首页>> 文学论坛>>让·雅各·卢梭 Jean-Jacques Rousseau
  在历史上多得难以数计的自传作品中,真正有文学价值的显然并不多,而成为文学名著的则更少。至于以其思想、艺术和风格上的重要意义而奠定了撰写者的文学地位——不是一个普通的文学席位,而是长久地受人景仰的崇高地位的,也许只有《忏悔录》了。让-雅克·卢梭这个不论在社会政治思想上,在文学内容、风格和情调上都开辟了一个新的时代的人物,主要就是通过这部自传推动和启发了十九世纪的法国文学,使它——用当时很有权威的一位批评家的话来说——“获得最大的进步”、“自巴斯喀以来最大的革命”,这位批评家谦虚地承认:“我们十九世纪的人就是从这次革命里出来的”。  
  写自传总是在晚年,一般都是在功成名就、忧患已成过去的时候,然而对于卢梭来说,他这写自传的晚年是怎样的一个晚年啊!
  一七六二年,他五十岁,刊印他的著作的书商,阿姆斯特丹的马尔克-米谢尔·雷伊,建议他写一部自传。毫无疑问,象他这样一个平民出身、走过了漫长的坎坷的道路、通过自学和个人奋斗居然成为知识界的巨子、名声传遍整个法国的人物,的确最宜于写自传作品了,何况在他的生活经历中还充满了五光十色和戏剧性。但卢梭并没有接受这个建议,显然是因为自传将会牵涉到一些当时的人和事,而卢梭是不愿意这样做的。情况到《爱弥儿》出版后有了变化,大理院下令焚烧这部触怒了封建统治阶级的作品,并要逮捕作者,从此,他被当作“疯子”、“野蛮人”而遭到紧追不舍的迫害,开始了逃亡的生活。他逃到瑞士,瑞士当局也下令烧他的书,他逃到普鲁士的属地莫蒂亚,教会发表文告宣布他是上帝的敌人,他没法继续呆下去,又流亡到圣彼得岛。对他来说,官方的判决和教会的谴责已经是够严酷的了,更沉重的一击又接障而来:一七六五年出现了一本题名为《公民们的感情》的小册子,对卢梭的个人生活和人品进行了攻击,令人痛心的是,这一攻击并不是来自敌人的营垒,而显然是友军之所为。卢梭眼见自己有被抹得漆黑、成为一个千古罪人的危险,迫切感到有为自己辩护的必要,于是在这一年,当他流亡在莫蒂亚的时候,他怀着悲愤的心情开始写他的自传。
  整个自传是在颠沛流离的逃亡生活中断断续续完成的。在莫蒂埃和皮埃尔岛时,他仅仅写了第一章,逃到英国的武通后,他完成了第一章到第五章前半部分,第五章到第六章则是他回到法国后,一七六七年住在特利堡时完成的,这就是《忏悔录》的第一部。经过两年的中断,他于一七六九年又开始写自传的第七章至第十二章,即《忏悔录》的第二部,其中大部分是他逃避在外省的期间写出来的,只有末尾一章完成于他回到了巴黎之后,最后“竣工”的日期是一七七年十一月。此后,他在孤独和不幸中活了将近八年,继续写了自传的续篇《一个孤独的散步者的梦想》。
  《忏悔录》就是卢梭悲惨的晚年的产物,如果要举出他那些不幸岁月中最重要的、甚至是唯一的内容,那就是这一部掺合着辛酸的书了。这样一部在残酷迫害下写成的自传,一部在四面受敌的情况下为自己的存在辩护的自传,怎么会不充满一种逼人的悲愤?它那著名的开篇,一下子就显出了这种悲愤所具有的震撼人心的力量: 这是世界上绝无仅有、也许永远不会再有的一幅完全依照本来面目和全部事实描绘出来的人像。不管你是谁,只要我的命运或我的信任使你成为这本书的裁判人,那么我将为了我的苦难,仗着你的恻隐之心,并以全人类的名义恳求你,不要抹煞这部有用的独特的著作,它可以作为关于人的研究——这门学问无疑尚有待于创建——的第一份参考材料;也不要为了照顾我身后的名声,埋没这部关于我的末被敌人歪曲的性格的唯一可靠记载。最后,即使你曾经是我的一个不共戴天的敌人,也请你对我的遗骸不要抱任何敌意,不要把你的残酷无情的不公正行为坚持到你我都已不复生存的时代,这样,你至少能够有一次高贵的表现,即当你本来可以凶狠地进行报复时,你却表现得宽宏大量;如果说,加害于一个从来不曾或不愿伤害别人的人,也可以称之为报复的话。
  
  作者简介
  让-雅克·卢梭
  卢梭面对着种种谴责和污蔑、中伤和曲解,自信他比那些迫害和攻击他的大人先生、正人君子们来得高尚纯洁、诚实自然,一开始就向自己的时代社会提出了勇敢的挑战:“不管末日审判的号角什么时候吹响。我都敢拿着这本书走到至高无上的审判者面前,果敢地大声说:‘请看!这就是我所做过的,这就是我所想过的,我当时就是那样的人……请你把那无数的众生叫到我跟前来!让他们听听我的忏悔……然后,让他们每一个人在您的宝座前面,同样真诚地披露自己的心灵,看有谁敢于对您说:我比这个人好,’”
  这定下了全书的论辩和对抗的基调。在这对抗的基调后面,显然有着一种激烈的冲突,即卢梭与社会的冲突,这种冲突决不是产生于偶然的事件和纠葛,而是有着深刻的社会阶级根由的。
  卢梭这一个钟表匠的儿子,从民主政体的日内瓦走到封建专制主义之都巴黎,从下层人民中走进了法兰西思想界,象他这样一个身上带着尘土、经常衣食无着的流浪汉,和整个贵族上流社会当然是两个不同的世界,即使和同一营垒的其他启蒙思想家孟德斯鸠、伏尔泰、狄德罗也有很大的不同。孟德斯鸠作为一个拥有自己的庄园、同时经营工商业的穿袍贵族,一生过着安逸的生活;伏尔泰本人就是一个大资产者,家有万贯之财,一直是在社会上层活动;狄德罗也是出身于富裕的家庭,他虽然也过过清贫的日子,毕竟没有卢梭那种直接来自社会底层的经历。卢梭当过学徒、仆人、伙计、随从,象乞丐一样进过收容所,只是在经过长期勤奋的自学和个人奋斗之后,才逐渐脱掉听差的号衣,成了音乐教师、秘书、职业作家。这就使他有条件把这个阶层的情绪、愿望和精神带进十八世纪的文学。他第一篇引起全法兰西瞩目的论文《论科学与艺术》(1750)中那种对封建文明一笔否定的勇气,那种敢于反对“人人尊敬的事物”的战斗精神和傲视传统观念的叛逆态度,不正反映了社会下层那种激烈的情绪?奠定了他在整个欧洲思想史上崇高地位的《论人类不平等的起源和基础》(1775)和《民约论》(1762)对社会不平等和奴役的批判,对平等、自由的歌颂,对“主权在民”原则的宣传,不正体现了十八世纪平民阶层在政治上的要求和理想?他那使得“洛阳纸贵”的小说《新爱洛伊丝》又通过一个爱情悲剧为优秀的平民人物争基本人权,而带给他悲惨命运的《爱弥儿》则把平民劳动者当作人的理想。因此,当卢梭登上了十八世纪思想文化的历史舞台的时候,他也就填补了那个在历史上长期空着的平民思想家的席位。
  但卢梭所生活的时代社会,对一个平民思想家来说,是完全敌对的。从他开始发表第一篇论文的五十年代到他完成《忏悔录》的七十年代,正是法国封建专制主义最后挣扎的时期,他逝世后十一年就爆发了资产阶级革命。这个时期,有几百年历史的封建主义统治已经到了山穷水尽的境地。长期以来,封建生产关系所固有的矛盾、沉重的封建压榨已经使得民不聊生,农业生产低落;对新教徒的宗教迫害驱使大量熟练工匠外流,导致了工商业的凋敝;路易十四晚年一连串对外战争和宫廷生活的奢侈浪费又使国库空虚;路易十五醉生梦死的荒淫更把封建国家推到了全面破产的边缘,以致到路易十六的时候,某些改良主义的尝试也无法挽救必然毁灭的命运了。这最后的年代是腐朽、疯狂的年代,封建贵族统治阶级愈是即将灭顶,愈是顽固地要维护自己的特权和统治。杜尔果当上财政总监后,提出了一些旨在挽救危机的改良主义措施,因而触犯了贵族特权阶级的利益,很快就被赶下了台。他的继任者内克仅仅把宫廷庞大的开支公之于众,触怒了宫廷权贵,也遭到免职。既然自上而下的旨在维护封建统治根本利益的改良主义也不为特权阶级所容许,那么,自下而上的反对和对抗当然更要受到镇压。封建专制主义的鼎盛虽然已经一去不复返,但专制主义的淫威这时并不稍减。伏尔泰和狄德罗都进过监狱,受过迫害。这是十八世纪思想家的命运和标志。等待着思想家卢梭的,就正是这种社会的和阶级的必然性,何况这个来自民间的人物,思想更为激烈,态度更为孤傲:他居然拒绝国王的接见和赐给年金;他竟然表示厌恶巴黎的繁华和上流社会的奢侈;他还胆敢对“高贵的等级”进行如此激烈的指责:“贵族,这在一个国家里只不过是有害而无用的特权,你们如此夸耀的贵族头衔有什么可令人尊敬的?你们贵族阶级对祖国的光荣、人类的幸福有什么贡献!你们是法律和自由的死敌,凡是在贵族阶级显赫不可一世的国家,除了专制的暴力和对人民的压迫以外还有什么?”
  
