故事发生于法国大革题命期间，英国londan律师席尼·卡顿，深深地爱上了巴黎女子露丝·曼纳。但露丝．曼纳却仅仅只是把他当作普通朋友，嫁给了法国贵族青年查尔斯·达雷。当法国政治局势陷入一团混乱时，查尔斯·达雷遭到暴民囚禁，露丝·曼纳走投无路，只好向席尼·卡饰顿请求帮助。席尼·卡顿为成全所爱之的幸福，竟然以牺牲自己生命的方式来挽救情敌，在黑牢探监之际施展策划周密的调包计将查尔斯·达雷救了出来，而他则义无反顾地步上断头台。男主角的高尚情操足以令天下人同声一哭。
双城记-创作团队
导演： 杰克·康威 罗伯特·Z·伦纳德
主演： 罗纳德·考尔曼 唐纳德·伍兹 伊丽莎白·艾兰
编剧 Writer：查尔斯·狄更斯 Charles Dickens 塞缪尔·N·贝尔曼 S.N. Behrman W.P. Lipscomb Thomas
制作人 Produced by：大卫·O·塞尔兹尼克 David O. Selznick
双城记-影评
这是一个最好的时代，也是一个最坏的时代；这是明智的时代，这是愚昧的时代；这是信任的纪元，这是怀疑的纪元；这是光明的季节，这是黑暗的季节；这是希望的春日，这是失望的冬日；我们面前应有尽有，我们面前一无所有；我们都将直上天堂，我们都将直下地狱。。。
——狄更斯 《双城记》
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness; it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity; it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness; it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair; we had everything before us, we had nothing before us; we were all going directly to Heaven, we were all going the other way.
——Charles Dichens (A Tale of Two Cities)
为什么叫双城记？狄更斯的这部作品，让我想起了卡萨布兰卡，为了所爱的人，放弃了所爱的人。了解这个时代的背景是很重要的，不然前面会觉的转的太快。总的来说，大作家的小说还是无懈可击的。当下的社会与狄更斯眼中书中的时代是否相似？我们的出口又在哪里？欣赏狄更斯的这段名言。
双城记-幕后花絮
本片改编自狄更斯的同名不朽名著《双城记》，在大制作家大卫．塞茨尼克与导演杰克．康韦的倾力摄制下，完成了这部反映法国大革命时代悲剧的杰作，也是根据本书拍摄的六个电影版本中成绩最好的一部。狄更斯的小说利用各种元素描述一个动人心魄催人泪下的爱情故事，自出版以来受到无数读者的热心追捧，一版再版。本片并没有完全包括小说展现出来的所有元素，但却没有遗漏任何最为重要的情节。当然，没有哪一部通过优秀的小说改编的电...
双城记-《双城记》原著简介：
1775年12月的一个月夜，寓居巴黎的年轻医生梅尼特散步时，突然被厄弗里蒙地侯爵兄弟强迫出诊。在侯爵府第中，他目睹一个发狂的绝色农妇和一个身受剑伤的少年饮恨而死的惨状，并获悉侯爵兄弟为了片刻淫乐杀害他们全家的内情。他拒绝侯爵兄弟的重金贿赂，写信向朝廷告发。不料控告信落到被告人手中，医生被关进巴士底狱，从此与世隔绝，杳无音讯。两年后，妻子心碎而死。幼小的孤女路茜被好友劳雷接到伦敦，在善良的女仆普洛斯抚养下长大。
18 年后，梅尼特医生获释。这位精神失常的白发老人被巴黎圣安东尼区的一名酒贩、他旧日的仆人得伐石收留。这时，女儿路茜已经成长，专程接他去英国居住。旅途上，他们邂逅法国青年查理·代尔纳，受到他的细心照料。
原来代尔纳就是侯爵的儿子。他憎恨自己家族的罪恶，毅然放弃财产的继承权和贵族的姓氏，移居伦敦，当了一名法语教师。在与梅尼特父女的交往中，他对路茜产生了真诚的爱情。梅尼特为了女儿的幸福，决定埋葬过去，欣然同意他们的婚事。
在法国，代尔纳父母相继去世，叔父厄弗里蒙地侯爵继续为所欲为。当他那狂载的马车若无其事地轧死一个农民的孩子后，终于被孩子父亲用刀杀死。一场革命的风暴正在酝酿之中，得伐石的酒店就是革命活动的联络点，他的妻子不停地把贵族的暴行编织成不同的花纹，记录在围巾上，渴望复仇。
1739年法国大革命的风暴终于袭来了。巴黎人民攻占了巴士底狱，把贵族一个个送上断头台。远在伦敦的代尔纳为了营救管家盖白勒，冒险回国，一到巴黎就被捕入狱。梅尼特父女闻讯后星夜赶到。医生的出庭作证使代尔纳回到妻子的身边。可是，几小时后，代尔纳又被逮捕。在法庭上，得伐石宣读了当年医生在狱中写下的血书：向苍天和大地控告厄弗里蒙地家族的最后一个人。法庭判处代尔纳死刑。
就在这时，一直暗暗爱慕路茜的律师助手卡尔登来到巴黎，买通狱卒，混入监狱，顶替了昏迷中的代尔纳，梅尼特父女早已准备就绪，代尔纳一到，马上出发。一行人顺利地离开法国。
得伐石太太在代尔纳被判决后，又到梅尼特住所搜捕路茜及其幼女，在与普洛斯的争斗中，因枪支走火而毙命。而断头台上，卡尔登为了爱情，从容献身。
双城记-导读
双城记双城记
世界名著《双城记》---作者狄更斯"A Tale of Two Cities" (1859) by Charles Dickens (1812 - 1870)
