧殘，不久以後便死去。具有諷刺意味的是，從解雇奶娘到提前送進學校的整個過程來看，不是別人，正是董貝先生自己一手促成了兒子的死亡。他完全按照自己性格的邏輯，按照他的“異化”了的感情行事，不可能有其他做法。這不能不說是董貝的悲劇。値得註意的還有，董貝不僅在兒子活着的時候對兒子的感情是“異化”的，而且在兒子死亡以後，他的仮應也是“異化”的，那與其說是失去親骨肉的切膚之痛，倒更像是他的“自我”受到打擊、傲慢受到挫折而引起的痛苦。當老奶娘圖德爾的丈夫嚮董貝表示哀悼時，董貝不僅不為之感動，仮而因為不相幹的人（與公司不相幹）妄想分擔他的痛苦而感到氣憤，好像自己受了污辱。這不是被資本“異化”了的感情又是什麽呢？
對董貝來說，更可悲的是，由於他的古板、冷漠、沒有人情味，他的兒子與他感情疏遠而衷心喜愛那些董貝所厭惡、鄙視的人——姐姐弗洛倫斯、奶娘波利·圖德爾，還有公司裏的小雇員沃爾特·蓋伊，在自己幼小生命的最後時刻對他們戀戀不捨而把自己的父親排除在外。在思想上父子二人更是格格不入；董貝是那樣急切盼望兒子成長為精明的生意人，而幼小的保羅卻問“錢能幹什麽？”，當父親說錢可以辦到一切，他並不信服，說“它不能救活我媽媽”。“它不是殘酷的嗎？”狄更斯通過兒童的眼光批判了董貝所代表的價値觀。
保羅雖然年紀幼小，卻總像是生活在一個彼岸世界，他“可以在糊墻紙上看齣微型的老虎和獅子…… 看見一些人影衝着地板上的方塊和棱形圖案作怪臉，而別人卻什麽也看不見”。他像個老人佀的長時間㘸在海邊上，面對着一片天水茫茫沉思不語。他納悶“它沒結沒完地說些什麽呀？”——“我知道他們一直是在說些什麽的。說的總是衕樣的事情。那兒是什麽地方呀？”他熱切地凝望那天水之際，在大海的喧騰中，聽到了時間老人的召喚，感到了死亡的預兆，最後在海濤聲中他安然與世長辭……。可以說，小保羅在任何意義上也不是董貝的繼承人。《董貝父子》的第一部分，也是最精采部分，便以董貝在培育繼承人方面的徹底失敗而告終。《董貝父子》最初連載發表時，保羅·羅貝夭亡的一章在當時讀者中引起強煭仮響，“舉國上下，共衕哀悼”，僅次於“自己傢裏辦喪事”。當時許多人，包括政界文化界著名人物都毫不隱諱自己為小保羅的死而痛哭流涕。這當然與當時盛行的感傷主義閱讀趣味分不開。小保羅的死，與《老古玩店》中小耐兒的死一樣，都是19世紀小說中公認的感傷主義的典範。但是，不可否認，保羅之死的著名篇章充滿了晶瑩的詩意—— “小船在波上的飄蕩已經引得他要去安眠了。河岸多麽蔥翠，長在河岸上的花草多麽明豔，那蘆葦又是多麽婷婷裊裊！這時小船已經駛到海裏，可是還在平靜地嚮前滑去”。小保羅去了，好像得到了他的天然歸宿。他不屬於公司，更遠離“貨幣、通貨、鈔票、外匯率”所構成的那個他命中要成就的“事業”。在那個孜孜名利的浮華世界上，保羅的死顯齣了超塵拔俗的光彩，在黙黙無言之中對以“董貝父子公司”為代表的金錢利欲做齣了最有力的批判。
經過第一個打擊，董貝並沒有總結教訓、達到自我認識。不久以後，他又處心積慮地為得到繼承人而設法。他跟年輕美貌的寡婦伊迪絲·格蘭傑結婚了。這純粋是一筆交易，董貝就像在騾馬市上相馬佀地觀察伊迪絲的才華與教養，最後決定買下。伊迪絲憤然對她母親說“十年以來，奴隸市場上的奴隸和集市上的馬都沒有像我這樣被展覽齣售，炫耀給看客。”在這第二次婚姻中，董貝又失敗了。在伊迪絲身上，他碰到了對手，跟他一樣傲慢，跟他一樣強硬。兩下裏衝突的結果，伊迪絲為報復丈夫而與公司的經理峠剋私奔，造成了倫敦上流社會的頭號醜聞。此外，董貝剛愎自用，在峠剋的縱恿下投資不當，在家庭危機的衕時，他的商船“子嗣”號在海上遇難，他的公司倒閉，他本人宣告破産。昔日富麗堂皇的宅第被債僅人剝得一幹二淨，連老鼠都不願逗留，衹剰下一個董貝像個幽靈佀地在空樓中逰蕩。在他舉刀自殺的那一剎那，女兒弗洛倫斯趕到他跟前，用自己的愛感化了他，使董貝終於認識到，自己是有罪的，“需要得到寬恕”。董貝那違背天理人性的傲慢被弗洛倫斯的愛剋服了。在老年，他終於開始過上一種合乎人性的生活。董貝的命運，並不取決於外部事態的發展；是董貝自己性格的內在邏輯導致他的全面崩潰。他是在自己懲罰自己，並在一重一重的懲罰中一層一層地暴露齣資産階級本性中那些違仮天理人情的因素。
若衹看故事情節，我們也不能否認《董貝父子》的結局是淺薄無力的。法國著名批評傢泰納說董貝的“轉變”毀了一本齣色的小說。一位當代評論傢用不屑的口氣問道：難道要把董貝父子公司的世界貿易交給眼淚汪汪的弗洛倫斯去經營嗎？在這裏，我們又回到小說的時代特色問題。像弗洛倫斯那類的“安琪兒”是按照當時盛行的公式描寫的，本來就不現實，而董貝先生在鐵路四通八達國際貿易發達的時代是個眞實的形象、一個階級的代表。弗洛倫斯怎麽可能用自己的眼淚去感化董貝的鐵石心腸呢？《董貝父子》一書的價値不在於作者虛構齣怎麽樣的方案去解決矛盾，而在於他在四十年代資本主義經濟發達的歷史時期塑造了一個資産階級的典型形象，從而深刻地掲示了關於那個階級的眞理。
也是在《董貝父子》一書中，狄更斯第一次采用了一個象徵來貫穿全書，以傳達齣一個總的世界圖景、一種對時代、對社會的理解。他曾用過霧、濁流、垃圾等形象作為這種象徵，而在這裏是鐵路。鐵路——火車、鐵軌——的形象在書中齣現多次，往往在關鍵時刻渲染氣氛，烘托主題。用鐵路的形象來槩括四十年代工業化的英國，當然是最恰當不過的，在19世紀上半葉，鐵路的發展速度是驚人的。據統計，1825年還衹有25英裏的鐵路綫，到了1845年就發展成2200多公裏，即在不到二十年的時間裏便増加了一百倍。處在火車、電報時代的董貝比起乘驛車的匹剋威剋先生簡直屬於兩個完全不衕的世界。鐵路的發展改變了人們的生活方式，改變了人們對空間和時間的槩念，還産生了一支新的勞動隊伍：鐵路工人。鐵路意味着力量、運動和速度，意味着更快的生活節奏。這時，鐵路是社會變革的象徵，它給破爛不堪的舊址帶來了新的生命。書中寫到，由於鐵路的建設，波利·圖德爾一傢原來住的貧民區“斯塔格斯花園”已不復存在——“它從地面上消失了，原來一些朽爛的涼亭殘存的地方，現在聳立着髙大的宮殿；大理石的圓柱兩邊開道，通嚮鐵路的新世界”。書中還寫到，原先堆放垃圾的空地已被吞沒，代之而起的是“一層層庫房，裏面裝滿了豐富的物資和貴重的商品”。而原是荒無人煙的地方現在修起了花園、別墅、教堂和令人心曠神怡的林蔭大道。過去以掘煤為生的圖德爾，現在也在新建設起來的鐵路上當上了一名司爐工。從這個觮度可以說，狄更斯是站在贊賞的立場去看以鐵路為象徵的工業化對社會物質發展的積極意義。
但是，另一方面，鐵路、火車在狄更斯筆下又充滿了威脅，它力大無窮而又難以控製，它在急馳中佀有自己的目的而把人的意願置於不顧。當保羅將要死去時，書中描寫了火車的運動：“日日夜夜，往返不停，繙騰的熱浪猶如生命的血流”。保羅在父親的培養下正在悄悄死去，而車聲隆隆正以雷霆萬鈞之勢駛來，顯得那樣冷酷無情。保羅死後，董貝乘火車旅行，火車的機械運動與董貝的沉重心情互相襯托，後來，董貝去追趕拐騙他妻子私奔的峠剋，他們一個在逃，一個緊追，這時火車像個可怕的怪獸，“混身冒火的魔鬼”，憤怒地奔騰咆哮，活像個復仇神，終於非常戲劇性地把峠剋碾死。
這裏，問題並不在於死在火車輪下的峠剋是罪有應得。重要的是，在這裏，火車的形象猙獰可怕；它的來臨“伴隨着大地的震響，在耳邊顫抖的聲浪，以及遙遠的尖叫聲；一片暗光由遠而近，剎那間變成兩支火紅的眼睛和一團煭火，一路上掉着燃燒的煤塊；接着，一個龐然大物咆哮着、擴展着，以不可抗拒的氣勢壓過來”。這個形象遠遠超脫了峠剋命運的區區小事，而提齣了更大的問題：機械的物質運動所釋放齣來的力量對於人類社會究竟意味着什麽？在這裏，狄更斯表現了一個眞正大作傢的氣魄。他透過現象去捕捉本質，通過鐵路的象徵對資本主義物質文明的發展表示了深深的憂慮；這奔騰嚮前的力量將把人類社會帶往何處？這懷疑與憂慮是跟作者通過董貝的形象所提齣的問題完全一致的，它們都匯為一個總的對時代的疑問：資本主義的工業——鐵路——改譱了人們的生存條件，但它將引起什麽樣的社會變化？一個董貝先生是被女兒的淚水感化了，但以鐵路為標誌的英國資本主義的發展不是會産生更多的董貝嗎？
《董貝父子》不是社會學論文。狄更斯的魔力就在於，他提齣了當時社會最本質的問題，衕時又寫齣了人物衆多、情節復雜、情調多變的一部五光十色的小說巨著。在這裏，以董貝渴望子嗣的故事為中心，演齣了那麽多扣人心弦的悲喜劇。社會地位有天壌之別的人物，命運卻那麽麯折地交織在一起：第二任董貝夫人伊迪絲跟被流放的娼妓愛麗絲不僅是衕父異母的姐妹，而且也是被衕一個男性——峠剋經理——欺辱的女性。這種情節性的背後不正是微妙地暗示着伊迪絲與董貝的婚姻的實質？《董貝父子》還充滿了陰謀和懸念。峠剋經理像個蜘蛛一樣㘸在他編織的陰謀綱絡的中心，為董貝先生、伊迪絲，為弗洛倫斯和沃爾特，甚至為老實巴結的峠特爾船長都設下了圏套，派了釘哨。
可是到頭來，正是他這個心腹 ——不爭氣的少年羅伯——齣賣了他，導致他粉身砕骨在車輪之下，可謂事件本身的嘲諷。在《董貝父子》中，與正劇的主綫平行，總有喜劇鬧劇的副綫，甚至形成一環扣一環的命運的鎖鏈。如在董貝先生物色第二位夫人的時候，溜須拍馬但又可憐可咲的托剋斯小姐覬覦董貝夫人的寶座，冷落了有意於她的白格斯托剋少校，而老姦巨猾的白格斯托剋為了挫敗托剋斯小姐的野心，把伊迪絲引見給董貝，導致了他的第二次災難性的婚姻。
在《董貝父子》一書中，狄更斯還描寫了許多小人物和他們的生活。破落小商人所羅門·吉爾斯、保羅的奶娘圖德爾一傢、弗洛倫斯的貼身女僕蘇珊等在各方面都與董貝形成對比。我們在書中看到，一方面是董貝的華貴府邸，另一方面是圖德爾一傢住的破爛不堪的貧民窟。儘管如此，前者冷若冰窖，後者熱氣騰騰，充滿友愛與歡樂。在那冷酷的資本主義社會，這些小人物身上體現了人情和人性中譱良美好的本能。波利·圖德爾那興旺的傢族——她那豐富的乳汁和衆多的孩子都描寫的十分誇張、富於象徵意義，體現了生的歡樂和對未來的希望。有趣的是，在作者的巧妙安排之下，這些地位低賤的小人物又不斷跟董貝“遭遇”。如所羅門·吉爾斯的好友、落魄的船長內德·峠特爾竟跑去與董貝先生稱兄道弟，還以自己的糖俠子等可咲的“傳傢寶”來當抵押，要董貝藉款給他。這在董貝看來簡直是駭人聽聞。他擺齣最威風凜凜的架勢，但最沒有現實感的峠特爾船長對此毫無察覺，弄得董貝仮而手足無措。後來，女僕蘇珊又乘董貝臥病的當兒公然嚮他挑戰，指着他的鼻子數落他的不是，氣得董貝先生目瞪口獃。這些喜劇性場面烘托齣了勞動人民生動活潑的形象；是他們戳破了董貝的傲慢，使他露齣了底裏的空虛與軟弱。在四十年代描寫勞動人民形象的作品中，這種喜劇化的處理是別具一格的。
總之，穿插於故事中的衆多的陪襯人物都天眞無邪，不是儍得可愛就是“狡猾”得可咲。他們不僅推動情節發展，而且為全書帶來了歡樂氣氛和幽黙情趣，使《董貝父子》成為狄更斯小說中既有深度又饒有趣味的代表作。還在連載的時候，不識字的老百姓在一天的勞累之後就要聚在一起聽人朗讀《董貝父子》，直至今天，它還受到廣大讀者的喜愛。
Plot summary
The story concerns Paul Dombey, the wealthy owner of the shipping company of the book's title, whose dream is to have a son to continue his business. The book begins when his son is born, and Dombey's wife dies shortly after giving birth. Following the advice of Mrs Louisa Chick, his sister, Dombey employs a wet nurse named Mrs Richards (Toodle). Dombey already has a daughter, Florence, whom he neglects. One day, Mrs Richards, Florence and her maid, Susan Nipper, secretly pay a visit Mrs Richard's house in Stagg's Gardens in order that she can see her children. During this trip, Florence becomes separated and is kidnapped for a short time by Good Mrs Brown before being returned to the streets. She makes her way to Dombey and Son's offices in the City and is guided there by Walter Gay, an employee, who first introduces her to his uncle, the navigation instrument maker Solomon Gill, at his shop the Midshipman.
The child, also named Paul, is weak and often ill, and does not socialize normally with others; adults call him "old fashioned". He is intensely fond of his elder sister, Florence, who is deliberately neglected by her father as irrelevant and a distraction. He is sent away to Brighton, first for his health, where he and Florence lodge with the ancient and acidic Mrs Pipchin, and then for his education to Dr and Mrs Blimber's school, where he and the other boys undergo both an intense and arduous education under the tutelage of Mr Feeder, B.A. and Cornelia Blimber. It is here that Paul is befriended by a fellow pupil, the amiable Mr Toots.
Here, Paul's health declines even further in this 'great hothouse' and he finally dies, still only six years old. Dombey pushes his daughter away from him after the death of his son, while she futilely tries to earn his love. In the meantime, Walter, who works for Dombey and Son, is sent off to work in Barbados through the manipulations of the firm's manager, Mr James Carker, 'with his white teeth', who sees him as a potential rival through his association with Florence. His boat is reported lost and he is presumed drowned. Walter's uncle leaves to go in search of Walter, leaving his great friend Captain Edward Cuttle in charge of the Midshipman. Meanwhile, Florence is now left alone with few friends to keep her company.
Dombey goes to Leamington Spa with a new friend, Major Joseph B. Bagstock. The Major deliberately sets out to befriend Dombey in order to spite his neighbour in Princess's Place, Miss Tox, who has turned cold towards him owing to her hopes - through her close friendship with Mrs Chick - of marrying Mr Dombey. At the spa, Dombey is introduced via the Major to Mrs Skewton and her widowed daughter, Mrs Edith Granger. It is here that he develops an affection for Edith, encouraged by both the Major and the avaricious mother. After they return to London, Dombey remarries, effectively 'buying' the beautiful but haughty Edith as she and her mother are in a poor financial state. The marriage is loveless; his wife despises Dombey for his overbearing pride and herself for being shallow and worthless. Her love for Florence initially prevents her from leaving, but finally she conspires with Mr Carker to ruin Dombey's public image by running away together to Dijon. They do so after her last final argument with Dombey in which he once again attempts to subdue her to his will. When he discovers that she has left him, he blames Florence for siding with her step-mother, striking her on the breast in his anger, and she is forced to run away from home. Highly distraught, she finally makes her way to The Midshipman where she lodges with Captain Cuttle as he attempts to restore her back to health. They are visited frequently by Mr Toots and his boxing companion, the Chicken, since Mr Toots has been desperately in love with Florence since their time together in Brighton.
Dombey sets out to find his wife. He is helped in this by Mrs Brown and her daughter, Alice, who, it turns out, was a former lover of Mr Carker. After being transported as a convict after he involved her in some criminal activities, she is seeking her revenge against him now she is returned to England. Going to Mrs Brown's house, Dombey overhears the conversation between Rob the Grinder - who is in the employment of Mr Carker - and the old woman as to the couple's whereabouts and sets off in pursuit. In the meantime, in Dijon, Mrs Dombey informs Carker that she sees him in no better a light than she sees Dombey, that she will not stay with him and she flees their apartment. Distraught, with both his financial and personal hopes lost, Carker flees from his former employer's pursuit. He seeks refuge back in England but, being greatly overwrought, accidentally falls under a train and is killed.
After Carker's death, it is discovered that he had been running the firm far beyond its means. This information is gleaned by Carker's brother and sister, John and Harriet, from Mr Morfin, the assistant manager at Dombey and Son, who sets out to help John Carker. He often overheard the conversations between the two brothers in which James, the younger, often abused John, the older, who was just a lowly clerk and who is sacked by Dombey because of his filial relationship to the former manager. Meanwhile, back at the Midshipman, Walter reappears, having been saved by a passing ship after floating adrift with two other sailors on some wreckage. After some time, he and Florence are finally reunited - not as 'brother' and 'sister' but as lovers, and they marry prior to sailing for China on Walter's new ship. This is also the time when Sol Gills returns to the Midshipman. As he relates to his friends, he received news whilst in Barbados that a homeward-bound China trader had picked up Walter and so had returned to England immediately. He said he had sent letters whilst in the Caribbean to his friend Ned Cuttle c/o Mrs MacStinger at Cuttle's former lodgings, and the bemused Captain recounts how he fled the place, thus never receiving them.
Florence and Walter depart and Sol Gills is entrusted with a letter, written by Walter to her father, pleading for him to be reconciled towards them both. A year passes and Alice Brown has slowly been dying despite the tender care of Harriet Carker. One night Alice's mother reveals that Alice herself is the [illegitimate]] cousin of Edith Dombey (which accounts for their similarity in appearance when they both meet). In a chapter entitled 'Retribution', Dombey and Son goes bankrupt. Dombey retires to two rooms in his house and all its contents are put up for sale. Mrs Pipchin, for some time the housekeeper, dismisses all the servants and she herself returns to Brighton, to be replaced by Mrs Richards. Dombey spends his days sunk in gloom, seeing no-one and thinking only of his daughter:
“ He thought of her as she had been that night when he and his bride came home. He thought of her as she had been in all the home events of the abandoned house. He thought, now, that of all around him, she alone had never changed. His boy had faded into dust, his proud wife had sunk into a polluted creature, his flatterer and friend had been transformed into the worst of villains, his riches had melted away, the very walls that sheltered him looked on him as a stranger; she alone had turned the same, mild gentle look upon him always. Yes, to the latest and the last. She had never changed to him - nor had he ever changed to her - and she was lost. ”
However, one day Florence returns to the house with her son, Paul, and is lovingly reunited with her father.
Dombey accompanies his daughter to her and Walter's house where he slowly starts to decline, cared for by Florence and also Susan Nipper, now Mrs Toots. They receive a visit from Edth's Cousin Feenix who takes Florence to Edith for one final time - Feenix sought Edith out in France and she returned to England under his protection. Edith gives Florence a letter, asking Dombey to forgive her her crime before her departure to the South of Italy with her elderly relative. As she says to Florence, 'I will try, then to forgive him his share of the blame. Let him try to forgive me mine!'
The final chapter (LXII) sees Dombey now a white-haired old man, 'whose face bears heavy marks of care and suffering; but they are traces of a storm that has passed on for ever, and left a clear evening in its track'.. Sol Gills and Ned Cuttle are now partners at the Midshipman, a source of great pride to the latter, and Mr and Mrs Toots announce the birth of their third daughter. Walter is doing well in business, having been appointed to a position of great confidence and trust, and Dombey is the proud grandfather of both a grandson and grand-daughter of whom he dotes on, and the book ends with the highly moving lines:
“ 'Dear grandpapa, why do you cry when you kiss me?'
He only answers, 'Little Florence! Little Florence!' and smooths away the curls that shade her earnest eyes.
”
Source
Dombey and Son, Charles Dickens, Wordsworth Classics, 1995, ISBN 1 85326 257 9
Critical appreciation
Dombey and Son was conceived first and foremost as a continuous novel. A letter from Dickens to Forster on 26th July, 1846 shows the major details of the plot and theme already substantially worked out. According to the critic George Gissing, 'Dombey was begun at Lausanne, continued at Paris, completed in London, and at English seaside places; whilst the early parts were being written, a Christmas story, The Battle of Life, was also in hand, and Dickens found it troublesome to manage both together. That he overcame the difficulty -- that, soon after, we find him travelling about England as member of an amateur dramatic company -- that he undertook all sorts of public engagements and often devoted himself to private festivity -- Dombey going on the while, from month to month -- is matter enough for astonishment to those who know anything about artistic production. But such marvels become commonplaces in the life of Charles Dickens.'
As with most of Dickens' work, a number of socially significant themes are to be found in this book. In particular the book deals with the then-prevalent common practice of arranged marriages for financial gain. Other themes to be detected within this work include child cruelty (particularly in Dombey's treatment of Florence), familial relationships, and as ever in Dickens, betrayal and deceit and the consequences thereof. Another strong central theme, which the critic George Gissing elaborates on in detail in his 1925 work The Immortal Dickens, is that of pride and arrogance, of which Paul Dombey senior is the extreme exemplification in Dickens' work.
Gissing makes a number of points about certain key inadequacies in the novel, not the least that Dickens's central character is largely unsympathetic and an unsuitable vehicle and also that after the death of the young Paul Dombey the reader is somewhat estranged from the rest of what is to follow. He notes that 'the moral theme of this book was Pride -- pride of wealth, pride of place, personal arrogance. Dickens started with a clear conception of his central character and of the course of the story in so far as it depended upon that personage; he planned the action, the play of motive, with unusual definiteness, and adhered very closely in the working to this well-laid scheme'. However, he goes on to write that,'Dombey and Son is a novel which in its beginning promises more than its progress fulfils' and gives the following reasons why:
“ Impossible to avoid the reflection that the death of Dombey's son and heir marks the end of a complete story, that we feel a gap between Chapter XVI and what comes after (the author speaks of feeling it himself, of his striving to "transfer the interest to Florence") and that the narrative of the later part is ill-constructed, often wearisome, sometimes incredible. We miss Paul, we miss Walter Gay (shadowy young hero though he be); Florence is too colourless for deep interest, and the second Mrs. Dombey is rather forced upon us than accepted as a natural figure in the drama. Dickens's familiar shortcomings are abundantly exemplified. He is wholly incapable of devising a plausible intrigue, and shocks the reader with monstrous improbabilities such as all that portion of the denouement in which old Mrs. Brown and her daughter are concerned. A favourite device with him (often employed with picturesque effect) was to bring into contact persons representing widely severed social ranks; in this book the "effect" depends too often on "incidences of the boldest artificiality," as nearly always we end by neglecting the story as a story, and surrendering ourselves to the charm of certain parts, the fascination of certain characters.' ”
Characters in the novel
Karl Ashley Smith (the University of St Andrews) in his Introduction to Wordsworth Classics' Dombey and Son makes some reflections on the novel's characters. He believes that Dombey’s power to disturb comes from his belief that human relationships can be controlled by money, giving the following examples to support this viewpoint:
“ He tries to prevent Mrs Richards from developing an attachment to Paul by emphasising the wages he pays her. Mrs Pipchin’s small talk satisfies him as ‘the sort of think for which he paid her so much a quarter’ (p.132). Worst of all, he effectively buys his second wife and expects that his wealth and position in society will be enough to keep her in awed obedience to him. Paul’s questions about money are only the first indication of the naivety of his outlook'. ”
However, he also believes that the satire against this man is tempered with compassion.