  著作内容梗概与浅析
  《忏海录》就是这样一个激进的平民思想家与反动统治激烈冲突的结果。它是一个平民知识分子在封建专制压迫面前维护自己不仅是作为一个人、更重要的是作为一个普通人的人权和尊严的作品,是对统治阶级迫害和污蔑的反击。它首先使我们感到可贵的是,其中充满了平民的自信、自重和骄傲,总之,一种高昂的平民精神。
  由于作者的经历,他有条件在这部自传里展示一个平民的世界,使我们看到十八世纪的女仆、听差、农民、小店主、下层知识分子以及卢梭自己的平民家族:钟表匠、技师、小资产阶级妇女。把这样多的平民形象带进十八世纪文学,在卢梭之前只有勒·萨日。但勒·萨日在《吉尔·布拉斯》中往往只是把这些人物当作不断蔓延的故事情节的一部分,限于描写他们的外部形象。卢梭在《忏悔录》中则完全不同,他所注重的是这些平民人物的思想感情、品质、人格和性格特点,虽然《忏悔录》对这些人物的形貌的描写是很不充分的,但却足以使读者了解十八世纪这个阶层的精神状况、道德水平、爱好与兴趣、愿望与追求。在这里,卢梭致力于发掘平民的精神境界中一切有价值的东西:自然淳朴的人性、值得赞美的道德情操、出色的聪明才智和健康的生活趣味等等。他把他平民家庭中那亲切宁静的柔情描写得多么动人啊,使它在那冰冷无情的社会大海的背景上,象是一个始终召唤着他的温情之岛。他笔下的农民都是一些朴实的形象,特别是那个冒着被税吏发见后就会被逼得破产的拿出丰盛食物款待他的农民,表现了多么高贵的慷慨;他遇到的那个小店主是那么忠厚和富有同情心,竟允许一个素不相识的流浪者在他店里骗吃了一顿饭;他亲密的伙伴、华伦夫人的男仆阿奈不仅人格高尚,而且有广博的学识和出色的才干;此外,还有“善良的小伙子”平民乐师勒·麦特尔、他的少年流浪汉朋友 “聪明的巴克勒”、可怜的女仆“和善、聪明和绝对诚实的”玛丽永,他们在那恶浊的社会环境里也都发散出了清新的气息,使卢梭对他们一直保持着美好的记忆。另一方面,卢梭又以不加掩饰的厌恶和鄙视追述了他所遇见的统治阶级和上流社会中的各种人物:“羹匙”贵族的后裔德·彭维尔先生“不是个有德的人”;首席法官西蒙先生是“一个不断向贵妇们献殷勤的小猴子”;教会人物几乎都有“伪善或厚颜无耻的丑态”,其中还有不少淫邪的色情狂;贵妇人的习气是轻浮和寡廉鲜耻,有的“名声很坏”;至于巴黎的权贵,无不道德沦丧、性情刁钻、伪善阴险。在卢梭的眼里,平民的世界远比上流社会来得高尚、优越。早在第一篇论文中,他就进行过这样的对比:“只有在庄稼人的粗布衣服下面,而不是在廷臣的绣金衣服下面,才能发现有力的身躯。装饰与德行是格格不入的,因为德行是灵魂的力量。”这种对“布衣”的崇尚,对权贵的贬责,在《忏悔录》里又有了再一次的发挥,他这样总结说:“为什么我年轻的时候遇到了这样多的好人,到我年纪大了的时候,好人就那样少了呢?是好人绝种了吗?不是的,这是由于我今天需要找好人的社会阶层已经不再是我当年遇到好人的那个社会阶层了。在一般平民中间,虽然只偶尔流露热情,但自然情感却是随时可以见到的。在上流社会中,则连这种自然情感也完全窒息了。他们在情感的幌子下,只受利益或虚荣心的支配。”卢梭自传中强烈的平民精神,使他在文学史上获得了他所独有的特色,法国人自己说得好:“没有一个作家象卢梭这样善于把穷人表现得卓越不凡。”
  当然,《忏悔录》中那种平民的自信和骄傲,主要还是表现在卢梭对自我形象的描绘上。尽管卢梭受到了种种责难和攻击,但他深信在自己的“布衣”之下,比“廷臣的绣金衣服”下面更有“灵魂”和“力量”。在我们看来,实际上也的确如此。他在那个充满了虚荣的社会里,敢于公开表示自己对于下层、对于平民的深情,不以自己“低贱”的出身、不以他过去的贫寒困顿为耻,而宣布那是他的幸福年代,他把淳朴自然视为自己贫贱生活中最可宝贵的财富,他骄傲地展示自己生活中那些为高贵者的生活所不具有的健康的、闪光的东西以及他在贫贱生活中所获得、所保持着的那种精神上、节操上的丰采。
  他告诉读者,他从自己那充满真挚温情的平民家庭中获得了“一颗多情的心”,虽然他把这视为“一生不幸的根源”,但一直以他“温柔多情”、具有真情实感而自豪;他又从“淳朴的农村生活”中得到了“不可估量的好处”,“心里豁然开朗,懂得了友情”,虽然他后来也做过不够朋友的事,但更多的时候是在友情与功利之间选择了前者,甚至为了和流浪少年巴克勒的友谊而高唱着“再见吧,都城,再见吧,宫廷、野心、虚荣心,再见吧,爱情和美人”,离开了为他提供“飞黄腾达” 的机遇的古丰伯爵。
  他过着贫穷的生活,却有自己丰富的精神世界。他很早就对读书“有一种罕有的兴趣”,即使是在当学徒的时候,也甘冒受惩罚的危险而坚持读书,甚至为了得到书籍而当掉了自己的衬衫和领带。他博览群书,从古希腊、罗马的经典著作一直到当代的启蒙论著,从文学、历史一直到自然科学读物,长期的读书生活唤起了他“更高尚的感情”,形成了他高出于上层阶级的精神境界。
  他热爱知识,有着令人敬佩的好学精神,他学习勤奋刻苦,表现出“难以置信的毅力”。在流浪中,他坚持不懈;疾病缠身时,他也没有中断;“死亡的逼近不但没有削弱我研究学问的兴趣,似乎反而更使我兴致勃勃地研究起学问来”。他为获得更多的知识,总是最大限度地利用他的时间,劳动的时候背诵,散步的时候构思。经过长期的努力,他在数学、天文学、历史、地理、哲学和音乐等各个领域积累了广博的学识,为自己创造了作为一个思想家、一个文化巨人所必须具备的条件。他富有进取精神,学会了音乐基本理论,又进一步尝试作曲,读了伏尔泰的作品,又产生了“要学会用优雅的风格写文章的愿望”;他这样艰苦地攀登,终于达到当代文化的高峰。
  他生活在充满虚荣和奢侈的社会环境中,却保持了清高的态度,把贫富置之度外,“一生中的任何时候,从没有过因为考虑贫富问题而令我心花怒放或忧心忡仲。” 他比那些庸人高出许多倍,不爱慕荣华富贵,不追求显赫闻达,“在那一生难忘的坎坷不平和变化无常的遭遇中”,也“始终不变”。巴黎“一切真正富丽堂皇的情景”使他反感,他成名之后,也“不愿意在这个都市长久居住下去”,他之所以在这里居住了一个时期,“只不过是利用我的逗留来寻求怎样能够远离此地而生活下去的手段而已。”他在恶浊的社会环境中,虽不能完全做到出污泥而不染,但在关键的时刻,在重大的问题上,却难能可贵地表现出高尚的节操。他因为自己“人格高尚,决不想用卑鄙手段去发财”,而抛掉了当讼棍的前程,宫廷演出他的歌舞剧《乡村卜师》时邀他出席,他故意不修边幅以示怠慢,显出“布衣”的本色,国王要接见并赐给他年金,他为了洁身自好,保持人格独立而不去接受。
  他处于反动黑暗的封建统治之下,却具有“倔强豪迈以及不肯受束缚受奴役的性格”,敢于“在巴黎成为专制君主政体的反对者和坚定的共和派”。他眼见“不幸的人民遭受痛苦”,“对压迫他们的人”又充满了“不可遏制的痛恨”,他鼓吹自由,反对奴役,宣称“无论在什么事情上,约束、屈从都是我不能忍受的”。他虽然反对法国的封建专制,并且在这个国家里受到了“政府、法官、作家联合在一起的疯狂攻击”,但他对法兰西的历史文化始终怀着深厚的感情,对法兰西民族寄予了坚强的信念,深信“有一天他们会把我从苦恼的羁绊中解救出来”。
  十八世纪贵族社会是一片淫靡之风,卢梭与那种寡廉鲜耻、耽于肉欲的享乐生活划清了界线。他把妇女当作一种美来加以赞赏,当作一种施以温情的对象,而不是玩弄和占有的对象。他对爱情也表示了全新的理解,他崇尚男女之间真诚深挚的情感,特别重视感情的高尚和纯洁,认为彼此之间的关系应该是这样的:“它不是基于情欲、性别、年龄、容貌,而是基于人之所以为人的那一切,除非死亡,就绝不能丧失的那一切”,也就是说,应该包含着人类一切美好高尚的东西。他在生活中追求的是一种深挚、持久、超乎功利和肉欲的柔情,有时甚至近乎天真无邪、纯洁透明,他恋爱的时候,感情丰富而热烈,同时又对对方保持着爱护、尊重和体贴。他与华伦夫人长期过着一种纯净的爱情生活,那种诚挚的性质在十八世纪的社会生活中是很难见到的。他与葛莱芬丽小姐和加蕾小姐的一段邂逅,是多么充满稚气而又散发出迷人的青春的气息!他与巴西勒太太之间的一段感情又是那样温馨而又洁净无瑕!他与年轻姑娘麦尔赛莱一道作了长途旅行,始终“坐怀不乱”。他有时也成为情欲的奴隶而逢场作戏,但不久就出于道德感而抛弃了这种游戏。