《双城记》是狄更斯最重要的代表作之一。早在创作《双城记》之前很久，狄更斯就对法国大革命极为关注，反复研读英国历史学家卡莱尔的《法国革命史》和其他学者的有关著作。他对法国大革命的浓厚兴趣发端于对当时英国潜伏着的严重的社会危机的担忧。1854年底，他说：“我相信，不满情绪像这样冒烟比火烧起来还要坏得多，这特别像法国在第一次革命爆发前的公众心理，这就有危险，由于千百种原因——如收成不好、贵族阶级的专横与无能把已经紧张的局面最后一次加紧、海外战争的失利、国内偶发事件等等——变成那次从未见过的一场可怕的大火。”可见，《双城记》这部历史小说的创作动机在于借古讽今，以法国大革命的历史经验为借鉴，给英国统治阶级敲响警钟；同时，通过对革命恐怖的极端描写，也对心怀愤懑、希图以暴力对抗暴政的人民群众提出警告，幻想为社会矛盾日益加深的英国现状寻找一条出路。
从这个目的出发，小说深刻地揭露了法国大革命前深深激化了的社会矛盾，强烈地抨击贵族阶级的荒淫残暴，并深切地同情下层人民的苦难。作品尖锐地指出，人民群众的忍耐是有限度的，在贵族阶级的残暴统治下，人民群众迫于生计，必然奋起反抗。这种反抗是正义的。小说还描绘了起义人民攻击巴士底狱等壮观场景，表现了人民群众的伟大力量。然而，作者站在资产阶级人道主义的立场上，即反对残酷压迫人民的暴政，也反对革命人民反抗暴政的暴力。在狄更斯笔下，整个革命被描写成一场毁灭一切的巨大灾难，它无情地惩罚罪恶的贵族阶级，也盲目地杀害无辜的人们。
这部小说塑造了三类人物。一类是以厄弗里蒙地侯爵兄弟为代表的封建贵族，他们“唯一不可动摇的哲学就是压迫人”，是作者痛加鞭挞的对象。另一类是得伐石夫妇等革命群众。必须指出的是，他们的形象是被扭曲的。例如得伐石的妻子狄安娜，她出生于被侮辱、被迫害的农家，对封建贵族怀着深仇大恨，作者深切地同情她的悲惨遭遇，革命爆发前后很赞赏她坚强的性格、卓越的才智和非凡的组织领导能力；但当革命进一步深入时，就笔锋一转，把她贬斥为一个冷酷、凶狠、狭隘的复仇者。尤其是当她到医生住所搜捕路茜和小路茜时，更被表现为嗜血成性的狂人。最后，作者让她死在自己的枪口之下，明确地表示了否定的态度。第三类是理想化人物，是作者心目中以人道主义解决社会矛盾、以博爱战胜仇恨的榜样，包括梅尼特父女、代尔纳、劳雷和卡尔登等。梅尼特医生被侯爵兄弟害得家破人亡，对侯爵兄弟怀有深仇大恨，但是为了女儿的爱，可以摒弃宿仇旧恨；代尔纳是侯爵兄弟的子侄，他大彻大悟，谴责自己家族的罪恶，抛弃爵位和财产，决心以自己的行动来“赎罪”。这对互相辉映的人物，一个是贵族暴政的受害者，宽容为怀；一个是贵族侯爵的继承人，主张仁爱。他们中间，更有作为女儿和妻子的路茜。在爱的纽带的维系下，他们组成一个互相谅解、感情融洽的幸福家庭。这显然是作者设想的一条与暴力革命截然相反的解决社会矛盾的出路，是不切实际的。
《双城记》有其不同于一般历史小说的地方，它的人物和主要情节都是虚构的。在法国大革命广阔的真实背景下，作者以虚构人物梅尼特医生的经历为主线索，把冤狱、爱情与复仇三个互相独立而又互相关联的故事交织在一起，情节错综，头绪纷繁。作者采取倒叙、插叙、伏笔、铺垫等手法，使小说结构完整严密，情节曲折紧张而富有戏剧性，表现了卓越的艺术技巧。《双城记》风格肃穆、沉郁，充满忧愤，但缺少早期作品的幽默。
It depicts the plight of the French peasantry demoralized by the French aristocracy in the years leading up to the revolution, the corresponding brutality demonstrated by the revolutionaries toward the former aristocrats in the early years of the revolution, and many unflattering social parallels with life in London during the same time period. It follows the lives of several protagonists through these events, most notably Charles Darnay, a French once-aristocrat who falls victim to the indiscriminate wrath of the revolution despite his virtuous nature, and Sydney Carton, a dissipated British barrister who endeavours to redeem his ill-spent life out of love for Darnay's wife, Lucie Manette.
The novel was published in weekly installments (not monthly, as with most of his other novels). The first installment ran in the first issue of Dickens' literary periodical All the Year Round appearing on 30 April 1859; the thirty-first and last ran on 25 November of the same year.