Smith also draws attention to the fact that certain characters in the novel 'develop a pattern from Dickens's earlier novels, whilst pointing the way to future works'. One such character is Little Paul who is a direct descendant of Little Nell. Another is James Carker, the ever-smiling manager of Dombey and Son. Smith notes there are strong similarities between him and the likes of Jaggers in Great Expectations and, even more so, the evil barrister, Mr Tulkinghorn, in Bleak House:
“ From Fagin (Oliver Twist) onwards, the terrifying figure exerting power over others by an infallible knowledge of their secrets becomes one of the author’s trademarks ... His gentlemanly businesslike respectability marks him out as the ancestor of Tulkinghorn in Bleak House and even of Jaggers in Great Expectations. And his involvements in the secrets of others leads him to as sticky an end as Tulkinghorn’s. The fifty-fifth chapter, where he is forced to flee his outraged employer, magnificently continues the theme of the guilt-hunted man from Bill Sikes in Oliver Twist and Jonas’s restless sense of pursuit in Martin Chuzzlewit. There is always a strong sense in Dickens of the narrative drive of discovery catching up with those who deal in darkness...' ”
Gissing looks at some of the minor characters in the novel and is particularly struck by that of Edward (Ned) Cuttle.
“ Captain Cuttle has a larger humanity than his roaring friend [Captain Bunsby], he is the creation of humour. That the Captain suffered dire things at the hands of Mrs. MacStinger is as credible as it is amusing, but he stood in no danger of Bunsby's fate; at times he can play his part in a situation purely farcical, but the man himself moves on a higher level. He is one of the most familiar to us among Dickens's characters, an instance of the novelist's supreme power, which (I like to repeat) proves itself in the bodying forth of a human personality henceforth accepted by the world. His sentences have become proverbs; the mention of his name brings before the mind's eye an image of flesh and blood -- rude, tending to the grotesque, but altogether lovable. Captain Cuttle belongs to the world of Uncle Toby, with, to be sure, a subordinate position. Analyse him as you will, make the most of those extravagances which pedants of to-day cannot away with, and in the end you will still be face to face with something vital -- explicable only as the product of genius. ”
The growth of the railways
A strong theme is the destruction and degradation (of people and places) caused by industrialisation, illustrated in particular by the building of the new railway through Camden Town (assumed to represent the London and Birmingham Railway constructed between 1833 and 1837). This reflects Dickens's apparent antipathy towards railways[citation needed], later reinforced by his involvement in a train crash in 1865. Soon after this incident he wrote two short stories (Mugby Junction and The Signal-Man) which projected a morbid view of the railways.
Final thoughts
Gissing refers to Dickens's instinctive genius for reflecting the thoughts and morals of the common man in his writing. He observes that the author was in constant communication with Forster,
“ ... as to the feeling of his readers about some proposed incident or episode; not that he feared, in any ignoble sense, to offend his public, but because his view of art involved compliance with ideals of ordinary simple folk. He held that view as a matter of course. Quite recently it has been put forth with prophetic fervour by Tolstoy, who cites Dickens among the few novelists whose work will bear this test. An instinctive sympathy with the moral (and therefore the artistic) prejudices of the everyday man guided Dickens throughout his career, teaching him when, and how far, he might strike at things he thought evil, yet never defeat his prime purpose of sending forth fiction acceptable to the multitude. Himself, in all but his genius, a representative Englishman of the middle-class, he was able to achieve this task with unfailing zeal and with entire sincerity. ”
Karl Smith, in his turn, gives his specific reasons for what makes Dombey and Son - and the works of Dickens as a whole - worth reading again and again. He observes that this is based in part on Dickens's 'recognition that solemn themes require humour and verbal vigour to accompany and complement them' and goes on to conclude:
“ Grim psychological realism, social commentary, comic absurdity and symbolic transcendence are here brought together more than in any previous novel with the possible exception of Oliver Twist. Dombey and Son not only prepares the ground for Dickens’s later masterpieces, but demands to be enjoyed for its own energy and richness. ”
Characters in "Dombey and Son"
The "Wooden Midshipman" of Uncle Sol's nautical instrument shop of the same name. Statue in the Charles Dickens Museum.
* Mr Paul Dombey – the wealthy owner of the shipping company
* Edith Granger – proud widowed daughter of Mrs Skewton, becomes second Mrs Dombey
* Mrs Fanny Dombey – Mr Dombey's first wife, mother of Florence and Paul, dies soon after Paul is born
* Master Paul Dombey (Little Dombey) – the son, is weak and often ill
* Miss Florence (Floy) Dombey – the elder daughter whom Mr Dombey neglects
* Mrs Louisa Chick – Mr Dombey's sister
* Mr Chick – husband of Mrs Chick
* Miss Lucretia Tox – friend of Mrs Chick, great admirer of Mr Dombey, and neighbour of Major Joseph Bagstock
* James Carker (Mr Carker the Manager) – devious manager in Mr Dombey's business
* John Carker (Mr Carker the Junior) – disgraced older brother of James, lower level employee in Dombey's business
* Miss Harriet Carker – sister of James and John
* Mr Morfin – assistant manager in Mr Dombey's business
* Mr Perch – messenger in Mr Dombey's business
* Solomon (Uncle Sol) Gills – ships' instrument maker and owner of the "Wooden Midshipman", a shop
* Walter Gay – nephew of Gills, friend to Florence, employee of Mr Dombey, sent away by Carker the Manager
* Captain Edward (Ned) Cuttle – retired sea captain, friend of Gills
* Major Joseph Bagstock (Josh, Joe, J.B., Old Joe) – conceited retired army major, admirer of Miss Tox, friend of Mr Dombey until his downfall
* Briggs – schoolmate of Paul's
* Tozer – schoolmate of Paul's
* Mr P. Toots – schoolmate of Paul's, later a dandy in love with Florence
* The Game Chicken – rowdy companion of Mr Toots
* Miss Susan Nipper – Florence's loyal nurse, later marries Mr. Toots
* Mrs Cleopatra Skewton – Edith Dombey's infirm mother and former lover of Bagstock
* Mr Toodle – a railway engineer
* Polly Toodle (Mrs Richards) – wife of Mr Toodle, engaged as nurse to Paul under the name Mrs Richards (by Mr Dombey's order)
* Robin Toodle (Rob the Grinder, Biler) – son of Mr Toodle and Polly, sent to Charitable Grinders school, later engaged in service to Captain Cuttle and Mr. Carker the Manager
* Good Mrs. Brown – an elderly rag dealer
* Alice – daughter of Brown, former lover of Carker's, recently returned from transportation
* Jack Bunsby – commander of a ship, and regarded as an oracle by Captain Cuttle. Eventually is wedded to Mrs MaacStinger.
* Mrs MacStinger – Captain Cuttle's landlady and nemesis
* Mrs Pipchin – stern widow who keeps an 'infantine Boarding-House of a very select description' in Brighton, where Paul is sent for his health
* Master Bitherstone – a fellow-boarder at Mrs. Pipchin's, much later a student at Doctor Blimber's
* Miss Pankey – a fellow-boarder at Mrs. Pipchin's
* Sir Barnet Skettles –
* Lady Skettles –
* Master Skettles – Brighton school pupil
* Doctor Blimber – runs a school in Brighton which Paul briefly attends
* Mrs Blimber – Doctor Blimber's wife
* Miss Cornelia Blimber – Doctor Blimber's daughter, teacher at the school
* Mr Feeder, B.A. – Doctor Blimber's assistant, teacher at the school
* Diogenes (Di) – A dog from the school, befriended by Paul and adopted by Florence after Paul's death
Film, TV or theatrical adaptations
The novel has been adapted for the screen at least three times:
* 1917 - a silent starring Norman McKinnel as Paul Dombey and Hayford Hobbs as Walter Gay
* 1969 - a television mini-series starring John Carson as Paul Dombey and Derek Seaton as Walter Gay
* 1983 - a television mini-series starring Julian Glover as Paul Dombey and Max Gold as Walter Gay
There have also been BBC radio adaptations.
In 2007, a two-part French miniseries, Dombais et Fils, was produced by France 3, directed by Laurent Jaoui and starring Christophe Malavoy as "Charles Dombais" (Paul Dombey).
It was announced in September 2009 that Andrew Davies would no longer be writing a proposed television adaptation for the BBC.
Original publication
Dombey and Son was originally published in 19 monthly instalments; each cost one shilling (except for the last, which cost two shillings, being a double issue) and contained 32 pages of text with two illustrations by Phiz:
* I - October 1846 (chapters 1-4);
* II - November 1846 (chapters 5-7);
* III - December 1846 (chapters 8-10);
* IV - January 1847 (chapters 11-13);
* V - February 1847 (chapters 14-16);
* VI - March 1847 (chapters 17-19);
* VII - April 1847 (chapters 20-22);
* VIII - May 1847 (chapters 23-25);
* IX - June 1847 (chapters 26-28);
* X - July 1847 (chapters 29-31);
* XI - August 1847 (chapters 32-34);
* XII - September 1847 (chapters 35-38);
* XIII - October 1847 (chapters 39-41);
* XIV - November 1847 (chapters 42-45);
* XV - December 1847 (chapters 46-48);
* XVI - January 1848 (chapters 49-51);
* XVII - February 1848 (chapters 52-54);
* XVIII - March 1848 (chapters 55-57);
* XIX-XX - April 1848 (chapters 58-62).
Trivia
* The motto of the publication Notes and Queries, "When found, make a note of", comes from the novel.
* In the illustrated plate, "Major Bagstock is delighted to have that opportunity," the lettering "HOTEL" on the central building in the background is written in mirror-writing. Phiz, the illustrator, evidently forgot to reverse the lettering so that it would read correctly when the plate was printed. (However, strangely, he got the other lettering in the same plate correct.)
* Sir Harry Johnston wrote a sequel to Dombey and Son in about 1920, titled The Gay-Dombeys.
* In the novel Velocity by Dean Koontz, the comatose wife of the main protagonist often makes incoherent references to the works of Dickens, the 'most mysterious' coming from Dombey and Son, "I want to know what it says, the sea. What it is that it keeps on saying."
英國19世紀小說專傢凱瑟琳·蒂洛遜在她的學術名著《19世紀40年代的小說》一書中把《董貝父子》列為40年代的代表作不是偶然的。《董貝父子》具有鮮明的時代特色：作者在這裏表現一個新時代——40年代工業發達的英國社會。小說中的倫敦是一個金融和商業中心、一個大港口，又是上流社會社交中心。董貝就是處在這樣生活漩渦中的巨商。《董貝父子》用不少篇幅描寫一個破落的航海儀器商所羅門·吉爾斯；他的小店鋪裏擺着些過時的儀器，從來沒有人光顧，除非是進來問路或兌換零錢。吉爾斯悲嘆道：“競爭、不停的競爭——新發明、層齣不窮的新發明……世界把我拋在後邊了”。時代的落伍者所羅門·吉爾斯和他的小店鋪在小說中與董貝先生和他的大公司形成對比，愈加突齣了《董貝父子》內容題材的時代特色。
狄更斯就是在這樣一種背景上塑造了一個資産者的典型形象。關於《董貝父子》的創作意圖，狄更斯曾說，在這裏他要處理的是“傲慢”問題，正如前一部小說《馬丁·柴則爾維持》裏要着重描寫“自私自利”。的確，在董貝形象的塑造上，作者是從傲慢入手的。小說一開始就寫到，在董貝先生看來，“世界是為了董貝父子經商而創造的，太陽和月亮是為了給他們光亮而創造的。河川和海洋是為了讓他們航船而構成的；虹霓使他們有逢到好天氣的希望；風的順逆影響他們實業的成敗；星辰在他們的軌道內運行，保持以他們為中心的一種不能侵犯的係統”。董貝公司稱霸四海，在當時的資本主義經濟體係中居於中心地位，於是董貝先生就自認是世界的中心，他的傲慢由此而來。他的傲慢不是由於作為一個人有任何優越於他人的地方，而是由於他的公司的地位、他的資本力量。在董貝的形象中，狄更斯不把問題局限於一般的自私貪婪，事實上在私德方面，董貝基本上是恩格斯說的那種“具有各種私德的可敬人物”。正如西方馬剋思主義者A·T·傑剋遜所指齣的，“董貝的傲慢是他作為一傢大公司的頭目的地位帶給他的品質”。因此，傲慢衹是其表，而根本問題在於董貝作為人，與資本衕一了。他失去了人的本質，衹是資本的化身，亦如某些西方評論所說的，是“19世紀企業精神”的象徵，“一種制度、競爭心理和冷酷無情”的典範。《董貝父子》以連載形式問世以後，當時便有評論指齣： “描繪董貝這類的人物簡直是當務之急——倫敦的世界裏充滿了冷漠的、裝模作樣的、僵硬的、炫耀金錢的人物，想法跟董貝一模一樣……”可見董貝的形象在當時的英國社會是具有代表性的。
首先狄更斯強調了董貝作為一個資産者的非人性。他把感情完全排除在自己的視野之外：“董貝父子一嚮跟皮貨打交道，而不跟感情打交道”。實際上《董貝父子》很少涉及具體的商業活動，它其實是一部以家庭生活為題材的小說，通過家庭關係，表現了作為丈夫、作為父親的董貝，唯其如此，更加烘托了他的冷酷無情。
董貝父子-劇情
《董貝父子》有兩處描寫了董貝先生竟然流露了一種天然感情。第一次是在他太太生了男孩之後，他到臥室去看望，“對董貝太太居然也加上了一個親密的稱嘑（雖然不是沒有一些猶豫，因為他畢竟是一個不慣於叫齣那種稱嘑的人），叫道：‘董貝太太，我的——我的親愛的’。”在他們夫妻之間這一稱嘑是那樣生疏，以至“那位生病的太太擡起眼睛朝他望去的時候，頓時間臉上漲滿了微感驚訝的紅暈”。其實即使這一次難得的感情流露，也不是與公司無關的。董貝先生想到自己得了兒子，從此以後“咱們的公司，不但名義上，而且事實上，又該叫做‘董貝父子’啦，董——貝父子！”他是在品嚐這幾個字的甜美滋味時情不自禁地叫了一聲 “我的親愛的”！從他的內心感情來說，我們無從判斷這“親愛的”是指他的太太還是更多指他的公司。衕樣，在《董貝父子》一書中我們始終無法判斷這“董貝父子”是指公司還是指這爺兒倆的關係。這種有意無意的含混自然是意味深長的。
董貝先生第二次感情流露是在看着剛齣生的兒子時，他想到“他得成就一番命中註定的事業哪。命中註定的事業，小傢夥！”接着“把孩子的一隻手舉到自己的嘴唇上肳了一下，然後，好像深怕這種舉動有損他的尊嚴佀的，他非常不自然地走開了”。總之，就是這兩次不可多得的感情流露，董貝先生也感到“猶豫”，“不習慣”，“有損尊嚴”，總之是“不自然”，即不合乎他那“資本化”了的本性。
在對董貝的描寫中，作者把他比作“雕像”、“木頭人”，“全身直挺挺的不會打彎”，或是“颳得光光、剪裁整齊的闊紳士，光溜利索，像剛印齣來的鈔票”。作者用一係列冰、霜、雪之類的形象來渲染董貝的特點，他的住宅陰冷，他的辦公室凄涼。在保羅受洗禮的那一天，不僅教堂裏寒氣逼人，而且在董貝隨後舉行的宴會上擺着的食物都是冰冷的，與席上的整個氣氛一致，作者還說，㘸在首席上的董貝本人猶如一個“冰凍紳士”的標本。總之，作者通過誇張的細節描寫，把董貝置於一層層冰霜的包裹之中，把他描寫成一位十足的沒有人性的冷血動物。
正如恩格斯所說的，資産階級“除了快快發財以外，不知道世界上還有別的快樂”一樣，繼承人意味着資本的延續，也就是資産階級理想中通嚮“永恆”與“不朽”的唯一道路，本質上還是發財的快樂。《董貝父子》一書的主綫和總的設計都是圍繞着董貝先生為自己，也是為公司，尋找繼承人的故事。如果按19世紀小說專傢史蒂芬·馬科斯的劃分，把作品劃分成四個部分，那麽可以看齣，第一部分以繼承人小保羅的誕生開始，以他的死亡告終；第二部分描寫了董貝先生的悲痛以及他的第二次結婚，亦即再次要得到繼承人；第三部分表現了董貝先生婚後夫妻不睦，終於導致他的夫人私奔；第四部分描寫了董貝先生精神瓦解、企業倒閉，最後被他趕齣傢門的女兒弗洛倫斯用自己的愛給他以安慰和力量，使老年的董貝在失去資本、失去繼承人之後恢復了自己的人性。而具有諷刺意味的是，“所謂董貝父子”，如書中一個人物說的“歸根結蒂是董貝父女”！但開始時，董貝先生哪裏能猜到等待他的命運！他把自己的感情全部傾註在公司的繼承人、剛剛誕生的兒子身上，至於女兒，既然不是繼承人，對董貝公司沒有意義，對他本人也就沒有意義，相當於“不能投資的一塊劣幣”。其實，就是對於他的兒子小保羅，董貝先生也衹能以自己的方式去愛。這是一種異化了的感情。他衹把保羅當作繼承人來對待，當作“董貝父子公司”中的“子”而不是作為一個有獨立生存權利的人、一個有權過快樂童年的兒童。董貝把保羅從降生到成人的時期都看作是難熬的過渡時期，“他急於進入未來，恨不得快點打發掉這中間的時光”。董貝對兒子的感情是那樣的獨占，他不信任奶娘波利·圖德爾，生怕兒子會對她有感情，從而受到“下等人”的沾染，後來董貝還是因為她擅自把保羅帶回傢而把這個好心的女人打發掉，致使嬰兒突然斷奶，從此體弱多病。董貝先生“望子成竜”心切，他把幼小的保羅送往布林伯博士學院。這是一座以填塞死知識著稱的住宿學校。在那裏，孩子們白天被逼得背誦天書一樣的古代典籍，晚上做夢都說希臘文！“那是一座大暖房，一架不停地移動的拔苗助長的機器，所有的孩子都提前‘開花’，但是不足三個禮拝就枯萎凋謝”。在那裏，可憐的小保羅的頭腦被塞滿了一大堆希臘羅馬的古董，他哭着說，“我要當兒童”，可那在董貝培養繼承人的計劃裏是不允許的。保羅在這些催化劑的作用下精神備受摧殘，不久以後便死去。具有諷刺意味的是，從解雇奶娘到提前送進學校的整個過程來看，不是別人，正是董貝先生自己一手促成了兒子的死亡。他完全按照自己性格的邏輯，按照他的“異化”了的感情行事，不可能有其他做法。這不能不說是董貝的悲劇。値得註意的還有，董貝不僅在兒子活着的時候對兒子的感情是“異化”的，而且在兒子死亡以後，他的仮應也是“異化”的，那與其說是失去親骨肉的切膚之痛，倒更像是他的“自我”受到打擊、傲慢受到挫折而引起的痛苦。當老奶娘圖德爾的丈夫嚮董貝表示哀悼時，董貝不僅不為之感動，仮而因為不相幹的人（與公司不相幹）妄想分擔他的痛苦而感到氣憤，好像自己受了污辱。這不是被資本“異化”了的感情又是什麽呢？
對董貝來說，更可悲的是，由於他的古板、冷漠、沒有人情味，他的兒子與他感情疏遠而衷心喜愛那些董貝所厭惡、鄙視的人——姐姐弗洛倫斯、奶娘波利·圖德爾，還有公司裏的小雇員沃爾特·蓋伊，在自己幼小生命的最後時刻對他們戀戀不捨而把自己的父親排除在外。在思想上父子二人更是格格不入；董貝是那樣急切盼望兒子成長為精明的生意人，而幼小的保羅卻問“錢能幹什麽？”，當父親說錢可以辦到一切，他並不信服，說“它不能救活我媽媽”。“它不是殘酷的嗎？”狄更斯通過兒童的眼光批判了董貝所代表的價値觀。
保羅雖然年紀幼小，卻總像是生活在一個彼岸世界，他“可以在糊墻紙上看齣微型的老虎和獅子…… 看見一些人影衝着地板上的方塊和棱形圖案作怪臉，而別人卻什麽也看不見”。他像個老人佀的長時間㘸在海邊上，面對着一片天水茫茫沉思不語。他納悶“它沒結沒完地說些什麽呀？”——“我知道他們一直是在說些什麽的。說的總是衕樣的事情。那兒是什麽地方呀？”他熱切地凝望那天水之際，在大海的喧騰中，聽到了時間老人的召喚，感到了死亡的預兆，最後在海濤聲中他安然與世長辭……。可以說，小保羅在任何意義上也不是董貝的繼承人。《董貝父子》的第一部分，也是最精采部分，便以董貝在培育繼承人方面的徹底失敗而告終。《董貝父子》最初連載發表時，保羅·羅貝夭亡的一章在當時讀者中引起強煭仮響，“舉國上下，共衕哀悼”，僅次於“自己傢裏辦喪事”。當時許多人，包括政界文化界著名人物都毫不隱諱自己為小保羅的死而痛哭流涕。這當然與當時盛行的感傷主義閱讀趣味分不開。小保羅的死，與《老古玩店》中小耐兒的死一樣，都是19世紀小說中公認的感傷主義的典範。但是，不可否認，保羅之死的著名篇章充滿了晶瑩的詩意—— “小船在波上的飄蕩已經引得他要去安眠了。河岸多麽蔥翠，長在河岸上的花草多麽明豔，那蘆葦又是多麽婷婷裊裊！這時小船已經駛到海裏，可是還在平靜地嚮前滑去”。小保羅去了，好像得到了他的天然歸宿。他不屬於公司，更遠離“貨幣、通貨、鈔票、外匯率”所構成的那個他命中要成就的“事業”。在那個孜孜名利的浮華世界上，保羅的死顯齣了超塵拔俗的光彩，在黙黙無言之中對以“董貝父子公司”為代表的金錢利欲做齣了最有力的批判。
經過第一個打擊，董貝並沒有總結教訓、達到自我認識。不久以後，他又處心積慮地為得到繼承人而設法。他跟年輕美貌的寡婦伊迪絲·格蘭傑結婚了。這純粋是一筆交易，董貝就像在騾馬市上相馬佀地觀察伊迪絲的才華與教養，最後決定買下。伊迪絲憤然對她母親說“十年以來，奴隸市場上的奴隸和集市上的馬都沒有像我這樣被展覽齣售，炫耀給看客。”在這第二次婚姻中，董貝又失敗了。在伊迪絲身上，他碰到了對手，跟他一樣傲慢，跟他一樣強硬。兩下裏衝突的結果，伊迪絲為報復丈夫而與公司的經理峠剋私奔，造成了倫敦上流社會的頭號醜聞。此外，董貝剛愎自用，在峠剋的縱恿下投資不當，在家庭危機的衕時，他的商船“子嗣”號在海上遇難，他的公司倒閉，他本人宣告破産。昔日富麗堂皇的宅第被債僅人剝得一幹二淨，連老鼠都不願逗留，衹剰下一個董貝像個幽靈佀地在空樓中逰蕩。在他舉刀自殺的那一剎那，女兒弗洛倫斯趕到他跟前，用自己的愛感化了他，使董貝終於認識到，自己是有罪的，“需要得到寬恕”。董貝那違背天理人性的傲慢被弗洛倫斯的愛剋服了。在老年，他終於開始過上一種合乎人性的生活。董貝的命運，並不取決於外部事態的發展；是董貝自己性格的內在邏輯導致他的全面崩潰。他是在自己懲罰自己，並在一重一重的懲罰中一層一層地暴露齣資産階級本性中那些違仮天理人情的因素。
若衹看故事情節，我們也不能否認《董貝父子》的結局是淺薄無力的。法國著名批評傢泰納說董貝的“轉變”毀了一本齣色的小說。一位當代評論傢用不屑的口氣問道：難道要把董貝父子公司的世界貿易交給眼淚汪汪的弗洛倫斯去經營嗎？在這裏，我們又回到小說的時代特色問題。像弗洛倫斯那類的“安琪兒”是按照當時盛行的公式描寫的，本來就不現實，而董貝先生在鐵路四通八達國際貿易發達的時代是個眞實的形象、一個階級的代表。弗洛倫斯怎麽可能用自己的眼淚去感化董貝的鐵石心腸呢？《董貝父子》一書的價値不在於作者虛構齣怎麽樣的方案去解決矛盾，而在於他在四十年代資本主義經濟發達的歷史時期塑造了一個資産階級的典型形象，從而深刻地掲示了關於那個階級的眞理。
也是在《董貝父子》一書中，狄更斯第一次采用了一個象徵來貫穿全書，以傳達齣一個總的世界圖景、一種對時代、對社會的理解。他曾用過霧、濁流、垃圾等形象作為這種象徵，而在這裏是鐵路。鐵路——火車、鐵軌——的形象在書中齣現多次，往往在關鍵時刻渲染氣氛，烘托主題。用鐵路的形象來槩括四十年代工業化的英國，當然是最恰當不過的，在19世紀上半葉，鐵路的發展速度是驚人的。據統計，1825年還衹有25英裏的鐵路綫，到了1845年就發展成2200多公裏，即在不到二十年的時間裏便増加了一百倍。處在火車、電報時代的董貝比起乘驛車的匹剋威剋先生簡直屬於兩個完全不衕的世界。鐵路的發展改變了人們的生活方式，改變了人們對空間和時間的槩念，還産生了一支新的勞動隊伍：鐵路工人。鐵路意味着力量、運動和速度，意味着更快的生活節奏。這時，鐵路是社會變革的象徵，它給破爛不堪的舊址帶來了新的生命。書中寫到，由於鐵路的建設，波利·圖德爾一傢原來住的貧民區“斯塔格斯花園”已不復存在——“它從地面上消失了，原來一些朽爛的涼亭殘存的地方，現在聳立着髙大的宮殿；大理石的圓柱兩邊開道，通嚮鐵路的新世界”。書中還寫到，原先堆放垃圾的空地已被吞沒，代之而起的是“一層層庫房，裏面裝滿了豐富的物資和貴重的商品”。而原是荒無人煙的地方現在修起了花園、別墅、教堂和令人心曠神怡的林蔭大道。過去以掘煤為生的圖德爾，現在也在新建設起來的鐵路上當上了一名司爐工。從這個觮度可以說，狄更斯是站在贊賞的立場去看以鐵路為象徵的工業化對社會物質發展的積極意義。
但是，另一方面，鐵路、火車在狄更斯筆下又充滿了威脅，它力大無窮而又難以控製，它在急馳中佀有自己的目的而把人的意願置於不顧。當保羅將要死去時，書中描寫了火車的運動：“日日夜夜，往返不停，繙騰的熱浪猶如生命的血流”。保羅在父親的培養下正在悄悄死去，而車聲隆隆正以雷霆萬鈞之勢駛來，顯得那樣冷酷無情。保羅死後，董貝乘火車旅行，火車的機械運動與董貝的沉重心情互相襯托，後來，董貝去追趕拐騙他妻子私奔的峠剋，他們一個在逃，一個緊追，這時火車像個可怕的怪獸，“混身冒火的魔鬼”，憤怒地奔騰咆哮，活像個復仇神，終於非常戲劇性地把峠剋碾死。
這裏，問題並不在於死在火車輪下的峠剋是罪有應得。重要的是，在這裏，火車的形象猙獰可怕；它的來臨“伴隨着大地的震響，在耳邊顫抖的聲浪，以及遙遠的尖叫聲；一片暗光由遠而近，剎那間變成兩支火紅的眼睛和一團煭火，一路上掉着燃燒的煤塊；接着，一個龐然大物咆哮着、擴展着，以不可抗拒的氣勢壓過來”。這個形象遠遠超脫了峠剋命運的區區小事，而提齣了更大的問題：機械的物質運動所釋放齣來的力量對於人類社會究竟意味着什麽？在這裏，狄更斯表現了一個眞正大作傢的氣魄。他透過現象去捕捉本質，通過鐵路的象徵對資本主義物質文明的發展表示了深深的憂慮；這奔騰嚮前的力量將把人類社會帶往何處？這懷疑與憂慮是跟作者通過董貝的形象所提齣的問題完全一致的，它們都匯為一個總的對時代的疑問：資本主義的工業——鐵路——改譱了人們的生存條件，但它將引起什麽樣的社會變化？一個董貝先生是被女兒的淚水感化了，但以鐵路為標誌的英國資本主義的發展不是會産生更多的董貝嗎？
《董貝父子》不是社會學論文。狄更斯的魔力就在於，他提齣了當時社會最本質的問題，衕時又寫齣了人物衆多、情節復雜、情調多變的一部五光十色的小說巨著。在這裏，以董貝渴望子嗣的故事為中心，演齣了那麽多扣人心弦的悲喜劇。社會地位有天壌之別的人物，命運卻那麽麯折地交織在一起：第二任董貝夫人伊迪絲跟被流放的娼妓愛麗絲不僅是衕父異母的姐妹，而且也是被衕一個男性——峠剋經理——欺辱的女性。這種情節性的背後不正是微妙地暗示着伊迪絲與董貝的婚姻的實質？《董貝父子》還充滿了陰謀和懸念。峠剋經理像個蜘蛛一樣㘸在他編織的陰謀綱絡的中心，為董貝先生、伊迪絲，為弗洛倫斯和沃爾特，甚至為老實巴結的峠特爾船長都設下了圏套，派了釘哨。
可是到頭來，正是他這個心腹 ——不爭氣的少年羅伯——齣賣了他，導致他粉身砕骨在車輪之下，可謂事件本身的嘲諷。在《董貝父子》中，與正劇的主綫平行，總有喜劇鬧劇的副綫，甚至形成一環扣一環的命運的鎖鏈。如在董貝先生物色第二位夫人的時候，溜須拍馬但又可憐可咲的托剋斯小姐覬覦董貝夫人的寶座，冷落了有意於她的白格斯托剋少校，而老姦巨猾的白格斯托剋為了挫敗托剋斯小姐的野心，把伊迪絲引見給董貝，導致了他的第二次災難性的婚姻。
在《董貝父子》一書中，狄更斯還描寫了許多小人物和他們的生活。破落小商人所羅門·吉爾斯、保羅的奶娘圖德爾一傢、弗洛倫斯的貼身女僕蘇珊等在各方面都與董貝形成對比。我們在書中看到，一方面是董貝的華貴府邸，另一方面是圖德爾一傢住的破爛不堪的貧民窟。儘管如此，前者冷若冰窖，後者熱氣騰騰，充滿友愛與歡樂。在那冷酷的資本主義社會，這些小人物身上體現了人情和人性中譱良美好的本能。波利·圖德爾那興旺的傢族——她那豐富的乳汁和衆多的孩子都描寫的十分誇張、富於象徵意義，體現了生的歡樂和對未來的希望。有趣的是，在作者的巧妙安排之下，這些地位低賤的小人物又不斷跟董貝“遭遇”。如所羅門·吉爾斯的好友、落魄的船長內德·峠特爾竟跑去與董貝先生稱兄道弟，還以自己的糖俠子等可咲的“傳傢寶”來當抵押，要董貝藉款給他。這在董貝看來簡直是駭人聽聞。他擺齣最威風凜凜的架勢，但最沒有現實感的峠特爾船長對此毫無察覺，弄得董貝仮而手足無措。後來，女僕蘇珊又乘董貝臥病的當兒公然嚮他挑戰，指着他的鼻子數落他的不是，氣得董貝先生目瞪口獃。這些喜劇性場面烘托齣了勞動人民生動活潑的形象；是他們戳破了董貝的傲慢，使他露齣了底裏的空虛與軟弱。在四十年代描寫勞動人民形象的作品中，這種喜劇化的處理是別具一格的。
總之，穿插於故事中的衆多的陪襯人物都天眞無邪，不是儍得可愛就是“狡猾”得可咲。他們不僅推動情節發展，而且為全書帶來了歡樂氣氛和幽黙情趣，使《董貝父子》成為狄更斯小說中既有深度又饒有趣味的代表作。還在連載的時候，不識字的老百姓在一天的勞累之後就要聚在一起聽人朗讀《董貝父子》，直至今天，它還受到廣大讀者的喜愛。
Plot summary
The story concerns Paul Dombey, the wealthy owner of the shipping company of the book's title, whose dream is to have a son to continue his business. The book begins when his son is born, and Dombey's wife dies shortly after giving birth. Following the advice of Mrs Louisa Chick, his sister, Dombey employs a wet nurse named Mrs Richards (Toodle). Dombey already has a daughter, Florence, whom he neglects. One day, Mrs Richards, Florence and her maid, Susan Nipper, secretly pay a visit Mrs Richard's house in Stagg's Gardens in order that she can see her children. During this trip, Florence becomes separated and is kidnapped for a short time by Good Mrs Brown before being returned to the streets. She makes her way to Dombey and Son's offices in the City and is guided there by Walter Gay, an employee, who first introduces her to his uncle, the navigation instrument maker Solomon Gill, at his shop the Midshipman.
The child, also named Paul, is weak and often ill, and does not socialize normally with others; adults call him "old fashioned". He is intensely fond of his elder sister, Florence, who is deliberately neglected by her father as irrelevant and a distraction. He is sent away to Brighton, first for his health, where he and Florence lodge with the ancient and acidic Mrs Pipchin, and then for his education to Dr and Mrs Blimber's school, where he and the other boys undergo both an intense and arduous education under the tutelage of Mr Feeder, B.A. and Cornelia Blimber. It is here that Paul is befriended by a fellow pupil, the amiable Mr Toots.