  他与封建贵族阶级对奢侈豪华、繁文缛节的爱好完全相反,保持着健康的、美好的生活趣味。他热爱音乐,喜欢唱歌,抄乐谱既是他谋生的手段,也是他寄托精神之所在,举办音乐会,更是他生活中的乐趣。他对优美的曲调是那么动心,童年时听到的曲调清新的民间歌谣一直使他悠然神往,当他已经是一个“饱受焦虑和苦痛折磨”的老人,有时还“用颤巍巍的破嗓音哼着这些小调”,“怎么也不能一气唱到底而不被自己的眼泪打断”。他对绘画也有热烈的兴趣,“可以在画笔和铅笔之间一连呆上几个月不出门”。他还喜欢喂鸽养蜂,和这些有益的动物亲切地相处,喜欢在葡萄熟了的时候到田园里去分享农人收获的愉快。他是法国文学中最早对大自然表示深沉的热爱的作家。他到一处住下,就关心窗外是否有“一片田野的绿色”;逢到景色美丽的黎明,就赶快跑到野外去观看日出。他为了到洛桑去欣赏美丽的湖水,不惜绕道而行,即使旅费短缺。他也是最善于感受大自然之美的鉴赏家,优美的夜景就足以使他忘掉餐风宿露的困苦了。他是文学中徒步旅行的发明者,喜欢 “在天朗气清的日子里,不慌不忙地在景色宜人的地方信步而行”,在这种旅行中享受着“田野的风光,接连不断的秀丽景色,清新的空气,由于步行而带来的良好食欲和饱满精神……”
  《忏悔录》就这样呈现出一个淳朴自然、丰富多彩、朝气蓬勃的平民形象。正因为这个平民本身是一个代表人物,构成了十八世纪思想文化领域里一个重大的社会现象,所以《忏悔录》无疑是十八世纪历史中极为重要的思想材料。它使后人看到了一个思想家的成长、发展和内心世界,看到一个站在正面指导时代潮流的历史人物所具有的强有力的方面和他精神上、道德上所发出的某种诗意的光辉。这种力量和光辉最终当然来自这个形象所代表的下层人民和他所体现的历史前进的方向。总之,是政治上、思想上、道德上的反封建性质决定了《忏悔录》和其中卢梭自我形象的积极意义,决定了它们在思想发展史上、文学史上的重要价值。
  假如卢梭对自我形象的描述仅止于以上这些,后人对他也可以满足了,无权提出更多的要求。它们作为十八世纪反封建的思想材料不是已经相当够了吗?不是已经具有社会阶级的意义并足以与蒙田在《随感集》中对自己的描写具有同等的价值吗?但是,卢梭做得比这更多,走得更远,他远远超过了蒙田,他的《忏悔录》有着更为复杂得多的内容。
  卢梭在《忏悔录》的另一个稿本中,曾经批评了过去写自传的人“总是要把自己乔装打扮一番,名为自述,实为自赞,把自己写成他所希望的那样,而不是他实际上的那样”。十六世纪的大散文家蒙田在《随感集》中不就是这样吗?虽然也讲了自己的缺点,却把它们写得相当可爱。卢俊对蒙田颇不以为然,他针锋相对地提出了一个哲理性的警句:“没有可憎的缺点的人是没有的。”这既是他对人的一种看法,也是他对自己的一种认识。认识这一点并不太困难,但要公开承认自己也是“有可憎的缺点”,特别是敢于把这种“可憎的缺点”披露出来,却需要绝大的勇气。人贵有自知之明、严于解剖自己,至今不仍是一种令人敬佩的美德吗?显然,在卢梭之前,文学史上还没有出现过这样一个有勇气的作家,于是,卢梭以藐视前人的自豪,在《忏悔录》的第一段就这样宣布:“我现在要做一项既无先例、将来也不会有人仿效的艰巨工作。我要把一个人的真实面目赤裸裸地揭露在世人面前。这个人就是我。”
  卢梭实践了他自己的这一诺言,他在《忏悔录》中的确以真诚坦率的态度讲述了他自己的全部生活和思想感情、性格人品的各个方面,“既没有隐瞒丝毫坏事,也没有增添任何好事……当时我是卑鄙龌龊的,就写我的卑鄙龌龊;当时我是善良忠厚、道德高尚的,就写我的善良忠厚和道德高尚”。他大胆地把自己不能见人的隐私公之于众,他承认自己在这种或那种情况下产生过一些卑劣的念头,甚至有过下流的行径。他说过谎,行过骗,调戏过妇女,偷过东西,甚至有偷窃的习惯。他以沉重的心情忏悔自己在一次偷窃后把罪过转嫁到女仆玛丽永的头上,造成了她的不幸,忏悔自己在关键时刻卑劣地抛弃了最需要他的朋友勒·麦特尔,忏悔自己为了混一口饭吃而背叛了自己的新教信仰,改奉了天主教。应该承认,《忏悔录》的坦率和真诚达到了令人想象不到的程度,这使它成了文学史上的一部奇书。在这里,作者的自我形象并不只是发射出理想的光辉,也不只是裹在意识形态的诗意里,而是呈现出了惊人的真实。在他身上,既有崇高优美,也有卑劣丑恶,既有坚强和力量,也有软弱和怯懦,既有朴实真诚,也有弄虚作假,既有精神和道德的美,也有某种市并无赖的习气。总之。这不是为了要享受历史的光荣而绘制出来的涂满了油彩的画像,而是一个活生生的复杂的个人。这个自我形象的复杂性就是《忏悔录》的复杂性,同时也是《忏悔录》另具一种价值的原因。这种价值不仅在于它写出了惊人的人性的真实,是历史上第一部这样真实的自传,提供了非常宝贵的、用卢梭自己的话来说,“可以作为关于人的研究——这门学问无疑尚有待于创建——的第一份参考材料;”而且它的价值还在于,作者之所以这样做,是有着深刻的思想动机和哲理作为指导的。
  卢梭追求绝对的真实,把自己的缺点和过错完全暴露出来,最直接的动机和意图,显然是要阐述他那著名的哲理:人性本善,但罪恶的社会环境却使人变坏。他现身说法,讲述自己“本性善良”、家庭环境充满柔情,古代历史人物又给了他崇高的思想,“我本来可以听从自己的性格,在我的宗教、我的故乡、我的家庭、我的朋友间,在我所喜爱的工作中,在称心如意的交际中,平平静静、安安逸逸地度过自己的一生。我将会成为善良的基督教徒、善良的公民、善良的家长、善良的朋友、善良的劳动者。”但社会环境的恶浊,人与人之间关系的不平等,却使他也受到了沾染,以至在这写自传的晚年还有那么多揪心的悔恨。他特别指出了社会不平等的危害,在这里,他又一次表现了他在《论人类不平等的起源和基础》中的思想,把社会生活中的不平等视为正常人性的对立面,并力图通过他自己的经历,揭示出这种不平等对人性的摧残和歪曲。他是如何“从崇高的英雄主义堕落为卑鄙的市并无赖”呢?正是他所遇到的不平等、不公正的待遇,正是“强者”的“暴虐专横”, “摧残了我那温柔多情、天真活泼的性格”,并“使我染上自己痛恨的一些恶习,诸如撒谎、怠惰、偷窃等等”。以偷窃而言,它就是社会不平等在卢梭身上造成的恶果。卢梭提出一个问题:如果人是处于一种“平等、无忧无虑的状态”中,“所希望的又可以得到满足的话”,那么又怎么会有偷窃呢?既然“作恶的强者逍遥法外,无辜的弱者遭殃,普天下皆是如此”,那么怎么能够制止偷窃的罪行呢?对弱者的惩罚不仅无济于事,反而更激起反抗,卢梭在自己小偷小摸被发现后经常挨打,“渐渐对挨打也就不在乎了”,甚至“觉得这是抵消偷窃罪行的一种方式,我倒有了继续偷窃的权利了……我心里想,既然按小偷来治我,那就等于认可我作小偷”。卢梭在通过自己的经历来分析不平等的弊害时,又用同样的方法来揭示金钱的腐蚀作用,他告诉读者:“我不但从来不象世人那样看重金钱,甚至也从来不曾把金钱看做多么方便的东西”,而认定金钱是“烦恼的根源”。然而,金钱的作用却又使他不得不把金钱看作“是保持自由的一种工具”,使他“害怕囊空如洗”,这就在他身上造成了这样一种矛盾的习性:“对金钱的极端吝惜与无比鄙视兼而有之”。因此,他也曾“偷过七个利物尔零十个苏”,并且在钱财方面不时起过一些卑劣的念头,如眼见华伦夫人挥霍浪费、有破产的危险,他就想偷偷摸摸建立起自己的“小金库”,但一看无济于事,就改变做法,“好像一只从屠宰场出来的狗,既然保不住那块肉,就不如叼走我自己的那一分。”从这些叙述里,除了可以看到典型卢梭式的严酷无情的自我剖析外,就是非常出色的关于社会环境与人性恶的互相关系的辩证法的思想了。在这里,自我批评和忏悔导向了对社会的谴责和控诉,对人性恶的挖掘转化成了严肃的社会批判。正因为这种批判是结合着卢梭自己痛切的经验和体会,所以也就更为深刻有力,它与卢梭在《论人类不平等的起源和基础》中对于财产不平等、社会政治不平等的批判完全一脉相承,这一部论著以其杰出的思想曾被恩格斯誉为“辩证法的杰作”。
  