Plot summary
Book the First: Recalled to Life
“ It was the best of times, it was the worst of times... ”
—Opening line of A Tale of Two Cities
It is 1775. Jarvis Lorry, an employee of Tellson's Bank, is travelling from England to France to bring Dr. Alexandre Manette to London. At Dover, before crossing to France, he meets seventeen-year-old Lucie Manette and reveals to her that her father, Dr. Manette, is not dead, as she had been told. He has been a prisoner in the Bastille for the last 18 years.
Lorry and Lucie travel to Saint Antoine, a suburb of Paris, where they meet the Defarges. Monsieur Ernest and Madame Therese Defarge own a wine shop. They also (secretly) lead a band of revolutionaries, who refer to each other by the codename "Jacques" (drawn from the name of an actual French revolutionary group, the Jacquerie).
Monsieur Defarge (who was Dr. Manette's servant before Manette's imprisonment, and now has care of him) takes them to see Dr. Manette. Manette has withdrawn from reality due to the horror of his imprisonment. He sits in a dark room all day making shoes, a trade he had learned whilst imprisoned. At first he does not know his daughter, but eventually recognizes her by her long golden hair which resembles her mother's. Dr. Manette had long kept a strand of his wife's hair which was found on his sleeve when he was imprisoned. Lucie's eyes are blue also just like his. Lorry and Lucie take him back to England.
Book the Second: The Golden Thread
"The Golden Thread" redirects here. For the legal judgement, see Golden thread (law).
It is now 1780. French emigrant Charles Darnay is being tried at the Old Bailey for treason. Two British spies, John Barsad and Roger Cly, are trying to frame the innocent Darnay for their own gain. They claim that Darnay, a Frenchman, gave information about British troops in North America to the French. Darnay is acquitted when a witness who claims he would be able to recognise Darnay anywhere cannot tell Darnay apart from a barrister present in court (not one of those defending Darnay), Sydney Carton, who just happens to look almost identical to him.