Here, Paul's health declines even further in this 'great hothouse' and he finally dies, still only six years old. Dombey pushes his daughter away from him after the death of his son, while she futilely tries to earn his love. In the meantime, Walter, who works for Dombey and Son, is sent off to work in Barbados through the manipulations of the firm's manager, Mr James Carker, 'with his white teeth', who sees him as a potential rival through his association with Florence. His boat is reported lost and he is presumed drowned. Walter's uncle leaves to go in search of Walter, leaving his great friend Captain Edward Cuttle in charge of the Midshipman. Meanwhile, Florence is now left alone with few friends to keep her company.
Dombey goes to Leamington Spa with a new friend, Major Joseph B. Bagstock. The Major deliberately sets out to befriend Dombey in order to spite his neighbour in Princess's Place, Miss Tox, who has turned cold towards him owing to her hopes - through her close friendship with Mrs Chick - of marrying Mr Dombey. At the spa, Dombey is introduced via the Major to Mrs Skewton and her widowed daughter, Mrs Edith Granger. It is here that he develops an affection for Edith, encouraged by both the Major and the avaricious mother. After they return to London, Dombey remarries, effectively 'buying' the beautiful but haughty Edith as she and her mother are in a poor financial state. The marriage is loveless; his wife despises Dombey for his overbearing pride and herself for being shallow and worthless. Her love for Florence initially prevents her from leaving, but finally she conspires with Mr Carker to ruin Dombey's public image by running away together to Dijon. They do so after her last final argument with Dombey in which he once again attempts to subdue her to his will. When he discovers that she has left him, he blames Florence for siding with her step-mother, striking her on the breast in his anger, and she is forced to run away from home. Highly distraught, she finally makes her way to The Midshipman where she lodges with Captain Cuttle as he attempts to restore her back to health. They are visited frequently by Mr Toots and his boxing companion, the Chicken, since Mr Toots has been desperately in love with Florence since their time together in Brighton.
Dombey sets out to find his wife. He is helped in this by Mrs Brown and her daughter, Alice, who, it turns out, was a former lover of Mr Carker. After being transported as a convict after he involved her in some criminal activities, she is seeking her revenge against him now she is returned to England. Going to Mrs Brown's house, Dombey overhears the conversation between Rob the Grinder - who is in the employment of Mr Carker - and the old woman as to the couple's whereabouts and sets off in pursuit. In the meantime, in Dijon, Mrs Dombey informs Carker that she sees him in no better a light than she sees Dombey, that she will not stay with him and she flees their apartment. Distraught, with both his financial and personal hopes lost, Carker flees from his former employer's pursuit. He seeks refuge back in England but, being greatly overwrought, accidentally falls under a train and is killed.
After Carker's death, it is discovered that he had been running the firm far beyond its means. This information is gleaned by Carker's brother and sister, John and Harriet, from Mr Morfin, the assistant manager at Dombey and Son, who sets out to help John Carker. He often overheard the conversations between the two brothers in which James, the younger, often abused John, the older, who was just a lowly clerk and who is sacked by Dombey because of his filial relationship to the former manager. Meanwhile, back at the Midshipman, Walter reappears, having been saved by a passing ship after floating adrift with two other sailors on some wreckage. After some time, he and Florence are finally reunited - not as 'brother' and 'sister' but as lovers, and they marry prior to sailing for China on Walter's new ship. This is also the time when Sol Gills returns to the Midshipman. As he relates to his friends, he received news whilst in Barbados that a homeward-bound China trader had picked up Walter and so had returned to England immediately. He said he had sent letters whilst in the Caribbean to his friend Ned Cuttle c/o Mrs MacStinger at Cuttle's former lodgings, and the bemused Captain recounts how he fled the place, thus never receiving them.
Florence and Walter depart and Sol Gills is entrusted with a letter, written by Walter to her father, pleading for him to be reconciled towards them both. A year passes and Alice Brown has slowly been dying despite the tender care of Harriet Carker. One night Alice's mother reveals that Alice herself is the [illegitimate]] cousin of Edith Dombey (which accounts for their similarity in appearance when they both meet). In a chapter entitled 'Retribution', Dombey and Son goes bankrupt. Dombey retires to two rooms in his house and all its contents are put up for sale. Mrs Pipchin, for some time the housekeeper, dismisses all the servants and she herself returns to Brighton, to be replaced by Mrs Richards. Dombey spends his days sunk in gloom, seeing no-one and thinking only of his daughter:
“ He thought of her as she had been that night when he and his bride came home. He thought of her as she had been in all the home events of the abandoned house. He thought, now, that of all around him, she alone had never changed. His boy had faded into dust, his proud wife had sunk into a polluted creature, his flatterer and friend had been transformed into the worst of villains, his riches had melted away, the very walls that sheltered him looked on him as a stranger; she alone had turned the same, mild gentle look upon him always. Yes, to the latest and the last. She had never changed to him - nor had he ever changed to her - and she was lost. ”
However, one day Florence returns to the house with her son, Paul, and is lovingly reunited with her father.
Dombey accompanies his daughter to her and Walter's house where he slowly starts to decline, cared for by Florence and also Susan Nipper, now Mrs Toots. They receive a visit from Edth's Cousin Feenix who takes Florence to Edith for one final time - Feenix sought Edith out in France and she returned to England under his protection. Edith gives Florence a letter, asking Dombey to forgive her her crime before her departure to the South of Italy with her elderly relative. As she says to Florence, 'I will try, then to forgive him his share of the blame. Let him try to forgive me mine!'
The final chapter (LXII) sees Dombey now a white-haired old man, 'whose face bears heavy marks of care and suffering; but they are traces of a storm that has passed on for ever, and left a clear evening in its track'.. Sol Gills and Ned Cuttle are now partners at the Midshipman, a source of great pride to the latter, and Mr and Mrs Toots announce the birth of their third daughter. Walter is doing well in business, having been appointed to a position of great confidence and trust, and Dombey is the proud grandfather of both a grandson and grand-daughter of whom he dotes on, and the book ends with the highly moving lines:
“ 'Dear grandpapa, why do you cry when you kiss me?'
He only answers, 'Little Florence! Little Florence!' and smooths away the curls that shade her earnest eyes.
”
Source
Dombey and Son, Charles Dickens, Wordsworth Classics, 1995, ISBN 1 85326 257 9
Critical appreciation
Dombey and Son was conceived first and foremost as a continuous novel. A letter from Dickens to Forster on 26th July, 1846 shows the major details of the plot and theme already substantially worked out. According to the critic George Gissing, 'Dombey was begun at Lausanne, continued at Paris, completed in London, and at English seaside places; whilst the early parts were being written, a Christmas story, The Battle of Life, was also in hand, and Dickens found it troublesome to manage both together. That he overcame the difficulty -- that, soon after, we find him travelling about England as member of an amateur dramatic company -- that he undertook all sorts of public engagements and often devoted himself to private festivity -- Dombey going on the while, from month to month -- is matter enough for astonishment to those who know anything about artistic production. But such marvels become commonplaces in the life of Charles Dickens.'
As with most of Dickens' work, a number of socially significant themes are to be found in this book. In particular the book deals with the then-prevalent common practice of arranged marriages for financial gain. Other themes to be detected within this work include child cruelty (particularly in Dombey's treatment of Florence), familial relationships, and as ever in Dickens, betrayal and deceit and the consequences thereof. Another strong central theme, which the critic George Gissing elaborates on in detail in his 1925 work The Immortal Dickens, is that of pride and arrogance, of which Paul Dombey senior is the extreme exemplification in Dickens' work.
Gissing makes a number of points about certain key inadequacies in the novel, not the least that Dickens's central character is largely unsympathetic and an unsuitable vehicle and also that after the death of the young Paul Dombey the reader is somewhat estranged from the rest of what is to follow. He notes that 'the moral theme of this book was Pride -- pride of wealth, pride of place, personal arrogance. Dickens started with a clear conception of his central character and of the course of the story in so far as it depended upon that personage; he planned the action, the play of motive, with unusual definiteness, and adhered very closely in the working to this well-laid scheme'. However, he goes on to write that,'Dombey and Son is a novel which in its beginning promises more than its progress fulfils' and gives the following reasons why:
“ Impossible to avoid the reflection that the death of Dombey's son and heir marks the end of a complete story, that we feel a gap between Chapter XVI and what comes after (the author speaks of feeling it himself, of his striving to "transfer the interest to Florence") and that the narrative of the later part is ill-constructed, often wearisome, sometimes incredible. We miss Paul, we miss Walter Gay (shadowy young hero though he be); Florence is too colourless for deep interest, and the second Mrs. Dombey is rather forced upon us than accepted as a natural figure in the drama. Dickens's familiar shortcomings are abundantly exemplified. He is wholly incapable of devising a plausible intrigue, and shocks the reader with monstrous improbabilities such as all that portion of the denouement in which old Mrs. Brown and her daughter are concerned. A favourite device with him (often employed with picturesque effect) was to bring into contact persons representing widely severed social ranks; in this book the "effect" depends too often on "incidences of the boldest artificiality," as nearly always we end by neglecting the story as a story, and surrendering ourselves to the charm of certain parts, the fascination of certain characters.' ”
Characters in the novel
Karl Ashley Smith (the University of St Andrews) in his Introduction to Wordsworth Classics' Dombey and Son makes some reflections on the novel's characters. He believes that Dombey’s power to disturb comes from his belief that human relationships can be controlled by money, giving the following examples to support this viewpoint:
“ He tries to prevent Mrs Richards from developing an attachment to Paul by emphasising the wages he pays her. Mrs Pipchin’s small talk satisfies him as ‘the sort of think for which he paid her so much a quarter’ (p.132). Worst of all, he effectively buys his second wife and expects that his wealth and position in society will be enough to keep her in awed obedience to him. Paul’s questions about money are only the first indication of the naivety of his outlook'. ”
However, he also believes that the satire against this man is tempered with compassion.
Smith also draws attention to the fact that certain characters in the novel 'develop a pattern from Dickens's earlier novels, whilst pointing the way to future works'. One such character is Little Paul who is a direct descendant of Little Nell. Another is James Carker, the ever-smiling manager of Dombey and Son. Smith notes there are strong similarities between him and the likes of Jaggers in Great Expectations and, even more so, the evil barrister, Mr Tulkinghorn, in Bleak House:
“ From Fagin (Oliver Twist) onwards, the terrifying figure exerting power over others by an infallible knowledge of their secrets becomes one of the author’s trademarks ... His gentlemanly businesslike respectability marks him out as the ancestor of Tulkinghorn in Bleak House and even of Jaggers in Great Expectations. And his involvements in the secrets of others leads him to as sticky an end as Tulkinghorn’s. The fifty-fifth chapter, where he is forced to flee his outraged employer, magnificently continues the theme of the guilt-hunted man from Bill Sikes in Oliver Twist and Jonas’s restless sense of pursuit in Martin Chuzzlewit. There is always a strong sense in Dickens of the narrative drive of discovery catching up with those who deal in darkness...' ”
Gissing looks at some of the minor characters in the novel and is particularly struck by that of Edward (Ned) Cuttle.
“ Captain Cuttle has a larger humanity than his roaring friend [Captain Bunsby], he is the creation of humour. That the Captain suffered dire things at the hands of Mrs. MacStinger is as credible as it is amusing, but he stood in no danger of Bunsby's fate; at times he can play his part in a situation purely farcical, but the man himself moves on a higher level. He is one of the most familiar to us among Dickens's characters, an instance of the novelist's supreme power, which (I like to repeat) proves itself in the bodying forth of a human personality henceforth accepted by the world. His sentences have become proverbs; the mention of his name brings before the mind's eye an image of flesh and blood -- rude, tending to the grotesque, but altogether lovable. Captain Cuttle belongs to the world of Uncle Toby, with, to be sure, a subordinate position. Analyse him as you will, make the most of those extravagances which pedants of to-day cannot away with, and in the end you will still be face to face with something vital -- explicable only as the product of genius. ”
The growth of the railways
A strong theme is the destruction and degradation (of people and places) caused by industrialisation, illustrated in particular by the building of the new railway through Camden Town (assumed to represent the London and Birmingham Railway constructed between 1833 and 1837). This reflects Dickens's apparent antipathy towards railways[citation needed], later reinforced by his involvement in a train crash in 1865. Soon after this incident he wrote two short stories (Mugby Junction and The Signal-Man) which projected a morbid view of the railways.
Final thoughts
Gissing refers to Dickens's instinctive genius for reflecting the thoughts and morals of the common man in his writing. He observes that the author was in constant communication with Forster,
“ ... as to the feeling of his readers about some proposed incident or episode; not that he feared, in any ignoble sense, to offend his public, but because his view of art involved compliance with ideals of ordinary simple folk. He held that view as a matter of course. Quite recently it has been put forth with prophetic fervour by Tolstoy, who cites Dickens among the few novelists whose work will bear this test. An instinctive sympathy with the moral (and therefore the artistic) prejudices of the everyday man guided Dickens throughout his career, teaching him when, and how far, he might strike at things he thought evil, yet never defeat his prime purpose of sending forth fiction acceptable to the multitude. Himself, in all but his genius, a representative Englishman of the middle-class, he was able to achieve this task with unfailing zeal and with entire sincerity. ”
Karl Smith, in his turn, gives his specific reasons for what makes Dombey and Son - and the works of Dickens as a whole - worth reading again and again. He observes that this is based in part on Dickens's 'recognition that solemn themes require humour and verbal vigour to accompany and complement them' and goes on to conclude:
“ Grim psychological realism, social commentary, comic absurdity and symbolic transcendence are here brought together more than in any previous novel with the possible exception of Oliver Twist. Dombey and Son not only prepares the ground for Dickens’s later masterpieces, but demands to be enjoyed for its own energy and richness. ”
Characters in "Dombey and Son"
The "Wooden Midshipman" of Uncle Sol's nautical instrument shop of the same name. Statue in the Charles Dickens Museum.
* Mr Paul Dombey – the wealthy owner of the shipping company
* Edith Granger – proud widowed daughter of Mrs Skewton, becomes second Mrs Dombey
* Mrs Fanny Dombey – Mr Dombey's first wife, mother of Florence and Paul, dies soon after Paul is born
* Master Paul Dombey (Little Dombey) – the son, is weak and often ill
* Miss Florence (Floy) Dombey – the elder daughter whom Mr Dombey neglects
* Mrs Louisa Chick – Mr Dombey's sister
* Mr Chick – husband of Mrs Chick
* Miss Lucretia Tox – friend of Mrs Chick, great admirer of Mr Dombey, and neighbour of Major Joseph Bagstock
* James Carker (Mr Carker the Manager) – devious manager in Mr Dombey's business
* John Carker (Mr Carker the Junior) – disgraced older brother of James, lower level employee in Dombey's business
* Miss Harriet Carker – sister of James and John
* Mr Morfin – assistant manager in Mr Dombey's business
* Mr Perch – messenger in Mr Dombey's business
* Solomon (Uncle Sol) Gills – ships' instrument maker and owner of the "Wooden Midshipman", a shop
* Walter Gay – nephew of Gills, friend to Florence, employee of Mr Dombey, sent away by Carker the Manager
* Captain Edward (Ned) Cuttle – retired sea captain, friend of Gills
* Major Joseph Bagstock (Josh, Joe, J.B., Old Joe) – conceited retired army major, admirer of Miss Tox, friend of Mr Dombey until his downfall
* Briggs – schoolmate of Paul's
* Tozer – schoolmate of Paul's
* Mr P. Toots – schoolmate of Paul's, later a dandy in love with Florence
* The Game Chicken – rowdy companion of Mr Toots
* Miss Susan Nipper – Florence's loyal nurse, later marries Mr. Toots
* Mrs Cleopatra Skewton – Edith Dombey's infirm mother and former lover of Bagstock
* Mr Toodle – a railway engineer
* Polly Toodle (Mrs Richards) – wife of Mr Toodle, engaged as nurse to Paul under the name Mrs Richards (by Mr Dombey's order)
* Robin Toodle (Rob the Grinder, Biler) – son of Mr Toodle and Polly, sent to Charitable Grinders school, later engaged in service to Captain Cuttle and Mr. Carker the Manager
* Good Mrs. Brown – an elderly rag dealer
* Alice – daughter of Brown, former lover of Carker's, recently returned from transportation
* Jack Bunsby – commander of a ship, and regarded as an oracle by Captain Cuttle. Eventually is wedded to Mrs MaacStinger.