  著作思想
  卢梭用坦率的风格写自传,不回避他身上的人性恶,更为根本的原因还在于他的思想体系。他显然并不把坦露自己、包括坦露自己的缺点过错视为一种苦刑,倒是为深信这是一个创举而自诩。在他看来,人具有自己的本性,人的本性中包括了人的一切自然的要求,如对自由的向往、对异性的追求、对精美物品的爱好,等等。正如他把初民的原始淳朴的状态当作人类美好的黄金时代一样,他又把人身上一切原始的本能的要求当作了正常的、自然的东西全盘加以肯定。甚至在他眼里,这些自然的要求要比那些经过矫饰的文明化的习性更为正常合理。在卢梭的哲学里,既然人在精美的物品面前不可能无动于衷,不,更应该有一种鉴赏家的热情,那么,出于这种不寻常的热情,要“自由支配那些小东西”,又算得了什么过错呢?因此,他在《忏悔录》中几乎是用与“忏悔”绝缘的平静的坦然的语调告诉读者:“直到现在,我有时还偷一点我所心爱的小玩艺儿”,完全无视从私有制产生以来就成为道德箴言的“勿偷窃”这个原则,这是他思想体系中的一条线索。另一条线索是:他与天主教神学相反。不是把人看作是受神奴役的对象,而是把人看成是自主的个体,人自主行动的动力则是感情,他把感情提到了一个重要的地位,认为“先有感觉,后有思考”是“人类共同的命运”。因此,感情的真挚流露、感情用事和感情放任,在他看来就是人类本性纯朴自然的表现了。请看,他是如何深情地回忆他童年时和父亲一道,那么“兴致勃勃”地阅读小说,通宵达旦,直到第二天清晨听到了燕子的呢喃,他是多么欣赏他父亲这种“孩子气”啊!这一类感情的自然流露和放任不羁,就是卢梭哲学体系中的个性自由和个性解放。卢梭无疑是十八世纪中把个性解放的号角吹得最响的一个思想家,他提倡绝对的个性自由,反对宗教信条和封建道德法规的束缚,他傲视一切地宣称,那个时代的习俗、礼教和偏见都不值一顾,并把自己描绘成这样一个典型,宣扬他以个人为中心、以个人的感情、兴趣、意志为出发点、一任兴之所至的人生态度。这些就是他在《忏悔录》中的思想的核心,这也是他在自传中力求忠于自己、不装假、披露一切的根本原因。而由于所有这一切,他的这部自传自然也就成为一部最活生生的个性解放的宣言书了。
  卢梭虽然出身于社会的下层,但在当时的历史条件下,他的思想体系不可能超出资产阶级的范围,他在《忏悔录》中所表现的思想,其阶级性质是我们所熟悉的,它就是和当时封建思想体系相对立的资产阶级人道主义的思想。一切以时间、地点、条件为转移。这种思想在历史发展过程中、在当时十八世纪,显然具有非常革命的意义。它以宗教世界观为对立面,主张以人为本,反对神学对人的精神统治,它从人这个本体出发,把自由、平等视为人的自然本性,反对封建的奴役和压榨,在整个资产阶级反封建的历史时期里,起着启迪人们的思想、摧毁封建主义的意识形态、为历史的发展开辟道路的作用。然而,这种思想体系毕竟是一个剥削阶级代替另一个剥削阶级、一种私有制代替另一种私有制的历史阶段的产物,带有历史的和阶级的局限性。因而,我们在《忏悔录》中可以看到,卢梭在与宗教的“神道”对立、竭力推崇自己身上的“人性”、肯定自己作为人的自然要求的同时,又把自己的某些资产阶级性当作正当的“人性”加以肯定;他在反对宗教对人的精神奴役、肯定自我活动的独立自主性和感情的推动作用的同时,又把自己一些低劣的冲动和趣味美化为符合“人性”的东西。他所提倡的个性自由显然太至高无上了,充满了浓厚的个人主义的味道;他重视和推崇人的感情,显然又走向了极端,而成为了感情放纵。总之,这里的一切既表现了反封建反宗教的积极意义,又暴露了资产阶级意识形态的本质。
  卢梭并不是最先提出资产阶级人道主义思想的思想家,在这个思想体系发展的过程中,他只是一个环节。早在文艺复兴时代,处于萌芽阶段的资本主义关系就为这种意识形态的产生提供了土壤,这种思想体系的主要方面和主要原则,从那时起,就逐渐在历史的过程中被一系列思想家、文学家充实完备起来了。虽然卢梭只是其中的一个阶段,却无疑标志着一个新的阶段。他的新贡献在于,他把资产阶级人道主义的基本原则进一步具体化为自由、平等的社会政治要求,为推翻已经过时的封建主义的统治的斗争,提供了最响亮、最打动人心的思想口号。他还较多地反映了平民阶级、也就是第三等级中较为下层的群众的要求,提出了“社会契约”的学说,为资产阶级革命后共和主义的政治蓝图提供了理论基础。这巨大的贡献使他日后在法国大革命中被民主派、激进派等奉为精神导师,他的思想推动了历史的前进。这是他作为思想家的光荣。在文学中,他的影响似乎也并不更小,如果要在他给法国文学所带来的多方面的新意中指出其主要者的话,那就应该说是他的作品中那种充分的“自我”意识和强烈的个性解放的精神了。
  “自我”意识和个性解放是资产阶级文学的特有财产,它在封建贵族阶级的文学里是没有的。在封建主义之下,个性往往消融在家族和国家的观念里。资本主义关系产生后,随着自由竞争而来的,是个性自由这一要求的提出,人逐渐从封建束缚中解脱出来,才有可能提出个性解放这一观念和自我意识这种感受。这个新的主题在文学中真正丰富起来,在法国是经过了一两百年。十六世纪的拉伯雷仅仅通过一个乌托邦的德廉美修道院,对此提出了一些懂憬和愿望,远远没有和现实结合起来;十七世纪的作家高乃依在《勒·熙德》里,给个性和爱情自由的要求留下了一定的地位,但也是在国家的利益、家族的荣誉所允许的范围里;在莫里哀的笔下,那些追求自由生活的年轻人的确带来了个性解放的活力,但与此并存的,也有作家关于中常之道的说教。到了卢梭这里,发生了根本的变化,是他,第一次把个性自由的原则和“自我”提到如此高的地位;是他,以那样充足的感情,表现出了个性解放不可阻挡的力量,表现出“自我”那种根本不把传统观念、道德法规、价值标准放在眼里的勇气;是他,第一个通过一个现实的人,而且就是他自己,表现出一个全面体现了资产阶级人道主义精神的资产阶级个性;是他,第一个以那样骇世惊俗的大胆,如此真实地展示了这个资产阶级个性“我”有时象天空一样纯净高远、有时象阴沟一样肮脏恶浊的全部内心生活;也是他,第一个那么深入地挖掘了这种资产阶级个性与社会现实的矛盾以及他那种敏锐而痛苦的感受。由于所有这些理由,即使我们不说《忏悔录》是发动了一场“革命”,至少也应该说是带来了一次重大的突破。这种思想内容和风格情调的创新,是资本主义的发展在文学中的必然结果,如果不是由卢梭来完成的话,也一定会有另一个人来完成的。唯其如此,卢梭所创新的这一切,在资产阶级反封建斗争高涨的历史阶段,就成为了一种典型的、具有表征意义的东西而对后来者产生了启迪和引导的作用。它们被效法,被模仿,即使后来者并不想师法卢梭,但也跳不出卢梭所开辟的这一片“个性解放”、“自我意识”、“感情发扬”的新天地了。如果再加上卢梭第一次引入文学的对大自然美的热爱和欣赏,对市民阶级家庭生活亲切而温柔的感受,那么,几乎就可以说,《忏悔录》在某种程度上是十九世纪法国文学灵感的一个源泉了。
  《忏悔录》前六章第一次公之于世,是一七八一年,后六章是一七八八年。这时,卢梭已经不在人间。几年以后,在资产阶级革命高潮中,巴黎举行了一次隆重的仪式,把一个遗体移葬在伟人公墓,这就是《忏悔录》中的那个“我”。当年,这个“我”在写这部自传的时候,无论如何也不会想到有一天会获得这样巨大的哀荣。当他把自己一些见不得人的方面也写了出来的时候,似乎留下了一份很不光彩的历史记录,造成了一个相当难看的形象,否定了他作为一个平民思想家的光辉。然而,他这样做本身,他这样做的时候所具有的那种悲愤的力量,那种忠于自己哲学原则的主观真诚和那种个性自由的冲动,却又在更高一级的意义上完成了一次“否定之否定”,即否定了那个难看的形象而显示了一种不同凡响的人格力量。他并不想把自己打扮成历史伟人,但他却成了真正的历史伟人,他的自传也因为他不想打扮自己而成了此后一切自传作品中最有价值的一部。如果说,卢梭的论著是辩证法的杰作,那么;他的事例不是更显示出一种活生生的、强有力的辩证法吗?