In Paris, the Marquis St. Evrémonde (Monseigneur), Darnay's uncle, runs over and kills the son of the peasant Gaspard; he throws a coin to Gaspard to compensate him for his loss. Monsieur Defarge comforts Gaspard. As the Marquis's coach drives off, Defarge throws the coin back into the coach, enraging the Marquis.
Arriving at his château, the Marquis meets with his nephew: Charles Darnay. (Darnay's real surname, therefore, is Evrémonde; out of disgust with his family, Darnay has adopted a version of his mother's maiden name, D'Aulnais.) They argue: Darnay has sympathy for the peasantry, while the Marquis is cruel and heartless:
"Repression is the only lasting philosophy. The dark deference of fear and slavery, my friend," observed the Marquis, "will keep the dogs obedient to the whip, as long as this roof," looking up to it, "shuts out the sky."
That night, Gaspard (who has followed the Marquis to his château, hanging under his coach) murders the Marquis in his sleep. He leaves a note saying, "Drive him fast to his tomb. This, from JACQUES."
In London, Darnay gets Dr. Manette's permission to wed Lucie. But Carton confesses his love to Lucie as well. Knowing she will not love him in return, Carton promises to "embrace any sacrifice for you and for those dear to you".
On the morning of the marriage, Darnay, at Dr. Manette's request, reveals who his family is, a detail which Dr. Manette had asked him to withhold until then. This unhinges Dr. Manette, who reverts to his obsessive shoemaking. His sanity is restored before Lucie returns from her honeymoon; to prevent a further relapse, Lorry destroys the shoemaking bench, which Dr. Manette had brought with him from Paris.
It is 14 July 1789. The Defarges help to lead the storming of the Bastille. Defarge enters Dr. Manette's former cell, "One Hundred and Five, North Tower". The reader does not know what Monsieur Defarge is searching for until Book 3, Chapter 9. (It is a statement in which Dr. Manette explains why he was imprisoned.)
In the summer of 1792, a letter reaches Tellson's bank. Mr. Lorry, who is planning to go to Paris to save the French branch of Tellson's, announces that the letter is addressed to Evrémonde. Nobody knows who Evrémonde is, because Darnay has kept his real name name a secret in England. Darnay acquires the letter by pretending Evrémonde is an acquaintance of his. The letter turns out to be from Gabelle, a servant of the former Marquis. Gabelle has been imprisoned, and begs the new Marquis to come to his aid. Darnay, who feels guilty, leaves for Paris to help Gabelle.
Book the Third: The Track of a Storm
"The Sea Rises", an illustration for Book 2, Chapter 21 by "Phiz"
In France, Darnay is denounced for emigrating from France, and imprisoned in La Force Prison in Paris. Dr. Manette and Lucie—along with Miss Pross, Jerry Cruncher, and "Little Lucie", the daughter of Charles and Lucie Darnay—come to Paris and meet Mr. Lorry to try to free Darnay. A year and three months pass, and Darnay is finally tried.
Dr. Manette, who is seen as a hero for his imprisonment in the hated Bastille, is able to get him released. But that same evening Darnay is again arrested, and is put on trial again the next day, under new charges brought by the Defarges and one "unnamed other". We soon discover that this other is Dr. Manette, through the testimony of his statement (his own account of his imprisonment, written in the Bastille in the "last month of the tenth year of [his] captivity"); Manette does not know that his statement has been found, and is horrified when his words are used to condemn Darnay.
On an errand, Miss Pross is amazed to see her long-lost brother, Solomon Pross, but Pross does not want to be recognised. Sydney Carton suddenly appears (stepping forward from the shadows much as he had done after Darnay's first trial in London) and identifies Solomon Pross as John Barsad, one of the men who tried to frame Darnay for treason at his first trial in London. Carton threatens to reveal Solomon's identity as a Briton and an opportunist who spies for the French or the British as it suits him. If this were revealed, Solomon would surely be executed, so Carton's hand is strong.