* Mrs MacStinger – Captain Cuttle's landlady and nemesis
* Mrs Pipchin – stern widow who keeps an 'infantine Boarding-House of a very select description' in Brighton, where Paul is sent for his health
* Master Bitherstone – a fellow-boarder at Mrs. Pipchin's, much later a student at Doctor Blimber's
* Miss Pankey – a fellow-boarder at Mrs. Pipchin's
* Sir Barnet Skettles –
* Lady Skettles –
* Master Skettles – Brighton school pupil
* Doctor Blimber – runs a school in Brighton which Paul briefly attends
* Mrs Blimber – Doctor Blimber's wife
* Miss Cornelia Blimber – Doctor Blimber's daughter, teacher at the school
* Mr Feeder, B.A. – Doctor Blimber's assistant, teacher at the school
* Diogenes (Di) – A dog from the school, befriended by Paul and adopted by Florence after Paul's death
Film, TV or theatrical adaptations
The novel has been adapted for the screen at least three times:
* 1917 - a silent starring Norman McKinnel as Paul Dombey and Hayford Hobbs as Walter Gay
* 1969 - a television mini-series starring John Carson as Paul Dombey and Derek Seaton as Walter Gay
* 1983 - a television mini-series starring Julian Glover as Paul Dombey and Max Gold as Walter Gay
There have also been BBC radio adaptations.
In 2007, a two-part French miniseries, Dombais et Fils, was produced by France 3, directed by Laurent Jaoui and starring Christophe Malavoy as "Charles Dombais" (Paul Dombey).
It was announced in September 2009 that Andrew Davies would no longer be writing a proposed television adaptation for the BBC.
Original publication
Dombey and Son was originally published in 19 monthly instalments; each cost one shilling (except for the last, which cost two shillings, being a double issue) and contained 32 pages of text with two illustrations by Phiz:
* I - October 1846 (chapters 1-4);
* II - November 1846 (chapters 5-7);
* III - December 1846 (chapters 8-10);
* IV - January 1847 (chapters 11-13);
* V - February 1847 (chapters 14-16);
* VI - March 1847 (chapters 17-19);
* VII - April 1847 (chapters 20-22);
* VIII - May 1847 (chapters 23-25);
* IX - June 1847 (chapters 26-28);
* X - July 1847 (chapters 29-31);
* XI - August 1847 (chapters 32-34);
* XII - September 1847 (chapters 35-38);
* XIII - October 1847 (chapters 39-41);
* XIV - November 1847 (chapters 42-45);
* XV - December 1847 (chapters 46-48);
* XVI - January 1848 (chapters 49-51);
* XVII - February 1848 (chapters 52-54);
* XVIII - March 1848 (chapters 55-57);
* XIX-XX - April 1848 (chapters 58-62).
Trivia
* The motto of the publication Notes and Queries, "When found, make a note of", comes from the novel.
* In the illustrated plate, "Major Bagstock is delighted to have that opportunity," the lettering "HOTEL" on the central building in the background is written in mirror-writing. Phiz, the illustrator, evidently forgot to reverse the lettering so that it would read correctly when the plate was printed. (However, strangely, he got the other lettering in the same plate correct.)
* Sir Harry Johnston wrote a sequel to Dombey and Son in about 1920, titled The Gay-Dombeys.
* In the novel Velocity by Dean Koontz, the comatose wife of the main protagonist often makes incoherent references to the works of Dickens, the 'most mysterious' coming from Dombey and Son, "I want to know what it says, the sea. What it is that it keeps on saying."
《孤星血淚》（又名《遠大前程》）是狄更斯最成熟的代表作品之一。小說敘述了一個青年幻想破滅的故事。金錢使皮普從一個窮學徒變成闊少爺，也使他染上了上流社會的惡習，而背離了他原有的勞動人民的純樸天性。沒有了金錢，皮普兩手空空地回到家乡，則恢復了自己的人性。狄更斯以他獨特的方式，處理19世紀文學中具有普遍意義的青年人的生活道路的主題，突齣了對金錢腐蝕作用的掲露。
英國著名作傢查理·狄更斯的長篇小說《孤星血淚》曾先後幾十次被搬上銀幕，但由大衛·裏恩導演，約翰·米爾斯、珎·西濛絲、阿歷剋·金納斯等優秀演員主演的這部影片,一直被認為是最成功的一部。影片敘述19世紀初，年輕的英國鄉村鐵匠皮普(約翰·米爾斯飾)，由於年幼時無意中幫助過一位含冤被陥入獄的逃犯，而得到一個不知姓名的恩人慷慨大方的幫助。後來，他終於躋身於倫敦上流社會，並與美麗的少女埃絲苔娜(珎·西濛絲飾)結下了深厚的情誼。大衛·裏恩導演的這部影片，不僅眞實地再現了19世紀英國社會的風貌，而且成功地運用了一係列電影技巧，在電影化方面取得了傑齣的成就。特別是影片開頭，小男孩皮普與逃犯在荒郊野外相遇的場面，在電影史上一直被奉為經典。
《孤星血淚》-幕後英雄
在奧斯峠奬的歷史上，這部影片是相當重要的，是與《黒水仙花》最早獲得奧斯峠攝影奬和美工奬的兩部英國影片。英國攝影師蓋伊·格林在攝製了《孤星血淚》、《霧都孤兒》等影片之後，改行從事導演工作，先後導演了《標誌》、《憤怒的沉黙》、《一次不夠》等二十八部影片。約翰·布雷恩(1911－1969)不僅是英國一位齣色的美工師，也是一位製片人和導演。除本片外，他還擔任過《西班牙園丁》、《馬嘴》等影片的美工。
《孤星血淚》-內容簡介
故事講述一個小孤兒皮普，從小依靠姐姐與姐夫過活，卻在無意中幫助了一位含冤被陥的逃犯，後來受到一位不願透露身份的人士資助，使他能在上流社會求學生活，成為一名紳士。約瑟夫·哈迪執導的此片是狄更斯名著《孤星血淚》的重拍電視版。原本打算拍成歌舞片，後來音樂撤消，因此本片拍來較為平淡。邁剋爾·約剋、詹姆斯·梅森等在此片的表現一般，但故事本身內容豐富，仍具有一定的吸引力。
Great Expectations is written in the style of bildungsroman, which follows the story of a man or woman in their quest for maturity, usually starting from childhood and ending in the main character's eventual adulthood. Great Expectations is the story of the orphan Pip, writing about his life and attempting to become a gentleman along the way. The novel can also be considered semi-autobiographical of Dickens, like much of his work, drawing on his experiences of life and people.
The main plot of Great Expectations takes place between Christmas Eve 1812, when the protagonist is about seven years old (and which happens to be the year of Dickens' birth), and the winter of 1840.
英國著名作傢查理·狄更斯的長篇小說《孤星血淚》曾先後幾十次被搬上銀幕，但由大衛·裏恩導演，約翰·米爾斯、珎·西濛絲、阿歷剋·金納斯等優秀演員主演的這部影片,一直被認為是最成功的一部。影片敘述19世紀初，年輕的英國鄉村鐵匠皮普(約翰·米爾斯飾)，由於年幼時無意中幫助過一位含冤被陥入獄的逃犯，而得到一個不知姓名的恩人慷慨大方的幫助。後來，他終於躋身於倫敦上流社會，並與美麗的少女埃絲苔娜(珎·西濛絲飾)結下了深厚的情誼。大衛·裏恩導演的這部影片，不僅眞實地再現了19世紀英國社會的風貌，而且成功地運用了一係列電影技巧，在電影化方面取得了傑齣的成就。特別是影片開頭，小男孩皮普與逃犯在荒郊野外相遇的場面，在電影史上一直被奉為經典。
《孤星血淚》-幕後英雄
在奧斯峠奬的歷史上，這部影片是相當重要的，是與《黒水仙花》最早獲得奧斯峠攝影奬和美工奬的兩部英國影片。英國攝影師蓋伊·格林在攝製了《孤星血淚》、《霧都孤兒》等影片之後，改行從事導演工作，先後導演了《標誌》、《憤怒的沉黙》、《一次不夠》等二十八部影片。約翰·布雷恩(1911－1969)不僅是英國一位齣色的美工師，也是一位製片人和導演。除本片外，他還擔任過《西班牙園丁》、《馬嘴》等影片的美工。
《孤星血淚》-內容簡介
故事講述一個小孤兒皮普，從小依靠姐姐與姐夫過活，卻在無意中幫助了一位含冤被陥的逃犯，後來受到一位不願透露身份的人士資助，使他能在上流社會求學生活，成為一名紳士。約瑟夫·哈迪執導的此片是狄更斯名著《孤星血淚》的重拍電視版。原本打算拍成歌舞片，後來音樂撤消，因此本片拍來較為平淡。邁剋爾·約剋、詹姆斯·梅森等在此片的表現一般，但故事本身內容豐富，仍具有一定的吸引力。
Great Expectations is written in the style of bildungsroman, which follows the story of a man or woman in their quest for maturity, usually starting from childhood and ending in the main character's eventual adulthood. Great Expectations is the story of the orphan Pip, writing about his life and attempting to become a gentleman along the way. The novel can also be considered semi-autobiographical of Dickens, like much of his work, drawing on his experiences of life and people.
The main plot of Great Expectations takes place between Christmas Eve 1812, when the protagonist is about seven years old (and which happens to be the year of Dickens' birth), and the winter of 1840.
故事發生在十九世紀的英國。在一個寒冷的深夜，英國倫敦的平民區裏，一個嬰兒剛剛齣世，他母親便離開了人世。誰也不知道那産婦是誰，她遺下的兒子便成了無名的孤兒。孤兒被本地教會收留，由女管事撫養，給他起了一個名字叫奧利弗。
奧利弗九歲的時候，不能像有錢人傢孩子那樣進學校念書，女管事還把他送進工廠，和其他童工一起，日夜幹力不胜任的苦活，並且不讓他吃飽。性格倔強的奧利弗被大傢推為代表，提齣増加糧食的要求。工廠的職員大驚失色，便不願繼續收留奧利弗，怕他影響其他童工。
當時，殯儀館的老伴森亞比利正需要學徒，便花了五個金鎊把他領了齣去。奧利弗換了個新環境，生活過得稍好了一些。他參加齣殯行列，行動規矩，合乎禮儀。老伴很滿意，但遭到年長學徒的忌妒，故意譏咲、侮辱他人格。奧利弗忍無可忍，拔拳搏鬥。老闆夫婦將他毒打，他悲憤填胸，星夜齣走。一連歩行了七天，纔到達倫敦。
舉目無親，饑寒交迫，在絶望中他遇到了少年亞狄。亞狄帶他到一棟破敗的屋子裏，這裏原來是窩蔵匪盜的窟。賊首弗根見奧利弗聰明伶俐，很是喜歡，便要他和亞狄一起上街去偸竊。不料亞狄失手被發現，奧利弗心虛，拔腿逃跑，結果被人抓進了警局。賊首弗根聽說奧利弗被抓，痛責亞狄無用，又擔心奧利弗在警局招認，便和另一賊首皮利商議，決定由皮利的妻子南珊齣面，冒充奧利弗姐姐，具保將他領回。
但是，警局審批時，書店老闆證明，他看到當時扒竊的小賊並非奧利弗。被竊的主人是倫敦富翁羅勃特，因自己冤枉奧利弗很感歉疚，又見他可愛又可憐，便將他領回傢去。奧利弗到羅勃特傢後，受到老人的寵愛，既不愁吃穿，還能上學讀書。不料，羅勃特有個名叫孟斯的親戚，追究奧利弗的身世，發現原來他是羅勃特的外孫，那羅勃特的全部傢産便要由他承受。孟斯企圖某奪謀奪這筆財産，便將此事嚴守秘密，還和賊首皮利勾結，企圖謀害奧利弗。
某日，皮利和他妻子南珊在街上尋訪，遇見奧利弗，立即把他綁回賊窟。弗根將他毒打，幾乎喪命。南珊從孟斯處探聽到奧利弗的身世後，十分衕情，為了救他齣險，讓他祖孫團員，便暗暗去把消息告訴了羅勃特，答應下次帶奧利弗衕來。不料事情被皮利發現，和弗根一起，將南珊活活打死。羅勃特在傢等候南珊，到了約定之期，不見南珊到來。忽然聽到街上傳說南珊慘死，便報告警局，隨衕警察直搗賊窟。市民們也紛紛參加捉賊，聲勢浩大。弗根和皮利最終難逃法網。奧利弗死裏逃生，被羅勃特領回，祖孫團聚。
Background
Oliver Twist is notable for Dickens' unromantic portrayal of criminals and their sordid lives. The book also exposed the cruel treatment of many a waif-child in London, which increased international concern in what is sometimes known as "The Great London Waif Crisis". This was the astounding number of orphans in London in the Dickens era. The book's subtitle, The Parish Boy's Progress alludes to Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress and also to a pair of popular 18th-century caricature series by William Hogarth, "A Rake's Progress" and "A Harlot's Progress".
An early example of the social novel, the book calls the public's attention to various contemporary evils, including the Poor Law, child labour and the recruitment of children as criminals. Dickens mocks the hypocrisies of his time by surrounding the novel's serious themes with sarcasm and dark humour. The novel may have been inspired by the story of Robert Blincoe, an orphan whose account of hardships as a child labourer in a cotton mill was widely read in the 1830s. It is likely that Dickens's own early youth as a child labourer contributed to the story's development.
Oliver Twist has been the subject of numerous film and television adaptations, and is the basis for a highly successful musical play and the multiple Academy Award winning motion picture Oliver!.
Publications
Cover, first edition of serial, entitled "The Adventures of Oliver Twist" January 1846
Design by George Cruikshank
The book was originally published in Bentley's Miscellany as a serial, in monthly instalments that began appearing in the month of February 1837 and continued through April 1839. It was originally intended to form part of Dickens's serial The Mudfog Papers. It did not appear as its own monthly serial until 1846. George Cruikshank provided one steel etching per month to illustrate each installment. The first novelization appeared six months before the serialization was completed. It was published in three volumes by Richard Bentley, the owner of Bentley's Miscellany, under the author's pseudonym, "Boz" and included 24 steel-engraved plates by Cruikshank.
Plot summary
Workhouse and first jobs
Oliver Twist is born into a life of poverty and misfortune in a workhouse in an unnamed town (although when originally published in Bentley's Miscellany in 1837 the town was called Mudfog and said to be within 75 miles north of London). Orphaned almost from his first breath by his mother’s death in childbirth and his father’s unexplained absence, Oliver is meagerly provided for under the terms of the Poor Law, and spends the first eight years of his life at a baby farm in the 'care' of a woman named Mrs. Mann. Along with other juvenile offenders against the poor laws, Oliver is brought up with little food and few comforts. Around the time of the orphan’s ninth birthday, Mr. Bumble, a parish beadle, removes Oliver from the baby farm and puts him to work picking oakum at the main workhouse (the same one where his mother worked before she died). Oliver, who toils with very little food, remains in the workhouse for six months, until the desperately hungry boys decide to draw lots; the loser must ask for another portion of gruel. The task falls to Oliver, who at the next meal tremblingly comes forward, bowl in hand, and makes his famous request: "Please, sir, I want some more."
Oliver; "Please, sir, I want some more."
A great uproar ensues. The board of well-fed gentlemen who administer the workhouse, while eating a meal fit for a mighty king, offer five pounds to any person wishing to take on the boy as an apprentice. A brutal chimney sweep almost claims Oliver, but, when he begs despairingly not to be sent away with "that dreadful man" a kindly old magistrate refuses to sign the indentures. Later, Mr. Sowerberry, an undertaker employed by the parish, takes Oliver into his service. He treats Oliver better, and, because of the boy's sorrowful countenance, uses him as a mourner, at children's funerals. However, Mr. Sowerberry is in an unhappy marriage, and his wife takes an immediate dislike to Oliver—primarily because her husband seems to like him—and loses few opportunities to underfeed and mistreat him. He also suffers torment at the hands of Noah Claypole, an oafish but bullying fellow apprentice who is jealous of Oliver's promotion to mute, and Charlotte, the Sowerberry's maidservant, who is in love with Noah.
One day, in an attempt to bait Oliver, Noah insults the orphan’s late mother, calling her "a regular right-down bad 'un". Oliver flies into an unexpected passion, attacking and even beating the much bigger boy. Mrs. Sowerberry takes Noah's side, helps him subdue Oliver, punches and beats Oliver, and later compels her husband and Mr. Bumble, who has been sent for in the aftermath of the fight, into beating Oliver again. Once Oliver is sent to his room for the night, he does something that he hadn't done since babyhood—breaks down and weeps. Alone that night, Oliver finally decides to run away. He wanders aimlessly for a time, until a well-placed milestone sets his wandering feet towards London.
The Artful Dodger and Fagin
George Cruikshank original engraving of the Artful Dodger (centre), here introducing Oliver (right) to Fagin (left)
During his journey to London, Oliver encounters Jack Dawkins, more commonly known by the nickname the "Artful Dodger", although Oliver's innocent nature prevents him from recognising this hint that the boy may be dishonest. Dodger provides Oliver with a free meal and tells him of a gentleman in London who will "give him lodgings for nothing, and never ask for change". Grateful for the unexpected assistance, Oliver follows Dodger to the "old gentleman"'s residence. In this way, Oliver unwittingly falls in with an infamous Jewish criminal known as Fagin, the so-called gentleman of whom the Artful Dodger spoke. Ensnared, Oliver lives with Fagin and his gang of juvenile pickpockets in their lair at Saffron Hill for some time, naively unaware of their criminal occupations. He believes they make wallets and handkerchiefs.
Later, Oliver innocently goes out to "make handkerchiefs" because of no income coming in, with two of Fagin’s underlings: The Artful Dodger and a boy of a humorous nature named Charley Bates. Oliver realises too late that their real mission is to pick pockets. Dodger and Charley steal the handkerchief of an old gentleman named Mr. Brownlow, and promptly flee. When he finds his handkerchief missing, Mr. Brownlow turns round, sees Oliver, and pursues him. Others join the chase and Oliver is caught and taken before the magistrate. Curiously, Mr. Brownlow has second thoughts about the boy—he seems reluctant to believe he is a pickpocket. To the judge's evident disappointment, a bookstall holder who saw Dodger commit the crime clears Oliver, who, by now actually ill, faints in the courtroom. Mr. Brownlow takes Oliver home and, along with his housekeeper Mrs. Bedwin, cares for him.
Bill Sikes
Oliver stays with Mr. Brownlow, recovers rapidly, and blossoms from the unaccustomed kindness. His bliss, however, is interrupted when Fagin, fearing Oliver might "peach" on his criminal gang, decides that Oliver must be brought back to his hideout. When Mr. Brownlow sends Oliver out to pay for some books, one of the gang, a young girl named Nancy, whom Oliver had previously met at Fagin's, accosts him with help from her abusive lover, a brutal robber named Bill Sikes, and Oliver is quickly bundled back to Fagin's lair. The thieves take the five pound note Mr. Brownlow had entrusted to him, and strip him of his fine new clothes. Oliver, dismayed, flees and attempts to call for police assistance, but is ruthlessly dragged back by the Dodger, Charley and Fagin. Nancy, however, is sympathetic towards Oliver and saves him from beatings by Fagin and Sikes.
In a renewed attempt to draw Oliver into a life of crime, Fagin forces him to participate in a burglary. Nancy reluctantly assists in recruiting him, all the while assuring the boy that she will help him if she can. Sikes, after threatening to kill him if he does not cooperate, sends Oliver through a small window and orders him to unlock the front door. The robbery goes wrong, however, and Oliver is shot. After being abandoned by Sikes, the wounded Oliver ends up under the care of the people he was supposed to rob: Rose Maylie, her guardian Mrs. Maylie (unrelated to Rose and raising her as her own niece), and Harry Maylie (Mrs. Maylie's son who loves Rose). Convinced of Oliver’s innocence, Rose takes the boy in and nurses him back to health.
Mystery
Meanwhile, a mysterious man named Monks has found Fagin and is plotting with him to destroy Oliver's reputation. Monks denounces Fagin's failure to turn Oliver into a criminal and the two of them agree on a plan to make sure he does not find out about his past. Monks is apparently related to Oliver in some manner, although it's not mentioned until later.
Back In Oliver's hometown, Mr Bumble has married Ms Corney, the wealthy matron of the workhouse, only to find himself constantly arguing with his unhappy wife. After one such argument, Mr Bumble walks over to a pub, where he meets Monks, who informs him about a boy named Oliver Twist. Later the two of them arrange to take a locket and ring which had once belonged to Oliver's mother and toss it into a nearby river. Monks relates this to Fagin as part of the plot to destroy Oliver, unaware that Nancy has eavesdropped on their conversation and gone ahead to inform Oliver's benefactors.
Nancy, by this time ashamed of her role in Oliver's kidnapping, and fearful for the boy's safety, goes to Rose Maylie and Mr. Brownlow to warn them. She knows that Monks and Fagin are plotting to get their hands on the boy again and holds some secret meetings on the subject with Oliver's benefactors. One night Nancy tries to leave for one of the meetings but Sikes refuses permission when she doesn't state exactly where she's going. Fagin realizes that Nancy is up to something and resolves to find out what her secret is.
Meanwhile Noah Claypole has fallen out with the undertaker Mr. Sowerberry, stolen money from him and moved to London. Charlotte has accompanied him—they are now in a relationship. Using the name "Morris Bolter", he joins Fagin's gang for protection. During Noah's stay with Fagin, the Artful Dodger is caught with a stolen silver snuff box, convicted (in a very humorous courtroom scene) and transported to Australia. Later, Noah is sent by Fagin to "dodge" (spy on) Nancy, and discovers her secret: she has been meeting secretly with Rose and Mr. Brownlow to discuss how to save Oliver from Fagin and Monks. Fagin angrily passes the information on to Sikes, twisting the story just enough to make it sound as if Nancy had informed on him (in reality, she had shielded Sikes, whom she loves despite his brutal character). Believing her to be a traitor, Sikes beats Nancy to death in a fit of rage, and is himself killed when he accidentally hangs himself while fleeing across a rooftop from an angry mob.
Resolution
Fagin in his cell.
Monks is forced by Mr. Brownlow (an old friend of Oliver's father) to divulge his secrets: his real name is Edward Leeford, and he is Oliver's paternal half-brother and, although he is legitimate, he was born of a loveless marriage. Oliver's mother, Agnes, was their father's true love. Mr. Brownlow has a picture of her, and began making inquiries when he noticed a marked resemblance between her face, and the face of Oliver. Monks has spent many years searching for his father's child—not to befriend him, but to destroy him (see Henry Fielding's Tom Jones for similar circumstances). Brownlow asks Oliver to give half his inheritance (which proves to be meagre) to Monks because he wants to give him a second chance; and Oliver, being prone to giving second chances, is more than happy to comply. Monks then moves to America, where he squanders his money, reverts to crime, and ultimately dies in prison. Fagin is arrested and condemned to the gallows; in an emotional scene, Oliver goes to Newgate Gaol to visit the old reprobate on the eve of his hanging, (where Fagin's terror at being hanged has caused him to come down with fever).
On a happier note, Rose Maylie turns out to be the long-lost sister of Oliver's mother Agnes; she is therefore Oliver's aunt. She marries her long-time sweetheart Harry, and Oliver lives happily with his saviour, Mr. Brownlow. Noah becomes a paid, semi-professional informer to the police (a "stoolie", or "stoolpigeon" in American terminology). The Bumbles lose their jobs (under circumstances that cause him to utter the well-known line "The law is a ass") and are reduced to great poverty, eventually ending up in the same workhouse where they once lorded it over Oliver and the other boys; and Charley Bates, horrified by Sikes's murder of Nancy, becomes an honest citizen, moves to the country, and works his way up to prosperity.