  Confessions is an autobiographical book by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In modern times, it is often published with the title The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau in order to distinguish it from St. Augustine of Hippo's Confessions, the book from which Jean-Jacques Rousseau took the title for his own book. Covering the first fifty-three years of Rousseau's life, up to 1765, it was completed in 1769, but not published until 1782, four years after Rousseau's death - even though Rousseau did read excerpts of his manuscript publicly at various salons and other meeting places.
  
  The Confessions is divided into two parts, each consisting of six books. Rousseau alludes to a planned third part, but this was never completed. Though the book is somewhat flawed as an autobiography – particularly, Rousseau's dates are frequently off, and some events are out of order – Rousseau provides an account of the experiences that shaped his influential philosophy. For instance, the parts of his own education he liked best are clearly present in his account of ideal education, Emile: Or, On Education.
  
  Rousseau's work is notable as one of the first major autobiographies. Prior to his writing the Confessions, the two great autobiographies were Augustine's own Confessions and Saint Teresa's Life of Herself. Both of these works, however, focused on the religious experiences of their authors. The Confessions was one of the first autobiographies in which an individual wrote of his own life mainly in terms of his worldly experiences and personal feelings. Rousseau recognized the unique nature of his work; it opens with the famous words:
  
   I have resolved on an enterprise which has no precedent, and which, once complete, will have no imitator. My purpose is to display to my kind a portrait in every way true to nature, and the man I shall portray will be myself.
  
  Some scholars believe that his prediction was wide of the mark. Not long after publication many other writers (such as Goethe, Wordsworth and De Quincey) wrote their own similarly-styled autobiographies. However, Leo Damrosch argues that Rousseau meant that it would be impossible to imitate his book, as nobody else would be like Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
  
  The Confessions is also noted for its detailed account of Rousseau's more humiliating and shameful moments. For instance, Rousseau recounts an incident when, while a servant, he covered up his theft of a ribbon by framing a young girl - who was working in the house - for the crime. In addition, Rousseau explains the manner in which he disposes of his five illegitimate children, whom he had with his world-wide known companion, Therese Levasseur.
  爱洛伊丝是法国十二世纪人;她和她的教师阿贝拉相爱,遭到她叔父的反对和暴力干预。两人虽未能结为眷属,但仍互相依恋,书信往还,直到阿贝拉死后为止。爱洛伊丝和阿贝拉相爱的故事,哀艳动人,得到了卢梭的同情。因此,他把他小说中的女主人公朱莉比做爱洛伊丝,将他的小说取名为《朱莉,或新爱洛伊丝》,用醒目的标题,表明书中的女主人公朱莉和十二世纪的爱洛伊丝在爱情上有相似的不幸遭遇。全书的故事,令人悲切:朱莉·德丹治和她的家庭教师圣普乐相爱,大到她父亲德丹治男爵的反对。德丹治男爵的封建意识极深,不愿把女儿嫁给一个平民。于是,在朱莉的表妹克莱尔和圣普乐的朋友、英国人爱德华·博姆斯顿的安排下,圣普乐离开朱莉,从瑞士到法国,之后又随一支英国舰队到海外远游,以期忘掉他和朱莉的感情,而朱莉迫于父命,和一个与她在年龄及宗教信仰上都有极大差距的俄国贵族沃尔玛结婚。朱莉和圣普乐的爱情是纯洁和真诚的;他们虽被迫分离,不能结合在一起,但他们时有书信往还,倾诉真挚的情谊。他们动人的爱情故事,就是通过他们两人之间,以及他们与克莱尔、爱德华·博姆斯顿和沃尔玛之间往来的书信展开的。从全书的结构,就可看出作者对题材的处理独具匠心。前三卷主要铺叙朱莉和圣普乐的爱情的发展,后三卷通过他们爱情故事的叙述,尽情讴哥美好的德行,赞美婚姻的神圣,吟哦自然的风光,针砭社会的积弊,对当时的宗教、文化、伦理道德与各国的风土人。情,均有细致的描写和探索。全书的语言平易,不变不枝,行云流水,以文笔清新朴实的美,打动读者的心。在卢梭的笔下,一部爱情故事,实际上成了一部颂扬善良风尚、匡正民风民俗和描绘大自然的美的散文诗。书中最令人同情和赞美的,是女主人公朱莉和她在爱情上所表现的美德。朱莉和圣普乐都是多倩的。然而,正如圣普乐在致朱莉的一封信中哀叹和预言的:“多情的心,是上天赐予的危险的礼物;谁接受了这件礼物,谁就注定要在世上遭受苦难和折磨。”圣普乐始终眷恋着朱莉;而朱莉也没有忘记她昔日的情侣,同时,作为妻子,她又坚贞地忠实于她的丈夫;她的丈夫沃尔玛对两个青年人之间过去的爱也表示充分的理解,并对他们的美德完全信任,把圣普乐接到自己的家,待以真诚的友谊。后来,朱莉因跳入湖中救她跌落水中的孩子,竟至一病不起。她在临终前给圣普乐的一封信中说:“使我们两人在地上分离的美德,将使我们在永生之地结合。”朱莉和圣普乐的爱情的不幸结局,得到了人们的同情,因此,《新爱洛伊丝》一出版,就引起了广大读者的共鸣,取得了巨大的成功。
  《新爱洛伊丝》共分六卷,计一百六十三封信,有些信长达数十页之多,全都围绕一个鲜明的主题:通过纯洁的爱情,建立美好的家庭,进而建立良好的社会。“出自造物主之手的东西,都是好的,而一到了人的手里,就全变坏了。”这是卢梭在他的另一部著名小说《爱弥儿》中开宗明义的第一句话,它代表了卢梭的全部思想,贯穿了他所有的著作,特别在《新爱洛伊丝》中,通过书中人物的塑造和社会风尚的描绘,早已反复加以表述①。他得出的结论是:要使人成为善良的人,就要有一个良好的社会秩序;只有从爱美德开始,树立良好的德行,人类社会才能成为一个合乎自然秩序的社会。为了论证这一点,他在《新爱洛伊丝》中塑造了几个他心目中的典型。他说:我把爱情和友谊(我心中的两个偶像)想象成为最动人的形象。我刻意用我历来崇拜的女性所具有的种种美来装饰它们。我设想两个女朋友而不设想两个男朋友,因为两个女人之间友爱的事例比较稀少,所以就愈加可爱。我赋予她们两个相似而不相同的性格,两个虽不十全十美、但却合乎我的全好的面容,一看就知道是心地仁慈和富于同情心的人。我让她们两人一个是棕发,另一个是金发;一个活泼,另一个文静;一个头脑机灵,另一个性格软弱,但软弱得楚楚动人,似乎更显示其贤惠。我让二人之一有一个情人,而另一个女人又是这个情人的温柔多情的朋友,甚至还有些超出朋友的程度,但我又不让她们之间发生争凤吃醋和吵闹嫉妒之事。因为任何令人不快的情感,我都难以想象,同时,我也不愿以任何败坏天性的东西来玷污这幅美妙的图画。我爱上了我这两个妩媚的模特儿,我尽量想象我就是那个情人和朋友,不过,我把他写成年轻的和可爱的,另外再加上我觉得我自己具有的美德和缺点。


  Julie, or the New Heloise (French: Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse) is an epistolary novel by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, published in 1761 by Rey (Amsterdam). The original edition was entitled Lettres de deux amans habitans d'une petite ville au pied des Alpes ("Letters from two lovers living in a small town at the foot of the Alps").
  
  The novel’s subtitle points to the history of Heloise and Pierre Abélard, a medieval story of passion and Christian renunciation. The novel was put on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum.
  