Darnay is confronted at the tribunal by Monsieur Defarge, who identifies Darnay as the Marquis St. Evrémonde and reads the letter Dr. Manette had hidden in his cell in the Bastille. Defarge can identify Darnay as Evrémonde because Barsad told him Darnay's identity when Barsad was fishing for information at the Defarges' wine shop in Book 2, Chapter 16. The letter describes how Dr. Manette was locked away in the Bastille by the deceased Marquis Evrémonde (Darnay's father) and his twin brother (who held the title of Marquis when we met him earlier in the book, and is the Marquis who was killed by Gaspard; Darnay's uncle) for trying to report their crimes against a peasant family. The younger brother had become infatuated with a girl. He had kidnapped and raped her and killed her husband, the knowledge of which killed her father, and her brother died in the act of fighting to protect her honor. Prior to his death, the brother of the raped peasant had hidden the last member of the family, his younger sister, "somewhere safe". The paper concludes by condemning the Evrémondes, "them and their descendants, to the last of their race". Dr. Manette is horrified, but his protests are ignored—he is not allowed to take back his condemnation. Darnay is sent to the Conciergerie and sentenced to be guillotined the next day.
Carton wanders into the Defarges' wine shop, where he overhears Madame Defarge talking about her plans to have the rest of Darnay's family (Lucie and "Little Lucie") condemned. Carton discovers that Madame Defarge was the surviving sister of the peasant family savaged by the Evrémondes. The only plot detail that might give one any sympathy for Madame Defarge is the loss of her family and that she has no (family) name. "Defarge" is her married name, and Dr. Manette cannot learn her family name, though he asks her dying sister for it. The next morning, when Dr. Manette returns shattered after having spent the previous night in many failed attempts to save Charles' life, he reverts to his obsessive shoemaking. Carton urges Lorry to flee Paris with Lucie, her father and "Little Lucie".
That same morning Carton visits Darnay in prison. Carton drugs Darnay, and Barsad (whom Carton is blackmailing) has Darnay carried out of the prison. Carton—who looks so similar to Darnay that a witness at Darnay's trial in England could not tell them apart—has decided to pretend to be Darnay, and to be executed in his place. He does this out of love for Lucie, recalling his earlier promise to her. Following Carton's earlier instructions, Darnay's family and Lorry flee Paris and France with an unconscious man in their coach who carries Carton's identification papers, but is actually Darnay.
Meanwhile Madame Defarge, armed with a pistol, goes to the residence of Lucie's family, hoping to catch them mourning for Darnay (since it was illegal to sympathise with or mourn for an enemy of the Republic); however, Lucie, her child, Dr. Manette and Mr. Lorry are already gone. To give them time to escape, Miss Pross confronts Madame Defarge and they struggle. Pross speaks only English and Defarge speaks only French, so neither can understand each other verbally. In the fight, Madame Defarge's pistol goes off, killing her; the noise of the shot and the shock of Madame Defarge's death cause Miss Pross to go permanently deaf.
The novel concludes with the guillotining of Sydney Carton. Carton's unspoken last thoughts are prophetic: Carton foresees that many of the revolutionaries, including Defarge, Barsad and The Vengeance (a lieutenant of Madame Defarge) will be sent to the guillotine themselves, and that Darnay and Lucie will have a son whom they will name after Carton: a son who will fulfill all the promise that Carton wasted. Lucie and Darnay have a first son earlier in the book who is born and dies within a single paragraph. It seems likely that this first son appears in the novel so that their later son, named after Carton, can represent another way in which Carton restores Lucie and Darnay through his sacrifice.
“ It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done; it is a far, far better rest that I go to, than I have ever known. ”
—Final sentence of A Tale of Two Cities
Analysis
A Tale of Two Cities is one of only two works of historical fiction by Charles Dickens (Barnaby Rudge is the other one). It has fewer characters and sub-plots than a typical Charles Dickens novel. The author's primary historical source was The French Revolution: A History by Thomas Carlyle: Charles Dickens wrote in his Preface to Tale that "no one can hope to add anything to the philosophy of Mr. Carlyle's wonderful book" Carlyle's view that history cycles through destruction and resurrection was an important influence on the novel, illustrated especially well by the life and death of Sydney Carton.
Language
Dickens uses literal translations of French idioms for characters who can't speak English, such as "What the devil do you do in that galley there?!!" and "Where is my husband? ---Here you see me." The Penguin Classics edition of the novel notes that "Not all readers have regarded the experiment as a success."