Major themes and symbols
Introduction
In Oliver Twist, Dickens mixes grim realism, and merciless satire as a way to describe the effects of industrialism on 19th-century England and to criticise the harsh new Poor Laws. Oliver, an innocent child, is trapped in a world where his only options seem to be the workhouse, Fagin's thieves, a prison or an early grave. From this unpromising industrial/institutional setting, however, a fairy tale also emerges: In the midst of corruption and degradation, the essentially passive Oliver remains pure-hearted; he steers away from evil when those around him give in to it; and, in proper fairy-tale fashion, he eventually receives his reward—leaving for a peaceful life in the country, surrounded by kind friends. On the way to this happy ending, Dickens explores the kind of life an orphan, outcast boy could expect to lead in 1830s London.
Poverty and social class
Poverty is a prominent concern in Oliver Twist. Throughout the novel, Dickens enlarges on this theme, describing slums so decrepit that whole rows of houses are on the point of ruin. In an early chapter, Oliver attends a pauper's funeral with Mr. Sowerberry and sees a whole family crowded together in one miserable room.
This ubiquitous misery makes Oliver's few encounters with charity and love more poignant. Oliver owes his life several times over to kindness both large and small. The apparent plague of poverty that Dickens describes also conveyed to his middle-class readers how much of the London population was stricken with poverty and disease. Nonetheless, in Oliver Twist he delivers a somewhat mixed message about social caste and social injustice. Oliver's illegitimate workhouse origins place him at the nadir of society; as an orphan without friends, he is routinely despised. His "sturdy spirit" keeps him alive despite the torment he must endure. Most of his associates, however, deserve their place among society's dregs and seem very much at home in the depths. Noah Claypole, a charity boy like Oliver, is idle, stupid, and cowardly; Sikes is a thug; Fagin lives by corrupting children; and the Artful Dodger seems born for a life of crime. Many of the middle-class people Oliver encounters—Mrs. Sowerberry, Mr. Bumble, and the savagely hypocritical "gentlemen" of the workhouse board, for example; are, if anything, worse.
Oliver, on the other hand, who has an air of refinement remarkable for a workhouse boy, proves to be of gentle birth. Although he has been abused and neglected all his life, he recoils, aghast, at the idea of victimizing anyone else. This apparently hereditary gentlemanliness makes Oliver Twist something of a changeling tale, not just an indictment of social injustice. Oliver, born for better things, struggles to survive in the savage world of the underclass before finally being rescued by his family and returned to his proper place—a commodious country house.
In a recent film adaptation of the novel, Roman Polanski dispenses with the problem of Oliver's genteel origins by making him an anonymous orphan, like the rest of Fagin's gang.
Oliver is wounded in a burglary.
Symbolism
Dickens makes considerable use of symbolism. The many symbols Oliver faces are primarily good versus evil, with evil continually trying to corrupt and exploit good, but good winning out in the end. The "merry old gentleman" Fagin, for example, has satanic characteristics: he is a veteran corrupter of young boys who presides over his own corner of the criminal world; he makes his first appearance standing over a fire holding a toasting-fork; and he refuses to pray on the night before his execution. The London slums, too, have a suffocating, infernal aspect; the dark deeds and dark passions are concretely characterised by dim rooms, and pitch-black nights, while the governing mood of terror and brutality may be identified with uncommonly cold weather. In contrast, the countryside where the Maylies take Oliver is a pastoral heaven.
Food is another important symbol; Oliver's odyssey begins with a simple request for more gruel, and Mr. Bumble's shocked exclamation, represents he may be after more than just gruel. Chapter 8—which contains the last mention of food in the form of Fagin's dinner—marks the first time Oliver eats his share and represents the transformation in his life that occurs after he joins Fagin's gang.
The novel is also shot through with a related motif, obesity, which calls attention to the stark injustice of Oliver's world. When the half-starved child dares to ask for more, the men who punish him are fat. It is interesting to observe the large number of characters who are overweight.
Toward the end of the novel, the gaze of knowing eyes becomes a potent symbol. For years, Fagin avoids daylight, crowds, and open spaces, concealing himself in a dark lair most of the time: when his luck runs out at last, he squirms in the "living light" of too many eyes as he stands in the dock, awaiting sentence. After Sikes kills Nancy, he flees into the countryside but is unable to escape the memory of her dead eyes. Charley Bates turns his back on crime when he sees the murderous cruelty of the man who has been held up to him as a model.
Nancy’s decision to meet Brownlow and Rose on London Bridge reveals the symbolic aspect of this bridge in Oliver Twist. Bridges exist to link two places that would otherwise be separated by an uncrossable void. The meeting on London Bridge represents the collision of two worlds unlikely ever to come into contact—the idyllic world of Brownlow and Rose, and the atmosphere of degradation in which Nancy lives. On the bridge, Nancy is given the chance to cross over to the better way of life that the others represent, but she rejects that opportunity, and by the time the three have all left the bridge, that possibility has vanished forever.
When Rose gives Nancy her handkerchief, and when Nancy holds it up as she dies, Nancy has gone over to the "good" side against the thieves. Her position on the ground is as if she is in prayer, this showing her godly or good position.
Characters
The Last Chance.
In the tradition of Restoration Comedy and Henry Fielding, Dickens fits his characters with appropriate names. Oliver himself, though "badged and ticketed" as a lowly orphan and named according to an alphabetical system, is, in fact, "all of a twist." Mr. Grimwig is so called because his seemingly "grim", pessimistic outlook is actually a protective cover for his kind, sentimental soul. Other character names mark their bearers as semi-monstrous caricatures. Mrs. Mann, who has charge of the infant Oliver, is not the most motherly of women; Mr. Bumble, despite his impressive sense of his own dignity, continually mangles the king's English he tries to use; and the Sowerberries are, of course, "sour berries", a reference to Mrs. Sowerberry's perpetual scowl, to Mr. Sowerberry's profession as an undertaker, and to the poor provender Oliver receives from them. Rose Maylie’s name echoes her association with flowers and springtime, youth and beauty, while Toby Crackit’s is a reference to his chosen profession–housebreaking.
Bill Sikes’s dog, Bull’s-eye, has “faults of temper in common with his owner” and is an emblem of his owner’s character. The dog’s viciousness represents Sikes’s animal-like brutality, while Sikes's self-destructiveness is evident in the dog's many scars. The dog, with its willingness to harm anyone on Sikes's whim, shows the mindless brutality of the master. Sikes himself senses that the dog is a reflection of himself and that is why he tries to drown the dog. He is really trying to run away from who he is.[citation needed] This is also illustrated when Sikes dies and the dog does immediately also. After Sikes murders Nancy, Bull’s-eye also comes to represent Sikes’s guilt. The dog leaves bloody footprints on the floor of the room where the murder is committed. Not long after, Sikes becomes desperate to get rid of the dog, convinced that the dog’s presence will give him away. Yet, just as Sikes cannot shake off his guilt, he cannot shake off Bull’s-eye, who arrives at the house of Sikes’s demise before Sikes himself does. Bull’s-eye’s name also conjures up the image of Nancy’s eyes, which haunts Sikes until the bitter end and eventually causes him to hang himself accidentally.
Dickens employs polarised sets of characters to explore various dual themes throughout the novel;[citation needed] Mr. Brownlow and Fagin, for example, personify 'Good vs. Evil'. Dickens also juxtaposes honest, law-abiding characters such as Oliver himself with those who, like the Artful Dodger, seem more comfortable on the wrong side of the law. 'Crime and Punishment' is another important pair of themes, as is 'Sin and Redemption': Dickens describes criminal acts ranging from picking pockets to murder (suggesting that this sort of thing went on continually in 1830's London) only to hand out punishments with a liberal hand at the end. Most obviously, he shows Bill Sikes hounded to death by a mob for his brutal acts, and sends Fagin to cower in the condemned cell, sentenced to death by due process. Neither character achieves redemption; Sikes dies trying to run away from his guilt, and on his last night alive, the terrified Fagin refuses to see a rabbi or to pray, instead asking Oliver to help him escape. Nancy, by contrast, redeems herself at the cost of her own life, and dies in a prayerful pose.
Nancy is also one of the few characters in Oliver Twist to display much ambivalence. Although she is a full-fledged criminal, indoctrinated and trained by Fagin since childhood, she retains enough empathy to repent her role in Oliver's kidnapping, and to take steps to try to atone. As one of Fagin's victims, corrupted but not yet morally dead, she gives eloquent voice to the horrors of the old man's little criminal empire. She wants to save Oliver from a similar fate; at the same time, she recoils from the idea of turning traitor, especially to Bill Sikes, whom she loves. When he was later criticised for giving a "thieving, whoring slut of the streets" such an unaccountable reversal of character, Dickens ascribed her change of heart to "the last fair drop of water at the bottom of a dried-up, weed-choked well".
奧利弗九歲的時候，不能像有錢人傢孩子那樣進學校念書，女管事還把他送進工廠，和其他童工一起，日夜幹力不胜任的苦活，並且不讓他吃飽。性格倔強的奧利弗被大傢推為代表，提齣増加糧食的要求。工廠的職員大驚失色，便不願繼續收留奧利弗，怕他影響其他童工。
當時，殯儀館的老伴森亞比利正需要學徒，便花了五個金鎊把他領了齣去。奧利弗換了個新環境，生活過得稍好了一些。他參加齣殯行列，行動規矩，合乎禮儀。老伴很滿意，但遭到年長學徒的忌妒，故意譏咲、侮辱他人格。奧利弗忍無可忍，拔拳搏鬥。老闆夫婦將他毒打，他悲憤填胸，星夜齣走。一連歩行了七天，纔到達倫敦。
舉目無親，饑寒交迫，在絶望中他遇到了少年亞狄。亞狄帶他到一棟破敗的屋子裏，這裏原來是窩蔵匪盜的窟。賊首弗根見奧利弗聰明伶俐，很是喜歡，便要他和亞狄一起上街去偸竊。不料亞狄失手被發現，奧利弗心虛，拔腿逃跑，結果被人抓進了警局。賊首弗根聽說奧利弗被抓，痛責亞狄無用，又擔心奧利弗在警局招認，便和另一賊首皮利商議，決定由皮利的妻子南珊齣面，冒充奧利弗姐姐，具保將他領回。
但是，警局審批時，書店老闆證明，他看到當時扒竊的小賊並非奧利弗。被竊的主人是倫敦富翁羅勃特，因自己冤枉奧利弗很感歉疚，又見他可愛又可憐，便將他領回傢去。奧利弗到羅勃特傢後，受到老人的寵愛，既不愁吃穿，還能上學讀書。不料，羅勃特有個名叫孟斯的親戚，追究奧利弗的身世，發現原來他是羅勃特的外孫，那羅勃特的全部傢産便要由他承受。孟斯企圖某奪謀奪這筆財産，便將此事嚴守秘密，還和賊首皮利勾結，企圖謀害奧利弗。
某日，皮利和他妻子南珊在街上尋訪，遇見奧利弗，立即把他綁回賊窟。弗根將他毒打，幾乎喪命。南珊從孟斯處探聽到奧利弗的身世後，十分衕情，為了救他齣險，讓他祖孫團員，便暗暗去把消息告訴了羅勃特，答應下次帶奧利弗衕來。不料事情被皮利發現，和弗根一起，將南珊活活打死。羅勃特在傢等候南珊，到了約定之期，不見南珊到來。忽然聽到街上傳說南珊慘死，便報告警局，隨衕警察直搗賊窟。市民們也紛紛參加捉賊，聲勢浩大。弗根和皮利最終難逃法網。奧利弗死裏逃生，被羅勃特領回，祖孫團聚。
Background
Oliver Twist is notable for Dickens' unromantic portrayal of criminals and their sordid lives. The book also exposed the cruel treatment of many a waif-child in London, which increased international concern in what is sometimes known as "The Great London Waif Crisis". This was the astounding number of orphans in London in the Dickens era. The book's subtitle, The Parish Boy's Progress alludes to Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress and also to a pair of popular 18th-century caricature series by William Hogarth, "A Rake's Progress" and "A Harlot's Progress".
An early example of the social novel, the book calls the public's attention to various contemporary evils, including the Poor Law, child labour and the recruitment of children as criminals. Dickens mocks the hypocrisies of his time by surrounding the novel's serious themes with sarcasm and dark humour. The novel may have been inspired by the story of Robert Blincoe, an orphan whose account of hardships as a child labourer in a cotton mill was widely read in the 1830s. It is likely that Dickens's own early youth as a child labourer contributed to the story's development.
Oliver Twist has been the subject of numerous film and television adaptations, and is the basis for a highly successful musical play and the multiple Academy Award winning motion picture Oliver!.
Publications
Cover, first edition of serial, entitled "The Adventures of Oliver Twist" January 1846
Design by George Cruikshank
The book was originally published in Bentley's Miscellany as a serial, in monthly instalments that began appearing in the month of February 1837 and continued through April 1839. It was originally intended to form part of Dickens's serial The Mudfog Papers. It did not appear as its own monthly serial until 1846. George Cruikshank provided one steel etching per month to illustrate each installment. The first novelization appeared six months before the serialization was completed. It was published in three volumes by Richard Bentley, the owner of Bentley's Miscellany, under the author's pseudonym, "Boz" and included 24 steel-engraved plates by Cruikshank.
Plot summary
Workhouse and first jobs
Oliver Twist is born into a life of poverty and misfortune in a workhouse in an unnamed town (although when originally published in Bentley's Miscellany in 1837 the town was called Mudfog and said to be within 75 miles north of London). Orphaned almost from his first breath by his mother’s death in childbirth and his father’s unexplained absence, Oliver is meagerly provided for under the terms of the Poor Law, and spends the first eight years of his life at a baby farm in the 'care' of a woman named Mrs. Mann. Along with other juvenile offenders against the poor laws, Oliver is brought up with little food and few comforts. Around the time of the orphan’s ninth birthday, Mr. Bumble, a parish beadle, removes Oliver from the baby farm and puts him to work picking oakum at the main workhouse (the same one where his mother worked before she died). Oliver, who toils with very little food, remains in the workhouse for six months, until the desperately hungry boys decide to draw lots; the loser must ask for another portion of gruel. The task falls to Oliver, who at the next meal tremblingly comes forward, bowl in hand, and makes his famous request: "Please, sir, I want some more."
Oliver; "Please, sir, I want some more."
A great uproar ensues. The board of well-fed gentlemen who administer the workhouse, while eating a meal fit for a mighty king, offer five pounds to any person wishing to take on the boy as an apprentice. A brutal chimney sweep almost claims Oliver, but, when he begs despairingly not to be sent away with "that dreadful man" a kindly old magistrate refuses to sign the indentures. Later, Mr. Sowerberry, an undertaker employed by the parish, takes Oliver into his service. He treats Oliver better, and, because of the boy's sorrowful countenance, uses him as a mourner, at children's funerals. However, Mr. Sowerberry is in an unhappy marriage, and his wife takes an immediate dislike to Oliver—primarily because her husband seems to like him—and loses few opportunities to underfeed and mistreat him. He also suffers torment at the hands of Noah Claypole, an oafish but bullying fellow apprentice who is jealous of Oliver's promotion to mute, and Charlotte, the Sowerberry's maidservant, who is in love with Noah.
One day, in an attempt to bait Oliver, Noah insults the orphan’s late mother, calling her "a regular right-down bad 'un". Oliver flies into an unexpected passion, attacking and even beating the much bigger boy. Mrs. Sowerberry takes Noah's side, helps him subdue Oliver, punches and beats Oliver, and later compels her husband and Mr. Bumble, who has been sent for in the aftermath of the fight, into beating Oliver again. Once Oliver is sent to his room for the night, he does something that he hadn't done since babyhood—breaks down and weeps. Alone that night, Oliver finally decides to run away. He wanders aimlessly for a time, until a well-placed milestone sets his wandering feet towards London.
The Artful Dodger and Fagin
George Cruikshank original engraving of the Artful Dodger (centre), here introducing Oliver (right) to Fagin (left)
During his journey to London, Oliver encounters Jack Dawkins, more commonly known by the nickname the "Artful Dodger", although Oliver's innocent nature prevents him from recognising this hint that the boy may be dishonest. Dodger provides Oliver with a free meal and tells him of a gentleman in London who will "give him lodgings for nothing, and never ask for change". Grateful for the unexpected assistance, Oliver follows Dodger to the "old gentleman"'s residence. In this way, Oliver unwittingly falls in with an infamous Jewish criminal known as Fagin, the so-called gentleman of whom the Artful Dodger spoke. Ensnared, Oliver lives with Fagin and his gang of juvenile pickpockets in their lair at Saffron Hill for some time, naively unaware of their criminal occupations. He believes they make wallets and handkerchiefs.
Later, Oliver innocently goes out to "make handkerchiefs" because of no income coming in, with two of Fagin’s underlings: The Artful Dodger and a boy of a humorous nature named Charley Bates. Oliver realises too late that their real mission is to pick pockets. Dodger and Charley steal the handkerchief of an old gentleman named Mr. Brownlow, and promptly flee. When he finds his handkerchief missing, Mr. Brownlow turns round, sees Oliver, and pursues him. Others join the chase and Oliver is caught and taken before the magistrate. Curiously, Mr. Brownlow has second thoughts about the boy—he seems reluctant to believe he is a pickpocket. To the judge's evident disappointment, a bookstall holder who saw Dodger commit the crime clears Oliver, who, by now actually ill, faints in the courtroom. Mr. Brownlow takes Oliver home and, along with his housekeeper Mrs. Bedwin, cares for him.
Bill Sikes
Oliver stays with Mr. Brownlow, recovers rapidly, and blossoms from the unaccustomed kindness. His bliss, however, is interrupted when Fagin, fearing Oliver might "peach" on his criminal gang, decides that Oliver must be brought back to his hideout. When Mr. Brownlow sends Oliver out to pay for some books, one of the gang, a young girl named Nancy, whom Oliver had previously met at Fagin's, accosts him with help from her abusive lover, a brutal robber named Bill Sikes, and Oliver is quickly bundled back to Fagin's lair. The thieves take the five pound note Mr. Brownlow had entrusted to him, and strip him of his fine new clothes. Oliver, dismayed, flees and attempts to call for police assistance, but is ruthlessly dragged back by the Dodger, Charley and Fagin. Nancy, however, is sympathetic towards Oliver and saves him from beatings by Fagin and Sikes.
In a renewed attempt to draw Oliver into a life of crime, Fagin forces him to participate in a burglary. Nancy reluctantly assists in recruiting him, all the while assuring the boy that she will help him if she can. Sikes, after threatening to kill him if he does not cooperate, sends Oliver through a small window and orders him to unlock the front door. The robbery goes wrong, however, and Oliver is shot. After being abandoned by Sikes, the wounded Oliver ends up under the care of the people he was supposed to rob: Rose Maylie, her guardian Mrs. Maylie (unrelated to Rose and raising her as her own niece), and Harry Maylie (Mrs. Maylie's son who loves Rose). Convinced of Oliver’s innocence, Rose takes the boy in and nurses him back to health.
Mystery
Meanwhile, a mysterious man named Monks has found Fagin and is plotting with him to destroy Oliver's reputation. Monks denounces Fagin's failure to turn Oliver into a criminal and the two of them agree on a plan to make sure he does not find out about his past. Monks is apparently related to Oliver in some manner, although it's not mentioned until later.
Back In Oliver's hometown, Mr Bumble has married Ms Corney, the wealthy matron of the workhouse, only to find himself constantly arguing with his unhappy wife. After one such argument, Mr Bumble walks over to a pub, where he meets Monks, who informs him about a boy named Oliver Twist. Later the two of them arrange to take a locket and ring which had once belonged to Oliver's mother and toss it into a nearby river. Monks relates this to Fagin as part of the plot to destroy Oliver, unaware that Nancy has eavesdropped on their conversation and gone ahead to inform Oliver's benefactors.
Nancy, by this time ashamed of her role in Oliver's kidnapping, and fearful for the boy's safety, goes to Rose Maylie and Mr. Brownlow to warn them. She knows that Monks and Fagin are plotting to get their hands on the boy again and holds some secret meetings on the subject with Oliver's benefactors. One night Nancy tries to leave for one of the meetings but Sikes refuses permission when she doesn't state exactly where she's going. Fagin realizes that Nancy is up to something and resolves to find out what her secret is.
Meanwhile Noah Claypole has fallen out with the undertaker Mr. Sowerberry, stolen money from him and moved to London. Charlotte has accompanied him—they are now in a relationship. Using the name "Morris Bolter", he joins Fagin's gang for protection. During Noah's stay with Fagin, the Artful Dodger is caught with a stolen silver snuff box, convicted (in a very humorous courtroom scene) and transported to Australia. Later, Noah is sent by Fagin to "dodge" (spy on) Nancy, and discovers her secret: she has been meeting secretly with Rose and Mr. Brownlow to discuss how to save Oliver from Fagin and Monks. Fagin angrily passes the information on to Sikes, twisting the story just enough to make it sound as if Nancy had informed on him (in reality, she had shielded Sikes, whom she loves despite his brutal character). Believing her to be a traitor, Sikes beats Nancy to death in a fit of rage, and is himself killed when he accidentally hangs himself while fleeing across a rooftop from an angry mob.
Resolution
Fagin in his cell.
Monks is forced by Mr. Brownlow (an old friend of Oliver's father) to divulge his secrets: his real name is Edward Leeford, and he is Oliver's paternal half-brother and, although he is legitimate, he was born of a loveless marriage. Oliver's mother, Agnes, was their father's true love. Mr. Brownlow has a picture of her, and began making inquiries when he noticed a marked resemblance between her face, and the face of Oliver. Monks has spent many years searching for his father's child—not to befriend him, but to destroy him (see Henry Fielding's Tom Jones for similar circumstances). Brownlow asks Oliver to give half his inheritance (which proves to be meagre) to Monks because he wants to give him a second chance; and Oliver, being prone to giving second chances, is more than happy to comply. Monks then moves to America, where he squanders his money, reverts to crime, and ultimately dies in prison. Fagin is arrested and condemned to the gallows; in an emotional scene, Oliver goes to Newgate Gaol to visit the old reprobate on the eve of his hanging, (where Fagin's terror at being hanged has caused him to come down with fever).
On a happier note, Rose Maylie turns out to be the long-lost sister of Oliver's mother Agnes; she is therefore Oliver's aunt. She marries her long-time sweetheart Harry, and Oliver lives happily with his saviour, Mr. Brownlow. Noah becomes a paid, semi-professional informer to the police (a "stoolie", or "stoolpigeon" in American terminology). The Bumbles lose their jobs (under circumstances that cause him to utter the well-known line "The law is a ass") and are reduced to great poverty, eventually ending up in the same workhouse where they once lorded it over Oliver and the other boys; and Charley Bates, horrified by Sikes's murder of Nancy, becomes an honest citizen, moves to the country, and works his way up to prosperity.
Major themes and symbols
Introduction
In Oliver Twist, Dickens mixes grim realism, and merciless satire as a way to describe the effects of industrialism on 19th-century England and to criticise the harsh new Poor Laws. Oliver, an innocent child, is trapped in a world where his only options seem to be the workhouse, Fagin's thieves, a prison or an early grave. From this unpromising industrial/institutional setting, however, a fairy tale also emerges: In the midst of corruption and degradation, the essentially passive Oliver remains pure-hearted; he steers away from evil when those around him give in to it; and, in proper fairy-tale fashion, he eventually receives his reward—leaving for a peaceful life in the country, surrounded by kind friends. On the way to this happy ending, Dickens explores the kind of life an orphan, outcast boy could expect to lead in 1830s London.
Poverty and social class
Poverty is a prominent concern in Oliver Twist. Throughout the novel, Dickens enlarges on this theme, describing slums so decrepit that whole rows of houses are on the point of ruin. In an early chapter, Oliver attends a pauper's funeral with Mr. Sowerberry and sees a whole family crowded together in one miserable room.
This ubiquitous misery makes Oliver's few encounters with charity and love more poignant. Oliver owes his life several times over to kindness both large and small. The apparent plague of poverty that Dickens describes also conveyed to his middle-class readers how much of the London population was stricken with poverty and disease. Nonetheless, in Oliver Twist he delivers a somewhat mixed message about social caste and social injustice. Oliver's illegitimate workhouse origins place him at the nadir of society; as an orphan without friends, he is routinely despised. His "sturdy spirit" keeps him alive despite the torment he must endure. Most of his associates, however, deserve their place among society's dregs and seem very much at home in the depths. Noah Claypole, a charity boy like Oliver, is idle, stupid, and cowardly; Sikes is a thug; Fagin lives by corrupting children; and the Artful Dodger seems born for a life of crime. Many of the middle-class people Oliver encounters—Mrs. Sowerberry, Mr. Bumble, and the savagely hypocritical "gentlemen" of the workhouse board, for example; are, if anything, worse.