  Although Rousseau wrote it as a novel, a philosophical theory about authenticity permeates through it. He explores autonomy and authenticity as moral values. A common interpretation is that Rousseau values the ethics of authenticity over rational moral principles. He also illustrates that you should only do what society asks of you when it's congruent with the "secret principles" and feelings which constitute your core identity. Acting inauthentically is self-destructive.
  《社会契约论》-名书简介
  
  作者:(法国)卢梭(1712-1788年)
  类型: 政治理论著作
  成书时间:1762年
  《社会契约论》-背景搜索
  
  卢梭出生于瑞士日内瓦一个钟表匠家庭,从小失去母亲,靠别人抚养教育长大。虽然生活条件艰苦,但他发奋图强,自学成才。16岁离家外出流浪,当过学徒、仆役、私人秘书、乐谱抄写员。在巴黎,他展现了自己的才华,1750年,卢梭以征文《论科学与艺术》获头等奖而出名。得到了许多上流社会贵妇人的爱慕。这些拥金百万的贵妇为他供应舒适的生活,给他介绍所需要认识的人,卢梭很快就进入了完全不同的生活圈子。
  
  从 1762年起,卢梭由于写政论文章,与当局发生了严重的纠纷。他的一些同事开始疏远他,大约就在这个时期,他患了明显的偏执狂症。虽然有些人对他表示友好,但他却采取怀疑和敌视的态度,同他们每个人都争吵过。他一生的最后20年基本上是在悲惨痛苦中度过的,1778年他在法国迈农维尔去世。
  
  推荐阅读版本:何兆武译,商务印书馆出版。
  《社会契约论》-内容精要
  
  《社会契约论》全书共分4卷,第一卷主要论述了人类是怎样由自然状态过渡到政治状态的,契约的根本条件是什么;第二卷主要讨论国家的立法问题;第三卷论述的是政治法即政府的形成;第四卷在继续讨论政治法的同时阐述了巩固国家体制的方法,从古罗马历史出发论述了主权者意志实现的某些细节。
  
  “人是生而自由的,但却无往不在枷锁之中,自以为是其他一切的主人,反而比其他一切更是奴隶。”《社会契约论》的开篇第一句话就提出了这个振聋发聩的观点。卢梭的这一论断是在君主专制制度横行欧洲的时代,针对英国王权专制论代表人物费尔玛关于“没有人是生而自由的”这一绝对君主专制制度赖以依存的理论而提出来的。这本书以反对封建专制、倡言民主共和、主张人民主权为其主题和中心内容,提出了富于革命性的宪政理论。
  
  卢梭认为,自由的人们最初生活在自然状态,人们的行为受自然法支配。自然法以理性为基础,赋予人类一系列普遍的、永恒的自然权利,即生存、自由、平等、追求幸福、获得财产和人身、财产不受侵犯的权利。由于自然状态存在种种弊端,自由的人们以平等的资格订立契约,从自然状态下摆脱出来,寻找出一种结合的形式,使它能以全部共同的力量来卫护和保障每个结合者的人身和财富,并且由于这一结合而使每一个与全体相联合的个人又只不过是在服从自己本人,并且仍然像以往一样地自由。这种结合的形式就是国家。由于国家是自由的人们以平等的资格订立契约产生的,人们只是把自然权利转让给整个社会而并不是奉献给任何个人,因此人民在国家中仍是自由的,国家的主权只能属于人民。
  
  然后,卢梭进一步阐述了人民主权的原则:主权是不可转让的,因为国家由主权者构成,只有主权者才能行使主权;主权是不可分割的,因为代表主权的意志是一个整体;主权是不可代表的,因为 “主权在本质上是由公意所构成的,而意志又是绝不可以代表的;它只能是同一个意志,或者是另一个意志,而绝不能有什么中间的东西。因此人民的议员就不是、也不可能是人民的代表,他们只不过是人民的办事员罢了;他们并不能做出任何肯定的决定”。同时,主权是绝对的、至高无上和不可侵犯的,因为主权是公意的体现,是国家的灵魂。基于这样的理论,卢梭反对君主立宪而坚决主张民主共和。
  
  《社会契约论》还论述了一系列法律基本理论,在其中贯穿着以人民主权为中心内容的资产阶级民主主义精神。卢梭指出法律是人民公共意志的体现,是人民自己意志的记录和全体人民为自己所做的规定。法律的特点在于意志的普遍性和对像的普遍性,前者指法律是人民公意的体现,后者指法律考虑的对像是全体的行为而非个别人。
  
  同时,他阐述了法律与自由的关系:首先,法律与自由是一致的,人民服从法律就是服从自己的意志,就意味着自由。其次,法律是自由的保障。一方面,人人遵守法律,才能给人们以享受自由权利的安全保障;另一方面,法律可以强迫人们自由。
  
  此外,卢梭还系统地提出了立法理论。他认为要依法治国就要有理想的法律,在制定法律时必须遵循下列原则:立法必须以谋取人民最大幸福为原则;立法权必须由人民掌握;由贤明者具体承担立法的责任;立法要注意各种自然的社会条件,法律只不过是保障、遵循和矫正自然的关系而已;既要保持法律的稳定性,又要适时修改、废除不好的法律。
  
  “人是生而自由平等的,这是天赋的权利”,《社会契约论》中的这一 理论,开创了欧洲及全世界民主平等思想之先河,它的“人权天赋“,主权在民”的新学说向“君权神授”的传统观念发起了挑战。它所揭示的“人权自由、权利平等”的原则,至今仍作为西方政治的基础。
  《社会契约论》-专家点评
  
  卢梭是18世纪法国启蒙运动杰出的政治思想家、文学家。他的才思文藻风靡了当时的整个欧洲,并为后人留下了一系列划时代的巨著。很少有几个哲学家能带来卢梭著作那样的震撼。他的《艺术与科学谈》获法国第戎奖,使他荣获欧洲哲学大师称号。他的文学名著《新爱洛伊丝》在世界文学史上有着很高地位,使他跻身于启蒙时期著名文学家的行列。《社会契约论》又译作《民约论》是他最为杰出的代表作之一,被誉为“人类解放的第一个呼声,世界大革命的第一个煽动者”。卢梭是欧洲启蒙运动中重要的思想家,与伏尔泰齐名。他的主要作品有《忏悔录》、《爱弥儿》、《社会契约论》、《新爱洛伊丝》。他的主要思想:天赋人权学说,提出“人民主权”的口号。其思想是法国大革命中雅各宾派的旗帜,对欧美各国的资产阶级革命产生了深刻影响。
  
  他的《社会契约论》中的“主权在民”一说,就划分了一个时代。
  
  《社会契约论》卢梭将野花送给喂奶的母亲
  《社会契约论》第一次提出了“天赋人权和主权在民的思想”。它刚一问世就遭到了禁止。卢梭本人也被迫流亡到英国。但《社会契约论》所提倡的民主理论却很快风靡全世界。它引发了震惊世界的法国大革命。法国国家格言“自由、平等、博爱”便来自《社会契约论》。1789年法国国民代表大会通过的《人权宣言》中“社会的目的是为大众谋福利的”、“统治权属于人民”等内容充分体现了《社会契约论》的精神。《社会契约论》还对美国的《独立宣言》产生了重要影响,从罗伯斯庇尔到列宁都曾用《社会契约论》为自己的政权做解释。1978年,在纪念卢梭逝世200周年的活动中,专门召开了国际研讨会,研究卢梭的思想,出版他的新传,推出以他为题材的电视剧。他的遗骸被安放在法国的伟人祠内。卢梭在《社会契约论》中预见的“消费者的各种陷阱,大城市的骚乱以及毁灭性的军费负担”等等,都已成为当代社会的现实问题。目前,单在法国就有150多位学者在专门研究卢梭的思想。
  
  有说卢梭的政治理论深受柏拉图的《理想国》的影响。《理想国》的概念,建立于人性善的理念基础上,柏拉图笔下的苏格拉底说,“只有正直的人才会幸福”,“善的意志”成为他的理想国的基础。卢梭也相信人性善,他提倡宽容理性,坚定地反对任何政治暴力。同是论述理想国的原则,不同于柏拉图,卢梭将其理论框架完全建立在“人生而自由”的基础之上,也就是说“自由意志”。这个基础就实在多了。很早以前,人们有一个更好的但文言的说法:“天赋人权。”由天赋人权作为第一原理,他所构造的不再只是理想,而是现代公民社会的基本原则。公民社会中,公民失去了自由人无所不为的自由,而得到公民的政治权利、政治自由。他的《社会契约论》(又译《民约论》)所要解决的是人权和法律的有机结合。从此,合法性只能来自人民,成了卢梭的继承者和背叛者的共同的理念。前者产生了美国革命和民主的建立,后者以人民之名专权屠杀。卢梭,作为“主权在民”的勾画者,就是在200年后还处于争论的中心:他的理论到底是在提倡民主自由,还是在提倡极权暴政?
  