Humor
Dickens is renowned for his humor, but A Tale of Two Cities is one of his least comical books. Nonetheless, Jerry Cruncher, Miss Pross, and Mr. Stryver provide much comedy. Dickens also uses sarcasm as humour in the book to show different points of view. The book is full of tragic situations, therefore, leaving little room for intended humor provided by Dickens.
Foreshadowing
A Tale of Two Cities contains much foreshadowing:
* Carton's promise to Lucie, the "echoing footsteps" heard by the Manettes in their quiet home, and the wine spilling from the wine cask are only a few of dozens of instances.
* Carton promises Lucie he would die for her because he loves her so much.
* Echoing footsteps can either be the people coming into their lives or the revolutionaries.
* The wine spilling in the streets can be blood running through the streets of France.
* The wine cask breaking is a corrupted government, freedom, or blood from guillotine.
* The negro cupids show danger, and death from the guillotine.
Themes
"Recalled to Life"
In Dickens' England, resurrection always sat firmly in a Christian context. Most broadly, Sydney Carton is resurrected in spirit at the novel's close (even as he, paradoxically, gives up his physical life to save Darnay's—just as, in Christian belief, Christ died for the sins of all people.) More concretely, "Book the First" deals with the rebirth of Dr. Manette from the living death of his incarceration.
Resurrection appears for the first time when Mr. Lorry replies to the message carried by Jerry Cruncher with the words "Recalled to Life". Resurrection also appears during Mr. Lorry's coach ride to Dover, as he constantly ponders a hypothetical conversation with Dr. Manette: ("Buried how long?" "Almost eighteen years." ... "You know that you are recalled to life?" "They tell me so.") He believes he is helping with Dr. Manette's revival, and imagines himself "digging" Dr. Manette up from his grave.
Resurrection is the main theme in the novel. In Jarvis Lorry's thoughts of Dr. Manette, resurrection is first spotted as a theme. It is also the last theme: Carton's sacrifice. Dickens originally wanted to call the entire novel Recalled to Life. (This instead became the title of the first of the novel's three "books".)
Jerry is also part of the recurring theme: he himself is involved in death and resurrection in way that the reader does not yet know. The first piece of foreshadowing comes in his remark to himself: "You'd be in a blazing bad way, if recalling to life was to come into fashion, Jerry!" The black humour of this statement becomes obvious only much later on. Five years later, one cloudy and very dark night (in June 1780), Mr. Lorry reawakens the reader's interest in the mystery by telling Jerry it is "Almost a night ... to bring the dead out of their graves". Jerry responds firmly that he has never seen the night do that.
It turns out that Jerry Cruncher's involvement with the theme of resurrection is that he is what the Victorians called a "Resurrection Man", one who (illegally) digs up dead bodies to sell to medical men (there was no legal way to procure cadavers for study at that time).
The opposite of resurrection is of course death. Death and resurrection appear often in the novel. Dickens is angered that in France and England, courts hand out death sentences for insignificant crimes. In France, peasants are even put to death without any trial, at the whim of a noble. The Marquis tells Darnay with pleasure that "[I]n the next room (my bedroom), one fellow ... was poniarded on the spot for professing some insolent delicacy respecting his daughter—his daughter!"
Interestingly, the demolition of Dr. Manette's shoe-making workbench by Miss Pross and Mr. Lorry is described as "the burning of the body". It seems clear that this is a rare case where death or destruction (the opposite of resurrection) has a positive connotation, since the "burning" helps liberate the doctor from the memory of his long imprisonment. But Dickens' description of this kind and healing act is strikingly odd:
"The Accomplices", an illustration for Book 2, Chapter 19 by "Phiz"
So wicked do destruction and secrecy appear to honest minds, that Mr. Lorry and Miss Pross, while engaged in the commission of their deed and in the removal of its traces, almost felt, and almost looked, like accomplices in a horrible crime.
Sydney Carton's martyrdom atones for all his past wrongdoings. He even finds God during the last few days of his life, repeating Christ's soothing words, "I am the resurrection and the life". Resurrection is the dominant theme of the last part of the novel. Darnay is rescued at the last moment and recalled to life; Carton chooses death and resurrection to a life better than that which he has ever known: "it was the peacefullest man's face ever beheld there ... he looked sublime and prophetic".