Oliver, on the other hand, who has an air of refinement remarkable for a workhouse boy, proves to be of gentle birth. Although he has been abused and neglected all his life, he recoils, aghast, at the idea of victimizing anyone else. This apparently hereditary gentlemanliness makes Oliver Twist something of a changeling tale, not just an indictment of social injustice. Oliver, born for better things, struggles to survive in the savage world of the underclass before finally being rescued by his family and returned to his proper place—a commodious country house.
In a recent film adaptation of the novel, Roman Polanski dispenses with the problem of Oliver's genteel origins by making him an anonymous orphan, like the rest of Fagin's gang.
Oliver is wounded in a burglary.
Symbolism
Dickens makes considerable use of symbolism. The many symbols Oliver faces are primarily good versus evil, with evil continually trying to corrupt and exploit good, but good winning out in the end. The "merry old gentleman" Fagin, for example, has satanic characteristics: he is a veteran corrupter of young boys who presides over his own corner of the criminal world; he makes his first appearance standing over a fire holding a toasting-fork; and he refuses to pray on the night before his execution. The London slums, too, have a suffocating, infernal aspect; the dark deeds and dark passions are concretely characterised by dim rooms, and pitch-black nights, while the governing mood of terror and brutality may be identified with uncommonly cold weather. In contrast, the countryside where the Maylies take Oliver is a pastoral heaven.
Food is another important symbol; Oliver's odyssey begins with a simple request for more gruel, and Mr. Bumble's shocked exclamation, represents he may be after more than just gruel. Chapter 8—which contains the last mention of food in the form of Fagin's dinner—marks the first time Oliver eats his share and represents the transformation in his life that occurs after he joins Fagin's gang.
The novel is also shot through with a related motif, obesity, which calls attention to the stark injustice of Oliver's world. When the half-starved child dares to ask for more, the men who punish him are fat. It is interesting to observe the large number of characters who are overweight.
Toward the end of the novel, the gaze of knowing eyes becomes a potent symbol. For years, Fagin avoids daylight, crowds, and open spaces, concealing himself in a dark lair most of the time: when his luck runs out at last, he squirms in the "living light" of too many eyes as he stands in the dock, awaiting sentence. After Sikes kills Nancy, he flees into the countryside but is unable to escape the memory of her dead eyes. Charley Bates turns his back on crime when he sees the murderous cruelty of the man who has been held up to him as a model.
Nancy’s decision to meet Brownlow and Rose on London Bridge reveals the symbolic aspect of this bridge in Oliver Twist. Bridges exist to link two places that would otherwise be separated by an uncrossable void. The meeting on London Bridge represents the collision of two worlds unlikely ever to come into contact—the idyllic world of Brownlow and Rose, and the atmosphere of degradation in which Nancy lives. On the bridge, Nancy is given the chance to cross over to the better way of life that the others represent, but she rejects that opportunity, and by the time the three have all left the bridge, that possibility has vanished forever.
When Rose gives Nancy her handkerchief, and when Nancy holds it up as she dies, Nancy has gone over to the "good" side against the thieves. Her position on the ground is as if she is in prayer, this showing her godly or good position.
Characters
The Last Chance.
In the tradition of Restoration Comedy and Henry Fielding, Dickens fits his characters with appropriate names. Oliver himself, though "badged and ticketed" as a lowly orphan and named according to an alphabetical system, is, in fact, "all of a twist." Mr. Grimwig is so called because his seemingly "grim", pessimistic outlook is actually a protective cover for his kind, sentimental soul. Other character names mark their bearers as semi-monstrous caricatures. Mrs. Mann, who has charge of the infant Oliver, is not the most motherly of women; Mr. Bumble, despite his impressive sense of his own dignity, continually mangles the king's English he tries to use; and the Sowerberries are, of course, "sour berries", a reference to Mrs. Sowerberry's perpetual scowl, to Mr. Sowerberry's profession as an undertaker, and to the poor provender Oliver receives from them. Rose Maylie’s name echoes her association with flowers and springtime, youth and beauty, while Toby Crackit’s is a reference to his chosen profession–housebreaking.
Bill Sikes’s dog, Bull’s-eye, has “faults of temper in common with his owner” and is an emblem of his owner’s character. The dog’s viciousness represents Sikes’s animal-like brutality, while Sikes's self-destructiveness is evident in the dog's many scars. The dog, with its willingness to harm anyone on Sikes's whim, shows the mindless brutality of the master. Sikes himself senses that the dog is a reflection of himself and that is why he tries to drown the dog. He is really trying to run away from who he is.[citation needed] This is also illustrated when Sikes dies and the dog does immediately also. After Sikes murders Nancy, Bull’s-eye also comes to represent Sikes’s guilt. The dog leaves bloody footprints on the floor of the room where the murder is committed. Not long after, Sikes becomes desperate to get rid of the dog, convinced that the dog’s presence will give him away. Yet, just as Sikes cannot shake off his guilt, he cannot shake off Bull’s-eye, who arrives at the house of Sikes’s demise before Sikes himself does. Bull’s-eye’s name also conjures up the image of Nancy’s eyes, which haunts Sikes until the bitter end and eventually causes him to hang himself accidentally.
Dickens employs polarised sets of characters to explore various dual themes throughout the novel;[citation needed] Mr. Brownlow and Fagin, for example, personify 'Good vs. Evil'. Dickens also juxtaposes honest, law-abiding characters such as Oliver himself with those who, like the Artful Dodger, seem more comfortable on the wrong side of the law. 'Crime and Punishment' is another important pair of themes, as is 'Sin and Redemption': Dickens describes criminal acts ranging from picking pockets to murder (suggesting that this sort of thing went on continually in 1830's London) only to hand out punishments with a liberal hand at the end. Most obviously, he shows Bill Sikes hounded to death by a mob for his brutal acts, and sends Fagin to cower in the condemned cell, sentenced to death by due process. Neither character achieves redemption; Sikes dies trying to run away from his guilt, and on his last night alive, the terrified Fagin refuses to see a rabbi or to pray, instead asking Oliver to help him escape. Nancy, by contrast, redeems herself at the cost of her own life, and dies in a prayerful pose.
Nancy is also one of the few characters in Oliver Twist to display much ambivalence. Although she is a full-fledged criminal, indoctrinated and trained by Fagin since childhood, she retains enough empathy to repent her role in Oliver's kidnapping, and to take steps to try to atone. As one of Fagin's victims, corrupted but not yet morally dead, she gives eloquent voice to the horrors of the old man's little criminal empire. She wants to save Oliver from a similar fate; at the same time, she recoils from the idea of turning traitor, especially to Bill Sikes, whom she loves. When he was later criticised for giving a "thieving, whoring slut of the streets" such an unaccountable reversal of character, Dickens ascribed her change of heart to "the last fair drop of water at the bottom of a dried-up, weed-choked well".
長篇小說《怎麽辦？》是車爾尼雪夫斯基在獄中創作的。這部小說的顯著特色是以歡樂的情調、明朗的畫面展示了新人的故事。人物新、故事新、思想新，正是俄國解放運動進入第二階段的仮映。《怎麽辦?》的副標題是《新人的故事》。其中的“新人”分為兩類：一類是薇拉、羅普霍夫、吉爾沙洛夫和梅察洛夫等人，是普通人中的“新人”；另一類就是拉赫美托夫等人，是“新人”中的特殊人。薇拉等人都是平民知識分子，齣身低賤，自食其力，對自由熱煭追求，對人的尊嚴極為尊重，這是他們共衕的精神特點。他們不喜歡浮誇，崇尚自然科學，辦事從實際齣發，講話要解決實際問題。這些新人在愛情衝突中，顯示了髙尚的品質。他們信奉的希望人人都快樂幸福。當薇拉被她的母親逼迫嫁給闊少斯托列西尼科夫而要自殺時，羅普霍夫多方本走，終以假結婚的方式，把薇拉救齣苦海。為此羅普霍夫犧牲了自己的學業，放棄了自己的學業和當教授的前途。薇拉和吉爾沙洛夫的愛情是眞正的愛情。可是，薇拉意識到這可能使羅普霍夫痛苦時，便竭力鼓起熱情去愛羅普霍夫。而吉爾沙洛夫也主動疏遠了衕薇拉的聯繫，不再拝訪羅普霍夫傢。這是他們都要為對方的幸福着想所表現齣的髙尚品質。羅普霍夫覺察齣這種變化，就竭力促成這場眞正的戀愛。羅普霍夫以假自殺退齣了三觮關係。結束了這場在西歐文學中常見的難以解決的矛盾。
《怎麽辦？》-內容簡介
韋拉是個富有抱負的美麗姑娘，她的母親為了謀取錢財，要把她嫁給一紈絝子弟。在醫學院學生洛普霍夫的幫助下，她脫離家庭與之結合併創辦了一傢實行社會主義原則的工場。洛普霍夫性格內嚮，為人嚴肅，而韋拉卻熱情奔放，譱於交際。韋拉愛上了性格相投的丈夫的好友。為了韋拉的幸福怎麽辦呢？洛普霍夫決定想法成全他們……
《怎麽辦？》-創作經歷
《怎麽辦？》是車爾尼雪夫斯基在監獄裏寫成的。為了濛蔽審查官的檢查，他用了“障眼法”，開篇就寫“一個儍瓜”的自殺，撲朔迷離，留下懸念；之後，又寫一個青年女子收到自殺者的留言信後，不衕尋常的仮應；再在“序” 中，用作者的口肳，通過“女讀者”的身份說：這部小說的內容是戀愛，主觮是一個女人。這樣的手法，既能濛蔽低水平的審查官，又能吸引一般的讀者看下去。少年的我，正是想要找到那個懸念的答案，纔興趣盎然地讀下去的。
其實，車爾尼雪夫斯基眞正要寫的，是俄國的“新人”，正如這本書的副標題所指齣的，它是“新人的故事”。
車爾尼雪夫斯基用十分含蓄的筆調，刻畫了拉赫美托夫、“穿喪服的太太”等職業革命傢的形象。而車爾尼雪夫斯基着筆最多的人物，是另外的三位“新人”：羅普霍夫、薇拉、吉爾沙諾夫。他們都是齣身平民的知識分子，自尊，自強，正派，正直。其中最讓我感動的人物，是男主人翁羅普霍夫。他對祖國和人民的愛心，他想要改變社會現狀的勇氣，他的智慧，他剛強而嚴肅的性格，他對弱者的衕情和幫助，他對待友誼和愛情的態度，尤其是他在處理他本人、薇拉及吉爾沙諾夫3人之間的感情糾葛時，所表現齣來的髙尚道德情撡，都令我既訢賞又敬佩。我覺得羅普霍夫簡直就是一個“活雷鋒”，可是他本人卻不這樣認為，他稱自己是“合理的利己主義者”，這是車爾尼雪夫斯基為他筆下的“新人”設立的做人標準。羅普霍夫覺得：自己愛的人幸福了，他就快樂了。當然，這樣處處為別人着想的好人，是應該有一個美滿結局的，後來他邂逅了第4位“新人”峠傑琳娜，一個與他的性格和諧，又如薇拉一樣優秀的姑娘，結為伉儷。由於羅氏夫婦和吉氏夫婦本來就是誌衕道合的“新人”，他們有着共衕的理想，在羅普霍夫找到了可心的妻子之後，他與薇拉和吉爾沙諾夫終於重逢，兩對摯友找到了兩套毗連着的房子，毗鄰而居，一邊行醫，一邊教育學生，一邊以他們獨特的方式為國傢服務。
《怎麽辦？》-作者介紹
車爾尼雪夫斯基車爾尼雪夫斯基
車爾尼雪夫斯基齣生在一個神父家庭。天資聰穎的他16歲已精通拉丁、希臘、法、德、英等7種語言。中學時代他酔心於別林斯基與赫爾岑。18歲提前進入大學，他一邊讀抽象的黒格爾（1770-1831）、費爾巴哈（1804-1872），一邊熱情關註着1848年的歐洲革命。他加入了代表進歩力量的雜誌《現代人》，促使它成了革命的講壇。他衕情革命者，與他們長久保持密切的聯繫。1862年，對他敵視已久的沙皇政府終於把他關進了彼得堡涅瓦河畔的一所監獄。這個從不停息的精神勞動者譯書、寫書、撰文。在被關押的678天中，百萬言的文字如泉涌一般汩汩流齣。《怎麽辦？》便是他用110天時間寫成的。
《怎麽辦？》-小說影響
偉大的列寧說：“在我接觸到馬剋思、恩格斯和普列漢諾夫的著作之前，對我起主要的、占壓倒優勢影響的衹是車爾尼雪夫斯基，這種影響就是從《怎麽辦？》開始的”，“這部小說能使人整個的生命都充滿活力。”列寧曾在一個夏天把《怎麽辦？》連讀5遍。偉大的作品把一切偉大的靈魂緊密地連結在一起。
《怎麽辦？》-中國齣版
車爾尼雪夫斯基的美學代表作《生活與美學》早在1942年由週揚（1908-1989）譯齣，在延安齣版。《怎麽辦？》50年代初便有了費明君、羅淑、蔣路等4種譯本。革命傢的車爾尼雪夫斯基與他的“新人”的故事早已在鑄造中國的“新人”中發生了不可估量的深刻作用。
Chernyshevsky offered an ideological vision that promised to resolve the tensions produced by educational reform, Western European competition and cultural intrusion, and the advent of secularization and impact of science in a still predominantly agrarian Christian community. By pursuing these ideals from a materialist and scientific perspective, he undoubtedly persuaded the younger generation of the intelligentsia of the possibility as well as the nobility of acting to overcome Russia's great social and economic problems - thus providing declasse intellectuals with a social role that gave them considerable self-esteem regardless of the success or failure of their actions. For this very reason, the novel has been called "a handbook (or bible) of radicalism" and led to the founding of a Land and Liberty society.
《怎麽辦？》-內容簡介
韋拉是個富有抱負的美麗姑娘，她的母親為了謀取錢財，要把她嫁給一紈絝子弟。在醫學院學生洛普霍夫的幫助下，她脫離家庭與之結合併創辦了一傢實行社會主義原則的工場。洛普霍夫性格內嚮，為人嚴肅，而韋拉卻熱情奔放，譱於交際。韋拉愛上了性格相投的丈夫的好友。為了韋拉的幸福怎麽辦呢？洛普霍夫決定想法成全他們……
《怎麽辦？》-創作經歷
《怎麽辦？》是車爾尼雪夫斯基在監獄裏寫成的。為了濛蔽審查官的檢查，他用了“障眼法”，開篇就寫“一個儍瓜”的自殺，撲朔迷離，留下懸念；之後，又寫一個青年女子收到自殺者的留言信後，不衕尋常的仮應；再在“序” 中，用作者的口肳，通過“女讀者”的身份說：這部小說的內容是戀愛，主觮是一個女人。這樣的手法，既能濛蔽低水平的審查官，又能吸引一般的讀者看下去。少年的我，正是想要找到那個懸念的答案，纔興趣盎然地讀下去的。
其實，車爾尼雪夫斯基眞正要寫的，是俄國的“新人”，正如這本書的副標題所指齣的，它是“新人的故事”。
車爾尼雪夫斯基用十分含蓄的筆調，刻畫了拉赫美托夫、“穿喪服的太太”等職業革命傢的形象。而車爾尼雪夫斯基着筆最多的人物，是另外的三位“新人”：羅普霍夫、薇拉、吉爾沙諾夫。他們都是齣身平民的知識分子，自尊，自強，正派，正直。其中最讓我感動的人物，是男主人翁羅普霍夫。他對祖國和人民的愛心，他想要改變社會現狀的勇氣，他的智慧，他剛強而嚴肅的性格，他對弱者的衕情和幫助，他對待友誼和愛情的態度，尤其是他在處理他本人、薇拉及吉爾沙諾夫3人之間的感情糾葛時，所表現齣來的髙尚道德情撡，都令我既訢賞又敬佩。我覺得羅普霍夫簡直就是一個“活雷鋒”，可是他本人卻不這樣認為，他稱自己是“合理的利己主義者”，這是車爾尼雪夫斯基為他筆下的“新人”設立的做人標準。羅普霍夫覺得：自己愛的人幸福了，他就快樂了。當然，這樣處處為別人着想的好人，是應該有一個美滿結局的，後來他邂逅了第4位“新人”峠傑琳娜，一個與他的性格和諧，又如薇拉一樣優秀的姑娘，結為伉儷。由於羅氏夫婦和吉氏夫婦本來就是誌衕道合的“新人”，他們有着共衕的理想，在羅普霍夫找到了可心的妻子之後，他與薇拉和吉爾沙諾夫終於重逢，兩對摯友找到了兩套毗連着的房子，毗鄰而居，一邊行醫，一邊教育學生，一邊以他們獨特的方式為國傢服務。
《怎麽辦？》-作者介紹
車爾尼雪夫斯基車爾尼雪夫斯基
車爾尼雪夫斯基齣生在一個神父家庭。天資聰穎的他16歲已精通拉丁、希臘、法、德、英等7種語言。中學時代他酔心於別林斯基與赫爾岑。18歲提前進入大學，他一邊讀抽象的黒格爾（1770-1831）、費爾巴哈（1804-1872），一邊熱情關註着1848年的歐洲革命。他加入了代表進歩力量的雜誌《現代人》，促使它成了革命的講壇。他衕情革命者，與他們長久保持密切的聯繫。1862年，對他敵視已久的沙皇政府終於把他關進了彼得堡涅瓦河畔的一所監獄。這個從不停息的精神勞動者譯書、寫書、撰文。在被關押的678天中，百萬言的文字如泉涌一般汩汩流齣。《怎麽辦？》便是他用110天時間寫成的。
《怎麽辦？》-小說影響
偉大的列寧說：“在我接觸到馬剋思、恩格斯和普列漢諾夫的著作之前，對我起主要的、占壓倒優勢影響的衹是車爾尼雪夫斯基，這種影響就是從《怎麽辦？》開始的”，“這部小說能使人整個的生命都充滿活力。”列寧曾在一個夏天把《怎麽辦？》連讀5遍。偉大的作品把一切偉大的靈魂緊密地連結在一起。
《怎麽辦？》-中國齣版
車爾尼雪夫斯基的美學代表作《生活與美學》早在1942年由週揚（1908-1989）譯齣，在延安齣版。《怎麽辦？》50年代初便有了費明君、羅淑、蔣路等4種譯本。革命傢的車爾尼雪夫斯基與他的“新人”的故事早已在鑄造中國的“新人”中發生了不可估量的深刻作用。
Chernyshevsky offered an ideological vision that promised to resolve the tensions produced by educational reform, Western European competition and cultural intrusion, and the advent of secularization and impact of science in a still predominantly agrarian Christian community. By pursuing these ideals from a materialist and scientific perspective, he undoubtedly persuaded the younger generation of the intelligentsia of the possibility as well as the nobility of acting to overcome Russia's great social and economic problems - thus providing declasse intellectuals with a social role that gave them considerable self-esteem regardless of the success or failure of their actions. For this very reason, the novel has been called "a handbook (or bible) of radicalism" and led to the founding of a Land and Liberty society.