  《社会契约论》哲学家卢梭大部头著作
  人权是属于个体的,法律是属于国家的。个体约定而成国家的合理性,是法律有效性和政权合法性的终极判断。自由,不是来自法律对个人的保护,而是来自个体对立法的彻底参与。这是切实保障个体自由的先决条件。在这一过程里,个体利益的“交集”而非“并集”(不完全是数学上的那种)形成公民意志——主权者的意志——一般意志,而这种主权者因为个体的不断参与,其内容是常新的,其利益与个体利益共荣的。从这一点出发,多数人说了算的约法三章必然成为主权在民的道德的体现方式。
  
  卢梭把政权明白地分成了立法和行政两个部分,前者属于社会契约的范畴,而后者不是契约的内容(因此是可变可推翻的)。这个理念对后来民主政治的发展有着不可磨灭的贡献。在卢梭之前,孟德斯鸠的《论法的精神》对法律的理解更加深刻,惟缺卢梭的“主权在民”的动力。《社会契约论》自始至终只扬弃了一种体制:专制政府。按卢梭的话,这就是那种蔑视法律把个体的权力高于主权者之上的体制。其他的体制,卢梭仅仅论述了它们合法的自然依据。从直接民主制、贵族代议制到君主立宪制,统治的根据必须是人民主权———其真正表达就是法律。卢梭并进而把任何真正依法而治的政体统称为共和政体。在卢梭看来,他那个时代的政治社会形态是腐朽的,他要到古希腊时代才能找到合理的回归。
  
  《社会契约论》是世界政治法律学说史上最重要的经典之一,是震撼世界的1789年法国大革命的号角和福音书。它阐述的许多原则原理不仅在革命之初被载入法国《人权宣言》等重要文献中,在革命后的长时期里成为资产阶级的政治法律制度的基石。卢梭的思想对后世思想家们理论的形成有重大影响。
  
  卢梭的政治著作中有许多思想独特新颖,引人入胜。但是总体说来就是一种追求平等的强烈欲望和一种同样强烈的感受:现存社会制度的不合理已经达到了令人不能容忍的程度,人生下来本来是自由的,但是无论走到哪里都要戴上枷锁。卢梭自己可能并不喜欢暴力行为,但是他无疑激励了其他人实行暴力革命,逐步改革社会制度。
  
  有人批评卢梭是一个极其神经质的人,是一个大男子主义者,是一个思想不切实际的、糊涂的思想家,这样的批评大体上是正确的。但是远比他的缺点更重要的是他的洞察力和杰出的创造精神所闪现出来的思想火花,两个多世纪以来,不断地影响着现代思想。
  《社会契约论》-妙语佳句
  
  我看到了另一个世界,我的全部激情都被对真理、对自由、对道德的热爱窒息掉了。
  谁第一个把一块土地圈起来并想到这是自己的,而且被头脑简单的人所相信的话,那他就是文明的奠基者。


  Social contract describes a broad class of theories that try to explain the ways in which people form states to maintain social order. The notion of the social contract implies that the people give up sovereignty to a government or other authority in order to receive or maintain social order through the rule of law. It can also be thought of as an agreement by the governed on a set of rules by which they are governed.
  
  Social contract theory formed a central pillar in the historically important notion that legitimate state authority must be derived from the consent of the governed. The starting point for most of these theories is a heuristic examination of the human condition absent from any structured social order, usually termed the “state of nature”. In this condition, an individual’s actions are bound only by his or her personal power, constrained by conscience. From this common starting point, the various proponents of social contract theory attempt to explain, in different ways, why it is in an individual’s rational self-interest to voluntarily give up the freedom one has in the state of nature in order to obtain the benefits of political order.
  
  Thomas Hobbes (1651), John Locke (1689) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762) are the most famous philosophers of contractarianism. However, they drew quite different conclusions from this starting-point. Hobbes advocated an authoritarian monarchy, Locke advocated a liberal monarchy, while Rousseau advocated liberal republicanism. Their work provided theoretical groundwork of constitutional monarchy, liberal democracy and republicanism. The Social Contract was used in the Declaration of Independence as a sign of enforcing Democracy, and more recently has been revived by thinkers such as John Rawls.
  
  Overview
  
  According to Thomas Hobbes, human life would be "nasty, brutish, and short" without political authority. In its absence, we would live in a state of nature, where we each have unlimited natural freedoms, including the "right to all things" and thus the freedom to harm all who threaten our own self-preservation; there would be an endless "war of all against all" (Bellum omnium contra omnes). To avoid this, free men establish political community i.e. civil society through a social contract in which each gain civil rights in return for subjecting himself to civil law or to political authority.
  
  Alternatively, some have argued that we gain civil rights in return for accepting the obligation to respect and defend the rights of others, giving up some freedoms to do so; this alternative formulation of the duty arising from the social contract is often identified with arguments about military service.
  Violations of the contract
  
  The social contract and the civil rights it gives us are neither "natural rights" nor permanently fixed. Rather, the contract itself is the means towards an end — the benefit of all — and (according to some philosophers such as Locke or Rousseau), is only legitimate to the extent that it meets the general interest ("general will" in Rousseau). Therefore, when failings are found in the contract, we renegotiate to change the terms, using methods such as elections and legislature. Locke theorized the right of rebellion in case of the contract leading to tyranny.
  
  Since civil rights come from agreeing to the contract, those who choose to violate their contractual obligations, such as by committing crimes, abdicate their rights, and the rest of society can be expected to protect itself against the actions of such outlaws. To be a member of society is to accept responsibility for following its rules, along with the threat of punishment for violating them. In this way, society works by "mutual coercion, mutually agreed upon" (Hardin 1968).
  History
  Classical thought
  
  Many have argued that Plato's dialog Crito expresses a Greek version of social contract theory. In this dialog, Socrates refuses to escape from jail to avoid being put to death. He argues that since he has willingly remained in Athens all of his life despite opportunities to go elsewhere, he has accepted the social contract i.e. the burden of the local laws, and he cannot violate these laws even when they are against his self-interest.
  
  Epicurus seems to have had a strong sense of social contract, with justice and law being rooted in mutual agreement and advantage, as evidenced by these lines, among others, from his Principal Doctrines:
  
   31. Natural justice is a pledge of reciprocal benefit, to prevent one man from harming or being harmed by another. 32. Those animals which are incapable of making binding agreements with one another not to inflict nor suffer harm are without either justice or injustice; and likewise for those peoples who either could not or would not form binding agreements not to inflict nor suffer harm. 33. There never was such a thing as absolute justice, but only agreements made in mutual dealings among men in whatever places at various times providing against the infliction or suffering of harm. 34. Injustice is not an evil in itself, but only in consequence of the fear which is associated with the apprehension of being discovered by those appointed to punish such actions.
  
  Also see Epicurean ethics
  Renaissance developments
  
  Quentin Skinner has argued that several critical modern innovations in contract theory are found in the writings from French Calvinists and Huguenots, whose work in turn was invoked by writers in the Low Countries who objected to their subjection to Spain and, later still, by Catholics in England. Among these, Francisco Suárez (1548–1617), from the School of Salamanca, might be considered as an early theorist of the social contract, theorizing natural law in an attempt to limit the divine right of absolute monarchy. All of these groups were led to articulate notions of popular sovereignty by means of a social covenant or contract: all of these arguments began with proto-“state of nature” arguments, to the effect that the basis of politics is that everyone is by nature free of subjection to any government.
  
  However, these arguments relied on a corporatist theory found in Roman Law, according to which "a populus" can exist as a distinct legal entity. Therefore these arguments held that a community of people can join a government because they have the capacity to exercise a single will and make decisions with a single voice in the absence of sovereign authority — a notion rejected by Hobbes and later contract theorists.
  Philosophers
  Hugo Grotius
  
  In the early 17th century, Grotius (1583–1645) introduced the modern idea of natural rights of individuals. Grotius says that we each have natural rights which we have in order to preserve ourselves. He uses this idea to try to establish a basis for moral consensus in the face of religious diversity and the rise of natural science and to find a minimal basis for a moral beginning for society, a kind of natural law that everyone could potentially accept. He goes so far as to say even if we were to concede what we cannot concede without the utmost wickedness, that there is no God, these laws would still hold. The idea was considered incendiary, since it suggests that power can ultimately go back to the individuals if the political society that they have set up forfeits the purpose for which it was originally established, which is to preserve themselves. In other words, the people i.e. the individual people, are sovereign. Grotius says that the people are sui juris - under their own jurisdiction. People have rights as human beings but there is a delineation of those rights because of what is possible for everyone to accept morally - everyone has to accept that each person is entitled to try to preserve themselves and therefore they shouldn't try to do harm to others or to interfere with them and they should punish any breach of someone else's rights that arises.
  Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan (1651)
  
  The first modern philosopher to articulate a detailed contract theory was Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). According to Hobbes, the lives of individuals in the state of nature were "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short", a state where self-interest and the absence of rights and contracts prevented the 'social', or society. Life was 'anarchic' (without leadership/ the concept of sovereignty). Individuals in the state of nature were apolitical and asocial. This state of nature is followed by the social contract.
  
  The social contract was an 'occurrence' during which individuals came together and ceded some of their individual rights so that others would cede theirs (e.g. person A gives up his/her right to kill person B if person B does the same). This resulted in the establishment of society, and by extension, the state, a sovereign entity (like the individuals, now under its rule, used to be) which was to protect these new rights which were now to regulate societal interactions. Society was thus no longer anarchic.
  
  But the state system, which grew out of the social contract, was anarchic (without leadership). Just as the individuals in the state of nature had been sovereigns and thus guided by self-interest and the absence of rights, so states now acted in their self-interest in competition with each other. Just like the state of nature, states were thus bound to be in conflict because there was no sovereign over and above the state (i.e. more powerful) capable of imposing social-contract laws. Indeed, Hobbes' work helped to serve as a basis for the realism theories of international relations, advanced by E.H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau.
  John Locke's Second Treatise of Government (1689)
  
  John Locke's conception of the social contract differed from Hobbes' in several ways, but retained the central notion that persons in a state of nature would willingly come together to form a state. Locke believed that individuals in a state of nature would have stronger moral limits on their action than accepted by Hobbes, but recognized that people would still live in fear of one another. Locke argued that individuals would agree to form a state that would provide a "neutral judge", and that could therefore protect the lives, liberty, and property of those who lived within it. While Hobbes argued for near-absolute authority, Locke argued that laws could only be legitimate if they sought to achieve the common good. Locke also believed that people will do the right thing as a group, and that all people have natural rights.
  Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Du contrat social (1762)
  
  Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), in his influential 1762 treatise The Social Contract, outlined a different version of social contract theory, based on popular sovereignty. Although Rousseau wrote that the British were perhaps at the time the freest people on earth, he did not approve of their representative government. Rousseau believed that liberty was possible only where there was direct rule by the people as a whole in lawmaking, where popular sovereignty was indivisible and inalienable. Citizens must, in at least some circumstances, be able to choose together the fundamental rules by which they would live, and be able to revise those rules on later occasions if they choose to do so - something the British people as a whole were unable to do.
  