In the broadest sense, at the end of the novel Dickens foresees a resurrected social order in France, rising from the ashes of the old one.
Water
Many in the Jungian archetypal tradition might agree with Hans Biedermann, who writes that water "is the fundamental symbol of all the energy of the unconscious—an energy that can be dangerous when it overflows its proper limits (a frequent dream sequence)." This symbolism suits Dickens' novel; in A Tale of Two Cities, the frequent images of water stand for the building anger of the peasant mob, an anger that Dickens sympathises with to a point, but ultimately finds irrational and even animalistic.
Early in the book, Dickens suggests this when he writes, “[T]he sea did what it liked, and what it liked was destruction.” The sea here represents the coming mob of revolutionaries. After Gaspard murders the Marquis, he is “hanged there forty feet high—and is left hanging, poisoning the water.” The poisoning of the well represents the bitter impact of Gaspard's execution on the collective feeling of the peasants.
After Gaspard’s death, the storming of the Bastille is led (from the St. Antoine neighbourhood, at least) by the Defarges; “As a whirlpool of boiling waters has a centre point, so, all this raging circled around Defarge’s wine shop, and every human drop in the cauldron had a tendency to be sucked towards the vortex...” The crowd is envisioned as a sea. “With a roar that sounded as if all the breath in France had been shaped into a detested word [the word Bastille], the living sea rose, wave upon wave, depth upon depth, and overflowed the city...”
Darnay’s jailer is described as “unwholesomely bloated in both face and person, as to look like a man who had been drowned and filled with water.” Later, during the Reign of Terror, the revolution had grown “so much more wicked and distracted ... that the rivers of the South were encumbered with bodies of the violently drowned by night...” Later a crowd is “swelling and overflowing out into the adjacent streets ... the Carmagnole absorbed them every one and whirled them away.”
During the fight with Miss Pross, Madame Defarge clings to her with “more than the hold of a drowning woman”. Commentators on the novel have noted the irony that Madame Defarge is killed by her own gun, and perhaps Dickens means by the above quote to suggest that such vicious vengefulness as Madame Defarge's will eventually destroy even its perpetrators.
So many read the novel in a Freudian light, as exalting the (British) superego over the (French) id. Yet in Carton's last walk, he watches an eddy that "turned and turned purposeless, until the stream absorbed it, and carried it onto the sea"—his fulfilment, while masochistic and superego-driven, is nonetheless an ecstatic union with the subconscious.
Darkness and light
As is common in English literature, good and evil are symbolised with light and darkness. Lucie Manette is often associated with light and Madame Defarge with darkness.
Lucie meets her father for the first time in a room kept by the Defarges:." Lucie's hair symbolises joy as she winds "the golden thread that bound them all together". She is adorned with "diamonds, very bright and sparkling", and symbolic of the happiness of the day of her marriage.
Darkness represents uncertainty, fear and peril. It is dark when Mr. Lorry rides to Dover; it is dark in the prisons; dark shadows follow Madame Defarge; dark, gloomy doldrums disturb Dr. Manette; his capture and captivity are shrouded in darkness; the Marquis’s estate is burned in the dark of night; Jerry Cruncher raids graves in the darkness; Charles's second arrest also occurs at night. Both Lucie and Mr. Lorry feel the dark threat that is Madame Defarge. "That dreadful woman seems to throw a shadow on me," remarks Lucie. Although Mr. Lorry tries to comfort her, "the shadow of the manner of these Defarges was dark upon himself". Madame Defarge is "like a shadow over the white road", the snow symbolising purity and Madame Defarge's darkness corruption. Dickens also compares the dark colour of blood to the pure white snow: the blood takes on the shade of the crimes of its shedders.
Social injustice
Charles Dickens was a champion of the maltreated poor because of his terrible experience when he was forced to work in a factory as a child. His sympathies, however, lie only up to a point with the revolutionaries; he condemns the mob madness which soon sets in. When madmen and -women massacre eleven hundred detainees in one night and hustle back to sharpen their weapons on the grindstone, they display "eyes which any unbrutalised beholder would have given twenty years of life, to petrify with a well-directed gun".