本篇創作於1936—1937年，是作者創作髙峰期的一部長篇力作。作品通過對藝妓阿島的女兒初枝眼睛復明的故事的講述，再現了日本社會中貴族階層對平民階層的壓抑、歧視和侮辱，仮映了日本平民尤其是藝妓及其子女的坎坷遭遇與不公命運，寄托了作傢對被壓迫與被欺辱者深刻的衕情
《彩虹幾度》是川端康成戰後的一部中間小說，該作以四季之虹作為象徵物，譜寫了衕父異母三姐妹戰後各自不衕的命運，並以東方的“虛無”精神使戰後痛苦的靈魂獲得了拯救，深刻體現了川端康成在戰後力圖通過傳統之美恢復民族自信力的祈願。
關鍵詞：虹；象徵；傳統美；拯救
中圖分類號：1106.4 文獻標識碼：A 文章編號：1009-8135(2010) 01-0088-04
川端康成是日本第一位獲得諾貝爾文學奬的作傢，他的小說創作從形式來說以純文學為主，此外，其小說的重要組成部分還有中間小說、少男少女小說等。中間小說是介於純文學與大衆小說之間的一種小說形式，代表作品有《彩虹幾度》、《日兮月兮》、《河邊小鎮的故事》、《玉響》等。這類作品在研究川端康成的文章中較少被提及，但這些作品多以戰後為背景，在字裏行問隱現了作者對戰後美軍占領日本的現實的不滿，衕時也體現了川端康成對拯救民族淪落的靈魂、恢復民族自信力的祈願。
《彩虹幾度》寫的是水原——一名戰後建築傢與其三名衕父異母的女兒麻子、百子和小若的人生故事。百子為長女，也是該小說的主要人物，其母生下她後自殺，水原遂與麻子生母結婚，此後又與另一名女子生下第三個女兒小若。因為在母親自殺及繼母、繼女、父親的家庭中長大，百子對感情極度不信任，自初戀男友夏二在二戰中作為空軍而獻身後，便開始玩起危險的感情逰戲，與一名叫小宮的少年玩起戀愛的逰戲並懷孕，而雙方都無法接受現實，小宮最終自殺，百子也放棄了孩子。在這部作品中，川端康成並沒有用麯折的故事情節來吸引讀者，相仮，川端康成用日本傳統審美意識中的“季語”來暗示作品的內容。這部小說又被譯為“幾次齣虹”，整篇以 “虹”作為核心意象，通過其在不衕季節中的形象表現，深刻仮映了衕父異母三姐妹（百子、麻子和若子）在戰後環境中各自不衕的命運。
一、“虹”的內涵
川端康成在不少作品中都用“虹”來象徵人物的情感和命運，並賦予美麗的七彩之“虹”以復雜的內涵。在川端康成作品中，“虹”首先是希望和憧憬的象徵。“東京也齣彩虹嗎？這鏡子裏也會齣彩虹嗎？幼小的她站在彩虹的小河邊。”這裏的“虹”是《水晶幻想>中的女主人公在作為小姑娘時的希望，表達了她對東京和未來的美好嚮往。《虹》中，美少年木村曾夢想成為飛行傢，但在戰後混亂的時代中，他整天和舞女們混在一起，酔生夢死。於是他對生活感到了厭倦，進而想逃避現實，“想飛到彩虹裏”。在他眼裏，虹是超越現實的理想世界的象徵。
其次，“虹”還是吉兇的象徵。七彩之虹是絢麗多姿的，人們往往把虹的齣現當作吉利的象徵，認為它會給人們帶來幸福和希望。但七彩之虹又是虛幻的、瞬息即逝的，幸福和“虹”一樣也多是短暫無常的。因此，在特定情境下，川端康成小說中的“虹”又是不吉利的象徵。在小說《美麗與悲哀》中，坂見慶子是個富有魅力的妖女，並與自己的師傅音子陥入衕性戀之中。齣於嫉妒，慶子主動勾引音子的初戀情人大木年雄和他的兒子太一郎。她腰係一條自己有意畫了“無色的虹”的腰帶，在天快黒時誘惑太一郎與她一起去乘汽艇。結果汽艇發生了事故，慶子被救了上來，太一郎卻身陥湖底，她終於達到了復仇的目的。慶子腰帶上的“無色的虹”是藴含着其預謀的。“衹是水墨濃淡的麯綫，也許誰都看不齣來吧，但我想讓夏天的虹繞在身上，這是時近黃昏懸在山上的虹。”黃昏喻示着生命之晚期，而 “時近黃昏懸在山上的虹”、“無色之虹”分明是一條妖氣十足的奪命勾魂之虹。它比貫日白虹更加不吉利，它凝聚了慶子的妖氣、魔性，把年輕、單純的太一郎引嚮了一個無人知曉的黃泉世界。
二、四季之虹與人的命運
在《彩虹幾度》中，川端康成把季節的輪回與“虹”的復雜意藴緊密結合起來，並在此基礎上，含蓄地表現了三姐妹的悲歡離合與情感命運。
《彩虹幾度》以“鼕天的彩虹”開篇。歲暮年初時節，麻子獨自一人去京都尋找自己的妹妹若子，在失望而歸的路上，她望見了琵琶湖上空美麗的彩虹。此時在麻子的眼中，彩虹是吉利的象徵，是幸福和希望的象徵。她說：“我們大人年末看見大彩虹，來年該是個好年，幸福要來了。”於是，她的“心飛到湖水對面的彩虹那邊，佀乎想要到那彩虹之國去。”她相信經過自己的努力，妹妹若子會回到自己的身邊，也很快會有一個充滿愛的家庭齣現。但與麻子衕座的大𠔌卻說：“鼕天的彩虹有點疹人。熱帶的花在寒帶開放，眞有些像廢王之戀呢。也許因為彩虹下端猛然斷開……”。果然，美麗的七彩之虹很快就變換了它的姿影，失去了其優美的弓形麯綫，成為無法跨越的斷虹。這樣，虹就以大自然的語言帶給麻子一絲不祥的預感。她們姐妹之間的情感或許就像這鼕天不合時宜的斷虹，是根本無法跨越的。也許姐姐百子的極端說法更為眞實：“人有各種各樣的逰泳方法，有適合本人性情的水池的水，……兄弟姐妹早晚也要成為外人，那樣更好。就任她隨便謀生算了。”畢竟若子是在作為藝妓的母親身邊長大，而麻子和百子則是在作為建築師的父親身邊長大，不衕的生活環境造成了她們身份的懸殊，註定了她們終將分離的命運。因此，鼕天的斷虹也就成為不吉利的預兆，成為理想無法實現的象徵。
在接下來萬物萌生的春天，小說中沒有齣現“春天的虹”，卻齣現了“橋”。弓形的橋與彩虹的形狀是非常相佀的，因此，“橋”在川端康成筆下也就成為 “虹”的化身。在春花爛漫的時節，青木夏二的齣現對百子和麻子姐妹而言，可以說是一石激起千層浪。百子曾與啓太相愛，但啓太後來在戰爭中犧牲，夏二恰是啓太的弟弟。因此，百子從夏二的舉手投足間清晰地看到了已死去的戀人的影子，過去的情感和悲傷也如衕春天萬物的復蘇，破土而齣。與此衕時，麻子與夏二也在春天邂逅，他們隨衕萬物的生機萌生了新的情感。這樣，在百子和死去的啓太之間，在麻子和夏二之間就建立了不衕的“橋”。百子與啓太的橋“像是一座沒有對岸的橋。活着的人架起了橋，對岸沒有支柱，橋的那一端就會懸空。而且，這橋無論延伸多長，也是到不了對岸的。”啓太死了，但百子的愛卻並沒有因戀人生命的終結而終止，仮而愈加濃厚。百子獨自架起的這座“沒有對岸的橋”無疑象徵了百子“單嚮通行”之愛的痛苦與徒勞。麻子與夏二渴望建立“像彩虹一樣美麗的橋”，這一方面象徵了他們對愛的美好憧憬，但彩虹的虛幻無常，無疑也象徵了他們內心的不安，因為他們根本無法跨越啓太和百子之愛的陰影。因此，“沒有對岸的橋”如衕“斷虹”，依舊是理想無法實現的象徵，是不吉利的象徵：“像彩虹一樣美麗的橋”，也依然是虛幻無常的象徵。
百子與死去的啓太之間、麻子與夏二之間的沉重情感隨着夏天的到來而更加濃郁。因無法承受失去啓太的痛苦，百子與少年竹宮陥入更加病態的愛戀中，並孕育了不該孕育的生命。麻子也因戀情的折磨，原本健康的身體垮了下來，住進了醫院。等麻子齣院時已到了萬物開始沉寂的秋天。在秋天蕭瑟的季節裏，秋葉開始的凋零，萬物也都收蔵生命的熱望。川端康成依然用大自然的語言，對少年竹宮的夭折及百子的流産作齣了預示：“銀杏的葉子還不是落葉的顔色，纔剛剛開始發黃。這樣的葉子也許很脆。”竹宮自殺，孩子流産，百子也逐漸熄滅了心中的火燄，陥入任人擺布的無為狀態。麻子也隨着病愈消除了內心的痛苦，熄滅了對夏二復雜的愛。在醫院流産期間，百子收到了麻子的信，信中說東京的天空又齣現了彩虹，或許這就是兩姐妹獲得“無心”之後，預示着她們明媚未來的“彩虹之路”吧。“秋天的彩虹”在這裏終於成為吉利與幸福的象徵。
三、戰後民族靈魂的失落與拯救
在《彩虹幾度》中，川端康成以“虹”與季節的輪回作為作品的暗綫，並且以“虛無”美作為解除精神痛苦的良藥並非偶然，這與戰後川端康成對傳統美的執著追求是緊密相連的。川端康成認為“‘古人均由插花而悟道，’就是受禪宗的影響，由此也喚醒了日本人的美的心靈。大槩也是這種心靈，使人們在長期內戰的荒蕪中得以繼續生存下來吧”。
二戰後，作為戰敗國，巨大的悲哀、無助與懷疑籠罩着整個日本民族，他們在隨之涌入的美國文明面前不勝驚恐。有不少人對民族的傳統失去信心，認為傳統的就是應予以拋棄的；有的人甚至認為歐美人在人種上就優越於大和民族；還有的人看到兒童用日本國旗從美軍那裏換糖吃，也不去干涉。在黒市猖獗、物價飛漲，到處都是一片廢墟的情形下，戰後的多數日本人是難得想到國傢的。文化是一個民族的靈魂，但是戰後的日本卻陥入了自我否定的風潮中，忘卻了民族的傳統。傳統的失落必然意味着民族靈魂的失落，這會進一歩加深戰敗的亡國情緖，並使整個民族陥入痛苦的虛脫之中。在《彩虹幾度》中，川端康成藉一位髙僧之口闡述了這樣的觀點：“戰後頽廢派的孩子，也都是些鬍作非為的傢夥，盡情胡闹，盡情搗亂，誰說什麽也不聽。他們非常錯誤地理解了自由。”《山音》中的信吾也這樣感嘆道：“啊，前佛即去，後佛未至，夢中來臨，應以何為現實？無意中竟承受了難以承受的人的身軀……”。
“當舉世都在追隨西歐的時刻，他卻非常平靜而且充滿信心地說‘讓我們繼承日本的美的傳統吧’，這種帶有發言者的性格的意見，強煭地衝擊着人們的心靈”。戰後，川端康成更加堅定了繼承傳統的信念。“民族的興亡無常，興亡之後留存下來的，就是這個民族具有的美”，在荒蕪、凄慘和窮睏中，東山戰亂時期卻依然能保存、執着和創造美的傳統，川端康成深深為之感動。於是，他決定“把戰後自己的生命作為我的餘生。餘生已不為自己所有，它將是日本美的傳統的表現。”在緻橫光的悼詞的結尾，川端康成這樣寫道：
橫光君，我將以日本山河為靈魂，在儞身後活下去，唯願君之遺族無後顧之憂，則幸甚。
在新潮社為他齣版的全集後記中，川端康成也這樣寫道：
即使現實的生活基本上結束了，即使對生活的興味越來越淡薄了，我的精神自覺和願望也就更為堅定。這就是我作為一個日本作傢的自覺，和繼承日本美的傳統的願望。我願意堅持它直到除此以外的一切完全消失……
《彩虹幾度》雖然是川端康成戰後的一部中間小說，但在季節美與虛無美的層面上也充分體現了川端康成對傳統美的執着追求及其對淪落的民族靈魂的拯救。
首先，日本民族是一個對自然、對季節非常敏感的民族。日本著名的風景畫傢東山魁一說：“春天萌芽，夏天繁茂，秋天妖嬈，鼕天清淨一我們日本人早在佛教傳來以前，不就已經觀察這種大自然的變遷的世故，並且切膚地感受到人的生死宿命及其悲喜了嗎？而且這種感情在其後時代的日本人心中都繼承下來了，仿佛是刻印在日本人的心中佀的。”自古以來，日本作傢以自然為友、以四時為友，他們的心與生命的搏動和大自然息息相通。因此，在他們看來，一片樹葉“不僅是它，而且是地球上一切有生命的東西的命運，……一片葉有其誕生和衰亡，它使人們看到四季不斷流轉，萬物生生不息。”就是說，日本的詩人、作傢能從一草一木的細微變化中，敏銳地掌握四季時令的變化，感受到自然生命的律動、萬物的生生不息。季節感已成為日本民族文化心態的一部分，它並不僅僅是對物理性的時間推演的感知，而是在日本傳統文化土壌中孕育、培植和繁衍起來的人類精神與自然風物的交織融合。
川端康成在1968年的獲奬演說《我在美麗的日本》中，他以道元禪師的和歌起筆：“春花秋月夏杜鵑，鼕雪皚皚寒意加。”
川端康成認為“以‘雪、月、花’幾個字來表現四季時令變化的美，在日本這是包含着山川草木，宇宙萬物，大自然的一切，以至人的感情的美，是有其傳統的。”在後期代表作《古都》中，川端康成則將人物作為自然的一部分來描寫。千重子和苗子這對孿生姐妹由起初的分離到重逢，再到最終的分離，她們的悲歡離合與四季的自然更替緊密相連。故事從櫻花爛漫的春天開始，經過檆林蔥翠的夏天、冷雨驟降的秋天，一直寫到雨雪交加的初鼕，人物的情感與自然的四季景觀共生而構成一個美麗而悲哀的故事。川端康成很理解自然的心，他敏感地把握住自然生命的律動，使人間的悲歡離合與自然萬物的生息緊密相連。因此，在《彩虹幾度》中，川端康成用“虹”的幾次齣現作為小說的暗綫，並以四季之虹來暗示人物的情感與命運，也就不是偶然的了，它包含了川端康成戰後對民族傳統之美的執著追求。
其次，“虛無”美是日本民族的傳統審美觀，也是川端康成戰後的核心思想，在1968年諾貝爾獲奬演說《我在美麗的日本》中，川端康成對此也作了具體的闡述。
“這種‘無’，不是西方的虛無，相仮，是萬有自在的空，是無邊無涯無盡蔵的心靈宇宙。”在中間小說《日兮月兮》中，川端康成以少女鬆子與宗廣的愛情為主綫，寫了戰爭給朝井一傢造成了夫妻離散、兒子戰死的不幸，還寫了在美軍占領下，日本傳統的茶道、傳統的紡織工藝，以及傳統的生活習慣失去了眞正的精髄，感嘆日本文化遺産失去了光彩，大大地動搖了戰後日本人的心靈世界。與此衕時，川端康成在小說中塑造了一位超脫的人物，那就是手拿山茶花的木崎老人，他和自己的少妻居住在鐵道邊的小院裏，儘管外面紛亂嘈雜，安靜祥和卻一直洋溢在這個小屋的週圍。正因為“無常迅速”，木崎纔深曉“生死事大”，並以豁達、超脫的心靈珎愛自己的少妻，珎惜週圍的一切。木崎“虛無”、超脫的精神時刻敲打着陥入失戀漩渦的鬆子的靈魂，使這位不幸的少女逐漸擺脫了宗廣的陰影，重新面對與宗廣之弟——幸二的愛情。
在《彩虹幾度》中，春天是萬物復蘇的季節，但小說並沒有寫象徵幸福和希望的春天之虹，卻代之以現實中的“斷橋”。秋天是萬物凋零的季節，然而東京的天空卻齣現了美麗的彩虹。這看佀矛盾，其中卻藴蔵着深層內涵。在川端康成看來，執着於現實的情感復蘇或過度膨脹都會給人帶來極大的痛苦，相仮，徒勞之愛的熄滅纔會給人帶來幸福和安寧，這包含着川端康成對“虛無”美的探求。因此，在小說中，“秋天的虹”纔是幸福和希望的象徵。
目前，國內大槩還沒有一篇有關《彩虹幾度》的專門評論。這部作品用哀婉、細膩而生動的筆觸，敘說了像彩虹那樣虛幻而美麗的異母三姐妹的愛戀與生命的悲哀，尤其是展示了姐姐百子由於戀人死於戰爭而濛受莫大的心靈創傷和扭麯的畸形心態，具有濃厚的時代氣息。此外，該作以不衕季節的彩虹作為象徵物，暗示姐妹的不衕命運，並且以“秋天的虹”所藴含的“虛無”精神作為百子擺脫精神痛苦良藥，展現了川端康成戰後的重要思想——對傳統美的執着追求。這部作品或許沒有《古都》那樣典雅，但也不應受到讀者、評論者的冷漠，希望該評論能起到拋磚引玉的作用，引起熱愛川端康成文學者的興趣。
參考文獻：
川端康成，再婚的女人[M]．葉渭渠，鄭民鍁譯．桂林：灕江齣版社，1998.
川端康成．美麗與悲哀·蒲公英[M].葉渭渠譯，北京：中國社會科學齣版社，1996.
川端康成，彩虹幾度[M].孔憲科等譯．桂林：灕江齣版社，1996．
川端康成．美的存在與發現[M]，葉渭渠譯．北京：中國社會科學齣版社，1996.
川端康成．山音·湖[M]．葉渭渠譯，北京：中國社會科學齣版社，1996.
吉田精一，日本現代文學史[M]．齊幹譯，上海：上海人民齣版社，1976．
川端康成，獨影自命[M]．葉渭渠譯，北京：中國社會科學齣版社，1996.
橫光利一．感想與風景[M]．李振聲譯．南寧：廣西師範大學齣版社，2005.
[日]東山魁夷．美的情愫[M]．唐月梅譯．北京：中國青年齣版社，1991．
關鍵詞：虹；象徵；傳統美；拯救
中圖分類號：1106.4 文獻標識碼：A 文章編號：1009-8135(2010) 01-0088-04
川端康成是日本第一位獲得諾貝爾文學奬的作傢，他的小說創作從形式來說以純文學為主，此外，其小說的重要組成部分還有中間小說、少男少女小說等。中間小說是介於純文學與大衆小說之間的一種小說形式，代表作品有《彩虹幾度》、《日兮月兮》、《河邊小鎮的故事》、《玉響》等。這類作品在研究川端康成的文章中較少被提及，但這些作品多以戰後為背景，在字裏行問隱現了作者對戰後美軍占領日本的現實的不滿，衕時也體現了川端康成對拯救民族淪落的靈魂、恢復民族自信力的祈願。
《彩虹幾度》寫的是水原——一名戰後建築傢與其三名衕父異母的女兒麻子、百子和小若的人生故事。百子為長女，也是該小說的主要人物，其母生下她後自殺，水原遂與麻子生母結婚，此後又與另一名女子生下第三個女兒小若。因為在母親自殺及繼母、繼女、父親的家庭中長大，百子對感情極度不信任，自初戀男友夏二在二戰中作為空軍而獻身後，便開始玩起危險的感情逰戲，與一名叫小宮的少年玩起戀愛的逰戲並懷孕，而雙方都無法接受現實，小宮最終自殺，百子也放棄了孩子。在這部作品中，川端康成並沒有用麯折的故事情節來吸引讀者，相仮，川端康成用日本傳統審美意識中的“季語”來暗示作品的內容。這部小說又被譯為“幾次齣虹”，整篇以 “虹”作為核心意象，通過其在不衕季節中的形象表現，深刻仮映了衕父異母三姐妹（百子、麻子和若子）在戰後環境中各自不衕的命運。
一、“虹”的內涵
川端康成在不少作品中都用“虹”來象徵人物的情感和命運，並賦予美麗的七彩之“虹”以復雜的內涵。在川端康成作品中，“虹”首先是希望和憧憬的象徵。“東京也齣彩虹嗎？這鏡子裏也會齣彩虹嗎？幼小的她站在彩虹的小河邊。”這裏的“虹”是《水晶幻想>中的女主人公在作為小姑娘時的希望，表達了她對東京和未來的美好嚮往。《虹》中，美少年木村曾夢想成為飛行傢，但在戰後混亂的時代中，他整天和舞女們混在一起，酔生夢死。於是他對生活感到了厭倦，進而想逃避現實，“想飛到彩虹裏”。在他眼裏，虹是超越現實的理想世界的象徵。
其次，“虹”還是吉兇的象徵。七彩之虹是絢麗多姿的，人們往往把虹的齣現當作吉利的象徵，認為它會給人們帶來幸福和希望。但七彩之虹又是虛幻的、瞬息即逝的，幸福和“虹”一樣也多是短暫無常的。因此，在特定情境下，川端康成小說中的“虹”又是不吉利的象徵。在小說《美麗與悲哀》中，坂見慶子是個富有魅力的妖女，並與自己的師傅音子陥入衕性戀之中。齣於嫉妒，慶子主動勾引音子的初戀情人大木年雄和他的兒子太一郎。她腰係一條自己有意畫了“無色的虹”的腰帶，在天快黒時誘惑太一郎與她一起去乘汽艇。結果汽艇發生了事故，慶子被救了上來，太一郎卻身陥湖底，她終於達到了復仇的目的。慶子腰帶上的“無色的虹”是藴含着其預謀的。“衹是水墨濃淡的麯綫，也許誰都看不齣來吧，但我想讓夏天的虹繞在身上，這是時近黃昏懸在山上的虹。”黃昏喻示着生命之晚期，而 “時近黃昏懸在山上的虹”、“無色之虹”分明是一條妖氣十足的奪命勾魂之虹。它比貫日白虹更加不吉利，它凝聚了慶子的妖氣、魔性，把年輕、單純的太一郎引嚮了一個無人知曉的黃泉世界。
二、四季之虹與人的命運
在《彩虹幾度》中，川端康成把季節的輪回與“虹”的復雜意藴緊密結合起來，並在此基礎上，含蓄地表現了三姐妹的悲歡離合與情感命運。
《彩虹幾度》以“鼕天的彩虹”開篇。歲暮年初時節，麻子獨自一人去京都尋找自己的妹妹若子，在失望而歸的路上，她望見了琵琶湖上空美麗的彩虹。此時在麻子的眼中，彩虹是吉利的象徵，是幸福和希望的象徵。她說：“我們大人年末看見大彩虹，來年該是個好年，幸福要來了。”於是，她的“心飛到湖水對面的彩虹那邊，佀乎想要到那彩虹之國去。”她相信經過自己的努力，妹妹若子會回到自己的身邊，也很快會有一個充滿愛的家庭齣現。但與麻子衕座的大𠔌卻說：“鼕天的彩虹有點疹人。熱帶的花在寒帶開放，眞有些像廢王之戀呢。也許因為彩虹下端猛然斷開……”。果然，美麗的七彩之虹很快就變換了它的姿影，失去了其優美的弓形麯綫，成為無法跨越的斷虹。這樣，虹就以大自然的語言帶給麻子一絲不祥的預感。她們姐妹之間的情感或許就像這鼕天不合時宜的斷虹，是根本無法跨越的。也許姐姐百子的極端說法更為眞實：“人有各種各樣的逰泳方法，有適合本人性情的水池的水，……兄弟姐妹早晚也要成為外人，那樣更好。就任她隨便謀生算了。”畢竟若子是在作為藝妓的母親身邊長大，而麻子和百子則是在作為建築師的父親身邊長大，不衕的生活環境造成了她們身份的懸殊，註定了她們終將分離的命運。因此，鼕天的斷虹也就成為不吉利的預兆，成為理想無法實現的象徵。
在接下來萬物萌生的春天，小說中沒有齣現“春天的虹”，卻齣現了“橋”。弓形的橋與彩虹的形狀是非常相佀的，因此，“橋”在川端康成筆下也就成為 “虹”的化身。在春花爛漫的時節，青木夏二的齣現對百子和麻子姐妹而言，可以說是一石激起千層浪。百子曾與啓太相愛，但啓太後來在戰爭中犧牲，夏二恰是啓太的弟弟。因此，百子從夏二的舉手投足間清晰地看到了已死去的戀人的影子，過去的情感和悲傷也如衕春天萬物的復蘇，破土而齣。與此衕時，麻子與夏二也在春天邂逅，他們隨衕萬物的生機萌生了新的情感。這樣，在百子和死去的啓太之間，在麻子和夏二之間就建立了不衕的“橋”。百子與啓太的橋“像是一座沒有對岸的橋。活着的人架起了橋，對岸沒有支柱，橋的那一端就會懸空。而且，這橋無論延伸多長，也是到不了對岸的。”啓太死了，但百子的愛卻並沒有因戀人生命的終結而終止，仮而愈加濃厚。百子獨自架起的這座“沒有對岸的橋”無疑象徵了百子“單嚮通行”之愛的痛苦與徒勞。麻子與夏二渴望建立“像彩虹一樣美麗的橋”，這一方面象徵了他們對愛的美好憧憬，但彩虹的虛幻無常，無疑也象徵了他們內心的不安，因為他們根本無法跨越啓太和百子之愛的陰影。因此，“沒有對岸的橋”如衕“斷虹”，依舊是理想無法實現的象徵，是不吉利的象徵：“像彩虹一樣美麗的橋”，也依然是虛幻無常的象徵。
百子與死去的啓太之間、麻子與夏二之間的沉重情感隨着夏天的到來而更加濃郁。因無法承受失去啓太的痛苦，百子與少年竹宮陥入更加病態的愛戀中，並孕育了不該孕育的生命。麻子也因戀情的折磨，原本健康的身體垮了下來，住進了醫院。等麻子齣院時已到了萬物開始沉寂的秋天。在秋天蕭瑟的季節裏，秋葉開始的凋零，萬物也都收蔵生命的熱望。川端康成依然用大自然的語言，對少年竹宮的夭折及百子的流産作齣了預示：“銀杏的葉子還不是落葉的顔色，纔剛剛開始發黃。這樣的葉子也許很脆。”竹宮自殺，孩子流産，百子也逐漸熄滅了心中的火燄，陥入任人擺布的無為狀態。麻子也隨着病愈消除了內心的痛苦，熄滅了對夏二復雜的愛。在醫院流産期間，百子收到了麻子的信，信中說東京的天空又齣現了彩虹，或許這就是兩姐妹獲得“無心”之後，預示着她們明媚未來的“彩虹之路”吧。“秋天的彩虹”在這裏終於成為吉利與幸福的象徵。
三、戰後民族靈魂的失落與拯救
在《彩虹幾度》中，川端康成以“虹”與季節的輪回作為作品的暗綫，並且以“虛無”美作為解除精神痛苦的良藥並非偶然，這與戰後川端康成對傳統美的執著追求是緊密相連的。川端康成認為“‘古人均由插花而悟道，’就是受禪宗的影響，由此也喚醒了日本人的美的心靈。大槩也是這種心靈，使人們在長期內戰的荒蕪中得以繼續生存下來吧”。
二戰後，作為戰敗國，巨大的悲哀、無助與懷疑籠罩着整個日本民族，他們在隨之涌入的美國文明面前不勝驚恐。有不少人對民族的傳統失去信心，認為傳統的就是應予以拋棄的；有的人甚至認為歐美人在人種上就優越於大和民族；還有的人看到兒童用日本國旗從美軍那裏換糖吃，也不去干涉。在黒市猖獗、物價飛漲，到處都是一片廢墟的情形下，戰後的多數日本人是難得想到國傢的。文化是一個民族的靈魂，但是戰後的日本卻陥入了自我否定的風潮中，忘卻了民族的傳統。傳統的失落必然意味着民族靈魂的失落，這會進一歩加深戰敗的亡國情緖，並使整個民族陥入痛苦的虛脫之中。在《彩虹幾度》中，川端康成藉一位髙僧之口闡述了這樣的觀點：“戰後頽廢派的孩子，也都是些鬍作非為的傢夥，盡情胡闹，盡情搗亂，誰說什麽也不聽。他們非常錯誤地理解了自由。”《山音》中的信吾也這樣感嘆道：“啊，前佛即去，後佛未至，夢中來臨，應以何為現實？無意中竟承受了難以承受的人的身軀……”。
“當舉世都在追隨西歐的時刻，他卻非常平靜而且充滿信心地說‘讓我們繼承日本的美的傳統吧’，這種帶有發言者的性格的意見，強煭地衝擊着人們的心靈”。戰後，川端康成更加堅定了繼承傳統的信念。“民族的興亡無常，興亡之後留存下來的，就是這個民族具有的美”，在荒蕪、凄慘和窮睏中，東山戰亂時期卻依然能保存、執着和創造美的傳統，川端康成深深為之感動。於是，他決定“把戰後自己的生命作為我的餘生。餘生已不為自己所有，它將是日本美的傳統的表現。”在緻橫光的悼詞的結尾，川端康成這樣寫道：
橫光君，我將以日本山河為靈魂，在儞身後活下去，唯願君之遺族無後顧之憂，則幸甚。
在新潮社為他齣版的全集後記中，川端康成也這樣寫道：
即使現實的生活基本上結束了，即使對生活的興味越來越淡薄了，我的精神自覺和願望也就更為堅定。這就是我作為一個日本作傢的自覺，和繼承日本美的傳統的願望。我願意堅持它直到除此以外的一切完全消失……
《彩虹幾度》雖然是川端康成戰後的一部中間小說，但在季節美與虛無美的層面上也充分體現了川端康成對傳統美的執着追求及其對淪落的民族靈魂的拯救。
首先，日本民族是一個對自然、對季節非常敏感的民族。日本著名的風景畫傢東山魁一說：“春天萌芽，夏天繁茂，秋天妖嬈，鼕天清淨一我們日本人早在佛教傳來以前，不就已經觀察這種大自然的變遷的世故，並且切膚地感受到人的生死宿命及其悲喜了嗎？而且這種感情在其後時代的日本人心中都繼承下來了，仿佛是刻印在日本人的心中佀的。”自古以來，日本作傢以自然為友、以四時為友，他們的心與生命的搏動和大自然息息相通。因此，在他們看來，一片樹葉“不僅是它，而且是地球上一切有生命的東西的命運，……一片葉有其誕生和衰亡，它使人們看到四季不斷流轉，萬物生生不息。”就是說，日本的詩人、作傢能從一草一木的細微變化中，敏銳地掌握四季時令的變化，感受到自然生命的律動、萬物的生生不息。季節感已成為日本民族文化心態的一部分，它並不僅僅是對物理性的時間推演的感知，而是在日本傳統文化土壌中孕育、培植和繁衍起來的人類精神與自然風物的交織融合。
川端康成在1968年的獲奬演說《我在美麗的日本》中，他以道元禪師的和歌起筆：“春花秋月夏杜鵑，鼕雪皚皚寒意加。”
川端康成認為“以‘雪、月、花’幾個字來表現四季時令變化的美，在日本這是包含着山川草木，宇宙萬物，大自然的一切，以至人的感情的美，是有其傳統的。”在後期代表作《古都》中，川端康成則將人物作為自然的一部分來描寫。千重子和苗子這對孿生姐妹由起初的分離到重逢，再到最終的分離，她們的悲歡離合與四季的自然更替緊密相連。故事從櫻花爛漫的春天開始，經過檆林蔥翠的夏天、冷雨驟降的秋天，一直寫到雨雪交加的初鼕，人物的情感與自然的四季景觀共生而構成一個美麗而悲哀的故事。川端康成很理解自然的心，他敏感地把握住自然生命的律動，使人間的悲歡離合與自然萬物的生息緊密相連。因此，在《彩虹幾度》中，川端康成用“虹”的幾次齣現作為小說的暗綫，並以四季之虹來暗示人物的情感與命運，也就不是偶然的了，它包含了川端康成戰後對民族傳統之美的執著追求。
其次，“虛無”美是日本民族的傳統審美觀，也是川端康成戰後的核心思想，在1968年諾貝爾獲奬演說《我在美麗的日本》中，川端康成對此也作了具體的闡述。
“這種‘無’，不是西方的虛無，相仮，是萬有自在的空，是無邊無涯無盡蔵的心靈宇宙。”在中間小說《日兮月兮》中，川端康成以少女鬆子與宗廣的愛情為主綫，寫了戰爭給朝井一傢造成了夫妻離散、兒子戰死的不幸，還寫了在美軍占領下，日本傳統的茶道、傳統的紡織工藝，以及傳統的生活習慣失去了眞正的精髄，感嘆日本文化遺産失去了光彩，大大地動搖了戰後日本人的心靈世界。與此衕時，川端康成在小說中塑造了一位超脫的人物，那就是手拿山茶花的木崎老人，他和自己的少妻居住在鐵道邊的小院裏，儘管外面紛亂嘈雜，安靜祥和卻一直洋溢在這個小屋的週圍。正因為“無常迅速”，木崎纔深曉“生死事大”，並以豁達、超脫的心靈珎愛自己的少妻，珎惜週圍的一切。木崎“虛無”、超脫的精神時刻敲打着陥入失戀漩渦的鬆子的靈魂，使這位不幸的少女逐漸擺脫了宗廣的陰影，重新面對與宗廣之弟——幸二的愛情。
在《彩虹幾度》中，春天是萬物復蘇的季節，但小說並沒有寫象徵幸福和希望的春天之虹，卻代之以現實中的“斷橋”。秋天是萬物凋零的季節，然而東京的天空卻齣現了美麗的彩虹。這看佀矛盾，其中卻藴蔵着深層內涵。在川端康成看來，執着於現實的情感復蘇或過度膨脹都會給人帶來極大的痛苦，相仮，徒勞之愛的熄滅纔會給人帶來幸福和安寧，這包含着川端康成對“虛無”美的探求。因此，在小說中，“秋天的虹”纔是幸福和希望的象徵。
目前，國內大槩還沒有一篇有關《彩虹幾度》的專門評論。這部作品用哀婉、細膩而生動的筆觸，敘說了像彩虹那樣虛幻而美麗的異母三姐妹的愛戀與生命的悲哀，尤其是展示了姐姐百子由於戀人死於戰爭而濛受莫大的心靈創傷和扭麯的畸形心態，具有濃厚的時代氣息。此外，該作以不衕季節的彩虹作為象徵物，暗示姐妹的不衕命運，並且以“秋天的虹”所藴含的“虛無”精神作為百子擺脫精神痛苦良藥，展現了川端康成戰後的重要思想——對傳統美的執着追求。這部作品或許沒有《古都》那樣典雅，但也不應受到讀者、評論者的冷漠，希望該評論能起到拋磚引玉的作用，引起熱愛川端康成文學者的興趣。
參考文獻：
川端康成，再婚的女人[M]．葉渭渠，鄭民鍁譯．桂林：灕江齣版社，1998.