  Rousseau's political theory has some points in common with Locke's individualism, but departs from it in his development of the "luminous conception" (which he credited to Diderot) of the general will. Rousseau argues a citizen can be an egoist and decide that his personal interest should override the collective interest. However, as part of a collective body, the individual citizen puts aside his egoism to create a "general will", which is popular sovereignty itself. Popular sovereignty (i.e., the rule of law), thus decides what is good for society as a whole, and the individual (including the administrative head of state, who could be a monarch) must bow to it, or be forced to bow to it:
  
   [The social contract] can be reduced to the following terms: Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will; and in a body we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.
  
  Rousseau's striking phrase that man must "be forced to be free" should be understood this way: since the indivisible and inalienable popular sovereignty decides what is good for the whole, then if an individual lapses back into his ordinary egoism and breaks the law, he will be forced to listen to what they decided as a member of the collectivity (i.e. as citizens). Thus, the law, inasmuch as it is voted by the people's representatives, is not a limitation of individual freedom, but its expression; and enforcement of law, including criminal law, is not a restriction on individual liberty, as the individual, as a citizen, explicitly agreed to be constrained if, as a private individual, he did not respect his own will as formulated in the general will. Because laws represent the restraints of civil freedom, they represent the leap made from humans in the state of nature into civil society. In this sense, the law is a civilizing force, and therefore Rousseau believed that the laws that govern a people helped to mold their character.
  Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's individualist social contract (1851)
  
  While Rousseau's social contract is based on popular sovereignty and not on individual sovereignty, there are other theories espoused by individualists, libertarians and anarchists, which do not involve agreeing to anything more than negative rights and creates only a limited state, if any.
  
  Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) advocated a conception of social contract which didn't involve an individual surrendering sovereignty to others. According to him, the social contract was not between individuals and the state, but rather between individuals themselves refraining from coercing or governing each other, each one maintaining complete sovereignty upon oneself:
  
   What really is the Social Contract? An agreement of the citizen with the government? No, that would mean but the continuation of [Rousseau’s] idea. The social contract is an agreement of man with man; an agreement from which must result what we call society. In this, the notion of commutative justice, first brought forward by the primitive fact of exchange, …is substituted for that of distributive justice … Translating these words, contract, commutative justice, which are the language of the law, into the language of business, and you have commerce, that is to say, in its highest significance, the act by which man and man declare themselves essentially producers, and abdicate all pretension to govern each other.
   —Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century (1851)
  
  John Rawls' Theory of Justice (1971)
  
  John Rawls (1921–2002) proposed a contractarian approach that has a decidedly Kantian flavour, in A Theory of Justice (1971), whereby rational people in a hypothetical "original position", setting aside their individual preferences and capacities under a "veil of ignorance", would agree to certain general principles of justice. This idea is also used as a game-theoretical formalization of the notion of fairness.
  Philip Pettit's Republicanism (1997)
  
  Philip Pettit (b. 1945) has argued, in Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government (1997), that the theory of social contract, classically based on the consent of the governed (as it is assumed that the contract is valid as long as the people consent to being governed by its representatives, who exercise sovereignty), should be modified, in order to avoid dispute. Instead of arguing that an explicit consent, which can always be manufactured, should justify the validity of social contract, Philip Pettit argues that the absence of an effective rebellion against the contract is the only legitimacy of it.
  Criticism
  David Hume
  
  An early critic of social contract theory was Rousseau's friend, the philosopher David Hume, who in 1742 published an essay "On Civil Liberty", in whose second part, entitled, "Of the Original Contract ", he stressed that the concept of a "social contract" was a convenient fiction:
  
   AS no party, in the present age can well support itself without a philosophical or speculative system of principles annexed to its political or practical one; we accordingly find that each of the factions into which this nation is divided has reared up a fabric of the former kind, in order to protect and cover that scheme of actions which it pursues. . . . The one party [defenders of the absolute and divine right of kings, or Tories], by tracing up government to the DEITY, endeavor to render it so sacred and inviolate that it must be little less than sacrilege, however tyrannical it may become, to touch or invade it in the smallest article. The other party [the Whigs, or believers in constitutional monarchy], by founding government altogether on the consent of the PEOPLE suppose that there is a kind of original contract by which the subjects have tacitly reserved the power of resisting their sovereign, whenever they find themselves aggrieved by that authority with which they have for certain purposes voluntarily entrusted him. --David Hume, "On Civil Liberty" [II.XII.1]
  
  However, Hume did agree that, no matter how a government is founded, the consent of the governed is the only legitimate foundation on which a government can rest.
  
   My intention here is not to exclude the consent of the people from being one just foundation of government where it has place. It is surely the best and most sacred of any. I only pretend that it has very seldom had place in any degree and never almost in its full extent. And that therefore some other foundation of government must also be admitted. --Ibid II.XII.20
  
  Logic of contracting
  
  According to the will theory of contract, which was dominant in the 19th century and still exerts a strong influence, a contract is not presumed valid unless all parties agree to it voluntarily, either tacitly or explicitly, without coercion. Lysander Spooner, a 19th century lawyer and staunch supporter of a right of contract between individuals, in his essay No Treason, argues that a supposed social contract cannot be used to justify governmental actions such as taxation, because government will initiate force against anyone who does not wish to enter into such a contract. As a result, he maintains that such an agreement is not voluntary and therefore cannot be considered a legitimate contract at all.
  
  Modern Anglo-American law, like European civil law, is based on a will theory of contract, according to which all terms of a contract are binding on the parties because they chose those terms for themselves. This was less true when Hobbes wrote Leviathan; then, more importance was attached to consideration, meaning a mutual exchange of benefits necessary to the formation of a valid contract, and most contracts had implicit terms that arose from the nature of the contractual relationship rather than from the choices made by the parties. Accordingly, it has been argued that social contract theory is more consistent with the contract law of the time of Hobbes and Locke than with the contract law of our time, and that features in the social contract which seem anomalous to us, such as the belief that we are bound by a contract formulated by our distant ancestors, would not have seemed as strange to Hobbes' contemporaries as they do to us.
  Multiple contracts
  
  Legal scholar Randy Barnett has argued, that, while presence in the territory of a society may be necessary for consent, it is not consent to any rules the society might make regardless of their content. A second condition of consent is that the rules be consistent with underlying principles of justice and the protection of natural and social rights, and have procedures for effective protection of those rights (or liberties). This has also been discussed by O.A. Brownson, who argued that there are, in a sense, three "constitutions" involved: The first the constitution of nature that includes all of what the Founders called "natural law". The second would be the constitution of society, an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it does establish the third, a constitution of government. To consent, a necessary condition is that the rules be constitutional in that sense.
  Tacit consent
  
  The theory of an implicit social contract holds that by remaining in the territory controlled by some government, people give consent to be governed. This consent is what gives legitimacy to the government. Philosopher Roderick Long argues that this is a case of question begging, because the argument has to presuppose its conclusion:
  
   I think that the person who makes this argument is already assuming that the government has some legitimate jurisdiction over this territory. And then they say, well, now, anyone who is in the territory is therefore agreeing to the prevailing rules. But they’re assuming the very thing they're trying to prove – namely that this jurisdiction over the territory is legitimate. If it's not, then the government is just one more group of people living in this broad general geographical territory. But I've got my property, and exactly what their arrangements are I don't know, but here I am in my property and they don't own it – at least they haven't given me any argument that they do – and so, the fact that I am living in "this country" means I am living in a certain geographical region that they have certain pretensions over – but the question is whether those pretensions are legitimate. You can’t assume it as a means to proving it.
  
  Criticisms of natural rights
  
  Contractualism is based on the notion that rights are agreed upon in order to further our interests: each individual subject is accorded individual rights, which may or may not be inalienable, and form the basis of civil rights, as in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. It must be underlined, however, as Hannah Arendt did on her book on imperialism, that the 1789 Declarations, in this agreeing with the social contract theory, bases the natural rights of the human-being on the civil rights of the citizen, instead of the reverse as the contractualist theory does. This criticism derives from a long tradition going back to St. Augustine of Hippo, who in The City of God (book) envisioned a unified Christian society presided over by a king who was responsible for the welfare of his subjects. Political Augustinianism with its insistence on divine sovereignty and on the two separate spheres of a heavenly and an earthly community, has indeed been regarded as incompatible with social contract theories. This raises the question of whether social contractarianism, as a central plank of liberal thought, is reconcilable with the Christian religion, and particularly with Catholicism and Catholic social teaching. The individualist and liberal approach has also been criticized since the 19th century by thinkers such as Marx, Nietzsche & Freud, and afterward by structuralist and post-structuralist thinkers, such as Lacan, Althusser, Foucault, Deleuze or Derrida
  ——论教育——
  作者:卢梭〔法〕
  李平沤译
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