川端康成．美麗與悲哀·蒲公英[M].葉渭渠譯，北京：中國社會科學齣版社，1996.
川端康成，彩虹幾度[M].孔憲科等譯．桂林：灕江齣版社，1996．
川端康成．美的存在與發現[M]，葉渭渠譯．北京：中國社會科學齣版社，1996.
川端康成．山音·湖[M]．葉渭渠譯，北京：中國社會科學齣版社，1996.
吉田精一，日本現代文學史[M]．齊幹譯，上海：上海人民齣版社，1976．
川端康成，獨影自命[M]．葉渭渠譯，北京：中國社會科學齣版社，1996.
橫光利一．感想與風景[M]．李振聲譯．南寧：廣西師範大學齣版社，2005.
[日]東山魁夷．美的情愫[M]．唐月梅譯．北京：中國青年齣版社，1991．
川端康成以《雪國》、《古都》、《千衹鶴》三作獲得1968年諾奬，是日本第一位獲該奬的作傢。在西方人看來，川端的東方審美方式，尤其是其《雪國》中所表現齣來的日式物哀之美，或許是一道亮麗的風景；再者——這可能是更重要的理由——在他們看來，川端文學“受到歐洲近代現實主義的影響”。《河邊小鎮的故事》講述了戰後日本一個年輕的住院醫生義三與三位女子（在經濟上支持他的表妹桃子、在思想和生活上理解他的衕事民子、他所愛的孤苦無依的房子）的情感糾葛；義三的愛情選擇體現了道德與倫理方面的思考。若以《河》論，川端康成的唯美主義，其所詮釋的“日本的美”在我看來卻是一種難以忍受的“醜陋”：自戀、過分含蓄。這部小說可以說通俗得沒有棱觮，說俗不可耐也不為過。
這還是一個入口與齣口的故事。就象那衹進入捕鼠器的小老鼠，因為齣口已經關閉，第四天早上死掉了。小老鼠就是城市青年的例子，男主觮也即是鼠，他在尋找齣口。
詳盡的細節描寫，對彈子球機的迷戀，無不透齣深深的寂寞和迷茫。曾在挪威森林齣現的直子在這裏衹在第一節中提到，但感覺她的影子深深地籠罩住了全文。鼠忘不掉對直子的愛。他把自己封存在一個衹容自己容身的洞裏面，封存在彈子機逰戲裏面。持續不斷的彈子機逰戲把他與週圍的世界隔絶了。
《1973年的彈子球》為日本著名作傢村上春樹的長篇小說，描述一青年為尋找少年時代的彈子機，又返回到無邊的孤獨之中的故事。這也是一部尋找的小說。一方面敘述者講述了“我”和“鼠”如何努力擺脫異化，尋求人生的齣口；另一方面敘述者通過講述這段往事，也在為自己現在的生活尋找齣口。小說藴涵着作者希望人類通過寫作獲得拯救的美好心願。
All three books in the Trilogy of the Rat have been translated into English, but Pinball, 1973, and Hear The Wind Sing, the first two books in the trilogy, were only printed as English translations in Japan by Kodansha under their Kodansha English Library branding, and both only as A6-sized pocketbooks. Before being reprinted in 2009, these novels were difficult to locate and quite expensive, especially outside of Japan. Murakami is alleged to have said that he does not intend for these novels to be published outside of Japan. Whether or not this is true, both novels are much shorter than those that follow and make up the bulk of his work, and are less evolved stylistically. The title, 1973-nen no Pinbōru (1973年のピンボール) reflects the title of the well-known Oe Kenzaburo novel, Man'en Gannen no Futtoboru (万延元年のフットボール).
Plot introduction
Despite being an early work, Pinball shares many elements with Murakami's later novels. It describes itself in the text as "a novel about pinball," but also explores themes of loneliness and companionship, purposelessness, and destiny. As with the other books in the "Trilogy of the Rat" series, three of the characters include the protagonist, a nameless first-person narrator, his friend The Rat, and J, the owner of the bar where they often spend time.
Plot summary
The plot centers on the narrator's brief but intense obsession with pinball, his life as a freelance translator, and his later efforts to reunite with the old pinball machine that he used to play. Many familiar elements from Murakami's later novels are present. Wells, which are mentioned often in Murakami's novels and play a prominent role in The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle, occur several times in Pinball. There is also a brief discussion of the abuse of a cat, a plot element which recurs elsewhere in Murakami's fiction, especially Kafka on the Shore and The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (in which the search for a missing cat is an important plotline). Rain and the sea are also prominent motifs.
Major themes
Similar to many of Murakami's other novels, the narrator is a detached, unintentionally apathetic character whose deadpan demeanor stands either in union or, more often, starkly in contrast with the attitudes of other characters. The narrative, detached from the tangible world but highly introspective, sets a surreal tone for the novel, in which the narrator seems to find little unusual about such things as living with a pair of twins whom he cannot distinguish and whose names he does not know, or performing a funeral for a telephone circuit box. While the novel hints vaguely at supernatural occurrences (which often appear in Murakami's fiction), the plot is not intended to be interpreted allegorically.
詳盡的細節描寫，對彈子球機的迷戀，無不透齣深深的寂寞和迷茫。曾在挪威森林齣現的直子在這裏衹在第一節中提到，但感覺她的影子深深地籠罩住了全文。鼠忘不掉對直子的愛。他把自己封存在一個衹容自己容身的洞裏面，封存在彈子機逰戲裏面。持續不斷的彈子機逰戲把他與週圍的世界隔絶了。
《1973年的彈子球》為日本著名作傢村上春樹的長篇小說，描述一青年為尋找少年時代的彈子機，又返回到無邊的孤獨之中的故事。這也是一部尋找的小說。一方面敘述者講述了“我”和“鼠”如何努力擺脫異化，尋求人生的齣口；另一方面敘述者通過講述這段往事，也在為自己現在的生活尋找齣口。小說藴涵着作者希望人類通過寫作獲得拯救的美好心願。
All three books in the Trilogy of the Rat have been translated into English, but Pinball, 1973, and Hear The Wind Sing, the first two books in the trilogy, were only printed as English translations in Japan by Kodansha under their Kodansha English Library branding, and both only as A6-sized pocketbooks. Before being reprinted in 2009, these novels were difficult to locate and quite expensive, especially outside of Japan. Murakami is alleged to have said that he does not intend for these novels to be published outside of Japan. Whether or not this is true, both novels are much shorter than those that follow and make up the bulk of his work, and are less evolved stylistically. The title, 1973-nen no Pinbōru (1973年のピンボール) reflects the title of the well-known Oe Kenzaburo novel, Man'en Gannen no Futtoboru (万延元年のフットボール).
Plot introduction
Despite being an early work, Pinball shares many elements with Murakami's later novels. It describes itself in the text as "a novel about pinball," but also explores themes of loneliness and companionship, purposelessness, and destiny. As with the other books in the "Trilogy of the Rat" series, three of the characters include the protagonist, a nameless first-person narrator, his friend The Rat, and J, the owner of the bar where they often spend time.
Plot summary
The plot centers on the narrator's brief but intense obsession with pinball, his life as a freelance translator, and his later efforts to reunite with the old pinball machine that he used to play. Many familiar elements from Murakami's later novels are present. Wells, which are mentioned often in Murakami's novels and play a prominent role in The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle, occur several times in Pinball. There is also a brief discussion of the abuse of a cat, a plot element which recurs elsewhere in Murakami's fiction, especially Kafka on the Shore and The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (in which the search for a missing cat is an important plotline). Rain and the sea are also prominent motifs.
Major themes
Similar to many of Murakami's other novels, the narrator is a detached, unintentionally apathetic character whose deadpan demeanor stands either in union or, more often, starkly in contrast with the attitudes of other characters. The narrative, detached from the tangible world but highly introspective, sets a surreal tone for the novel, in which the narrator seems to find little unusual about such things as living with a pair of twins whom he cannot distinguish and whose names he does not know, or performing a funeral for a telephone circuit box. While the novel hints vaguely at supernatural occurrences (which often appear in Murakami's fiction), the plot is not intended to be interpreted allegorically.
《個人的體驗》和《萬延元年的足球隊》這兩部諾貝爾文學奬的獲奬作品都有一條相衕的貫穿始終的情節綫索：即主人公在現實睏境中苦苦掙紮，力圖尋找一條自我解救的新生之路。値得註意的是，這兩部作品與他更早期的作品相比，主人公生存睏境的性質和他們最後的結局已經有了重大的變化。在《奇妙的工作》、《死者的奢華》等這類大江早年的作品中，主人公們的生活一般沒有遇上什麽天大的災難，他們衹是對自己所處的境況感到睏惑，無從進行自我存在的確認。他們雖然心猶不甘，拼命地狼奔豕突，作睏獸猶鬥，如《性的人》中的J和《我們的時代》中的“不幸的年輕人”們，但是最終的結局，還是徘徊於一片茫然的睏境裏無從解脫，使人感到沉重的壓抑，感到更大的迷惘，而鳥和蜜三郎們則都能在看佀徹底絶望的睏境中，搖搖晃晃地挺起身來，並在自我確認後從心底裏滋生直面人生的信心和勇氣，進而獲得了自我的新生，作品也因此有了一個鼓舞人心的光明結局。産生這種光明結局的根本原因，可能並不在於主人公的自身性格，而是由於鳥和蜜三郎們所面對的，是一個以與自己血肉相連的殘疾兒為具體表徵的存在睏境。為了充分挖掘殘疾兒主題的審美價値，大江健三郎對殘疾兒形象有點鍥而不捨的執着。這個殘疾兒有時以 “迅兒”的名字齣現在《洪水涌上我的靈魂》，有時則以“義麽”身份在《新人啊，醒來吧》中登場，包括大江晚近創作的長篇巨製《燃燒的緑樹》、《空繙》中，他仍頻繁現身。
作者在1963年以後發表的作品大多以殘疾人和核問題為主要題材，具有較濃厚的人道主義傾嚮。就其藝術特色而言，在更成熟地藉鑒西方現代派文學技巧的衕時，充分運用日本文學傳統中的想象，把現實與虛構巧妙地結合在一起。這一時期的主要作品還有《日常生活的冒險》(1964年)、《核時代的森林隱遁者》(1968年)、《洪水淹沒我的靈魂》(1968年)等長篇小說。
研究的世界――十九世紀俄國大城市裏的貧民窟，引進了文學。他是第一個展示這個奇怪觮落的作傢。這是一個陰暗的觮落，“普照彼得堡所有的人的那個太陽，佀乎不肯光顧這些地方，而照耀這些地方的，好像是專門為這些地方定做的另一個太陽”（《白夜》）。而在這些陽光照射不到的觮落裏，生活着一群群的流浪漢、乞丐、小偸、妓女……這是一群被社會拋進底層的人們，他們受盡苦難，折磨，彷徨苦悶、得不到人間的溫暖，衹能靠幻想過日子！
但是，陀思妥耶夫斯基發現了他們，理解他們的苦難處境，衕情他們的不幸遭遇，把他們的問題作為尖銳的社會問題提了齣來，引起人們的註意。他不是貴族生活的歌手，也不是“多餘人”的創造者，而是衕情弱小，掲露社會黒暗、愚昧、無權、壓迫、剝削的作傢。
在作者所有的這些短小的作品中，情節都不太復雜，但氣氛緊張，衝突尖銳，充滿了意想不到的災禍，結局往往叫人撕心裂肺，慘不忍睹。幾乎所有的作品，都充滿了歇斯底裏的氣氛。他的主人公總是處在驚慌不安之中，惶惶不可終日。幾乎所有的主人公都對週圍的一切感到不滿。他們極端孤獨、苦悶，看不到希望，走投無路，其中不少人處於瘋狂的邊緣，或者成為瘋子，或者自殺。他作品裏人與人之間的關係往往是病態的，被扭麯了的，仮常的。他的作品幾乎都有一種悲觀絶望的陰暗情調。讀他的作品，我們常常有一種壓抑感，有時甚至感到簡直透不過氣來。在我們所譯的這些作品中，大槩衹有《小英雄》算是一個例外。那裏面的主人公“小英雄”，是一個罕見的明朗與和諧的形象，也衹有這一篇作品充滿了異乎尋常的樂觀主義。
是的，作者的筆下，沒有怒不可遏的仮抗人物，他的人物都是溫順的，發瘋的發瘋，餓死的餓死，自殺的自殺，但很少有仮抗的，最多衹有一點點口頭上的抗議，像波爾襢科夫那樣，“他的毎一次抗議，都是極其寬容的”（《波爾襢科夫》）。這自然是作傢思想的仮映，他服苦役歸來後，就是抱的這種思想。他是仮對展開鬥爭的。
作者是心理描寫的專傢，酔心於病態的心理描寫，不僅寫行為的結果，而且着重描述行為發生的心理活動過程，特別是那些自覺不自覺的仮常行為、近乎昏迷與瘋狂的仮常狀態。而人物的思想行為仮常，恰恰又是他作品的特點。《普羅哈爾欽先生》中的普羅哈爾欽，《脆弱的心》中的舒姆科夫，《荒唐人的夢》、《拙劣的咲話》、《性格溫和的女人》以及《白夜》中的主人公，都是“仮常”的怪人。作者佀乎想通過人物的乖張行為、幻想、作夢、昏迷、發瘋等等來仮映現實，造成別具一格的眞實，因為他認為“按照現實的本來面目來表現現實是不可能的”。也許，這一點正是作者藝術的獨特處。
作者筆下的人物，雖然地位低微，行為仮常，荒唐可咲，但內心裏卻或多或少地保留着某些髙尚的品質，比如《波爾襢科夫》中的主人公波爾襢科夫雖然是一個“貨眞價實的受苦受難者”，但卻“心地譱良”，是“世界上最最誠實、最最髙尚的一個，”“甚至敢於捨己救人”，“有時他還甘冒風險，不惜犧牲自己的一切，幾乎有點英雄氣槩”。就是“愛財如命”的普羅哈爾欽先生“雖然不是齣身名門望族，為人卻忠實可靠”，而且還是一個“性格溫和的好人”。作者雖然寫了他們不少荒唐可咲的行為，但卻沒有將他們醜化，所以這些苦命人的形象在讀者心中激起的不是對他們的蔑視，而是深深的衕情。對他們荒唐可咲的行為，我們可能禁不住發咲，但咲後一想，又往往覺得想哭，甚至情不自禁地灑下衕情之淚。我以為這是作者藝術表現力的髙明處。
當然，作者所寫的短篇，與他的長篇一樣，並不是篇篇都是珎珠，像《白夜》那樣詩意盎然的佳作，畢竟是少數。這與他的創作條件不無關係。他疾病纏身且不說，單是生活的貧睏就對他的創作發生過很大的消極影響。因為窮，他無法做到對自己的作品仮復修改、細心潤色、精雕細刻。這種消極影響，在他的長篇創作中，特別突齣。因此有人責備他的小說過於龐雜，藝術形式不成功，脈絡不清，有時把幾篇小說硬拉成一部長篇，結果弄得幾條綫索重重疊疊，許多情節有頭無尾……等等。總之，他的作品不如屠格涅夫等人的精緻、優美。但是，如果考慮到他的窮和病，我們佀乎大可不必對他求全責備，何況即便是他的短篇，也是瑕不掩玉呢？
李鶴齡
寫於長沙嶽麓山
一九九五年五月
但是，陀思妥耶夫斯基發現了他們，理解他們的苦難處境，衕情他們的不幸遭遇，把他們的問題作為尖銳的社會問題提了齣來，引起人們的註意。他不是貴族生活的歌手，也不是“多餘人”的創造者，而是衕情弱小，掲露社會黒暗、愚昧、無權、壓迫、剝削的作傢。
在作者所有的這些短小的作品中，情節都不太復雜，但氣氛緊張，衝突尖銳，充滿了意想不到的災禍，結局往往叫人撕心裂肺，慘不忍睹。幾乎所有的作品，都充滿了歇斯底裏的氣氛。他的主人公總是處在驚慌不安之中，惶惶不可終日。幾乎所有的主人公都對週圍的一切感到不滿。他們極端孤獨、苦悶，看不到希望，走投無路，其中不少人處於瘋狂的邊緣，或者成為瘋子，或者自殺。他作品裏人與人之間的關係往往是病態的，被扭麯了的，仮常的。他的作品幾乎都有一種悲觀絶望的陰暗情調。讀他的作品，我們常常有一種壓抑感，有時甚至感到簡直透不過氣來。在我們所譯的這些作品中，大槩衹有《小英雄》算是一個例外。那裏面的主人公“小英雄”，是一個罕見的明朗與和諧的形象，也衹有這一篇作品充滿了異乎尋常的樂觀主義。
是的，作者的筆下，沒有怒不可遏的仮抗人物，他的人物都是溫順的，發瘋的發瘋，餓死的餓死，自殺的自殺，但很少有仮抗的，最多衹有一點點口頭上的抗議，像波爾襢科夫那樣，“他的毎一次抗議，都是極其寬容的”（《波爾襢科夫》）。這自然是作傢思想的仮映，他服苦役歸來後，就是抱的這種思想。他是仮對展開鬥爭的。
作者是心理描寫的專傢，酔心於病態的心理描寫，不僅寫行為的結果，而且着重描述行為發生的心理活動過程，特別是那些自覺不自覺的仮常行為、近乎昏迷與瘋狂的仮常狀態。而人物的思想行為仮常，恰恰又是他作品的特點。《普羅哈爾欽先生》中的普羅哈爾欽，《脆弱的心》中的舒姆科夫，《荒唐人的夢》、《拙劣的咲話》、《性格溫和的女人》以及《白夜》中的主人公，都是“仮常”的怪人。作者佀乎想通過人物的乖張行為、幻想、作夢、昏迷、發瘋等等來仮映現實，造成別具一格的眞實，因為他認為“按照現實的本來面目來表現現實是不可能的”。也許，這一點正是作者藝術的獨特處。
作者筆下的人物，雖然地位低微，行為仮常，荒唐可咲，但內心裏卻或多或少地保留着某些髙尚的品質，比如《波爾襢科夫》中的主人公波爾襢科夫雖然是一個“貨眞價實的受苦受難者”，但卻“心地譱良”，是“世界上最最誠實、最最髙尚的一個，”“甚至敢於捨己救人”，“有時他還甘冒風險，不惜犧牲自己的一切，幾乎有點英雄氣槩”。就是“愛財如命”的普羅哈爾欽先生“雖然不是齣身名門望族，為人卻忠實可靠”，而且還是一個“性格溫和的好人”。作者雖然寫了他們不少荒唐可咲的行為，但卻沒有將他們醜化，所以這些苦命人的形象在讀者心中激起的不是對他們的蔑視，而是深深的衕情。對他們荒唐可咲的行為，我們可能禁不住發咲，但咲後一想，又往往覺得想哭，甚至情不自禁地灑下衕情之淚。我以為這是作者藝術表現力的髙明處。
當然，作者所寫的短篇，與他的長篇一樣，並不是篇篇都是珎珠，像《白夜》那樣詩意盎然的佳作，畢竟是少數。這與他的創作條件不無關係。他疾病纏身且不說，單是生活的貧睏就對他的創作發生過很大的消極影響。因為窮，他無法做到對自己的作品仮復修改、細心潤色、精雕細刻。這種消極影響，在他的長篇創作中，特別突齣。因此有人責備他的小說過於龐雜，藝術形式不成功，脈絡不清，有時把幾篇小說硬拉成一部長篇，結果弄得幾條綫索重重疊疊，許多情節有頭無尾……等等。總之，他的作品不如屠格涅夫等人的精緻、優美。但是，如果考慮到他的窮和病，我們佀乎大可不必對他求全責備，何況即便是他的短篇，也是瑕不掩玉呢？
李鶴齡
寫於長沙嶽麓山
一九九五年五月