The reader is shown the poor are brutalised in France and England alike. As crime proliferates, the executioner in England is "stringing up long rows of miscellaneous criminals; now hanging housebreaker ... now burning people in the hand" or hanging a broke man for stealing sixpence. In France, a boy is sentenced to have his hands removed and be burned alive, only because he did not kneel down in the rain before a parade of monks passing some fifty yards away. At the lavish residence of Monseigneur, we find "brazen ecclesiastics of the worst world worldly, with sensual eyes, loose tongues, and looser lives ... Military officers destitute of military knowledge ... [and] Doctors who made great fortunes ... for imaginary disorders".
The Marquis recalls with pleasure the days when his family had the right of life and death over their slaves, "when many such dogs were taken out to be hanged". He won't even allow a widow to put up a board bearing her dead husband’s name, to discern his resting place from all the others. He orders Madame Defarge's sick brother-in-law to heave a cart all day and allay frogs at night to exacerbate the young man's illness and hasten his death.
In England, even banks endorse unbalanced sentences: a man may be condemned to death for nicking a horse or opening a letter. Conditions in the prisons are dreadful. "Most kinds of debauchery and villainy were practised, and ... dire diseases were bred", sometimes killing the judge before the accused.
So riled is Dickens at the brutality of English law that he depicts some of its punishments with sarcasm: "the whipping-post, another dear old institution, very humanising and softening to behold in action". He faults the law for not seeking reform: "Whatever is right" is the dictum of the Old Bailey. The gruesome portrayal of quartering highlights its atrocity.
Without entirely forgiving him, Dickens understands that Jerry Cruncher robs graves only to feed his son, and reminds the reader that Mr. Lorry is more likely to rebuke Jerry for his humble social status than anything else. Jerry reminds Mr. Lorry that doctors, men of the cloth, undertakers and watchmen are also conspirators in the selling of bodies.
Dickens wants his readers to be careful that the same revolution that so damaged France will not happen in Britain, which (at least at the beginning of the book) is shown to be nearly as unjust as France. But his warning is addressed not to the British lower classes, but to the aristocracy. He repeatedly uses the metaphor of sowing and reaping; if the aristocracy continues to plant the seeds of a revolution through behaving unjustly, they can be certain of harvesting that revolution in time. The lower classes do not have any agency in this metaphor: they simply react to the behaviour of the aristocracy. In this sense it can be said that while Dickens sympathises with the poor, he identifies with the rich: they are the book's audience, its "us" and not its "them". "Crush humanity out of shape once more, under similar hammers, and it will twist itself into the same tortured forms. Sow the same seed of rapacious licence and oppression over again, and it will surely yield the same fruit according to its kind".
Relation to Dickens' personal life
Some have argued that in A Tale of Two Cities Dickens reflects on his recently begun affair with eighteen-year-old actress Ellen Ternan, which was possibly asexual but certainly romantic. Lucie Manette resembles Ternan physically, and some have seen "a sort of implied emotional incest" in the relationship between Dr. Manette and his daughter.
After starring in a play by Wilkie Collins entitled The Frozen Deep, Dickens was first inspired to write Tale. In the play, Dickens played the part of a man who sacrifices his own life so that his rival may have the woman they both love; the love triangle in the play became the basis for the relationships between Charles Darnay, Lucie Manette, and Sydney Carton in Tale.
Sydney Carton and Charles Darnay may also bear importantly on Dickens' personal life. The plot hinges on the near-perfect resemblance between Sydney Carton and Charles Darnay; the two look so alike that Carton twice saves Darnay through the inability of others to tell them apart. It is implied that Carton and Darnay not only look alike, but they have the same "genetic" endowments (to use a term that Dickens would not have known): Carton is Darnay made bad. Carton suggests as much:
'Do you particularly like the man [Darnay]?' he muttered, at his own image [which he is regarding in a mirror]; 'why should you particularly like a man who resembles you? There is nothing in you to like; you know that. Ah, confound you! What a change you have made in yourself! A good reason for talking to a man, that he shows you what you have fallen away from and what you might have been! Change places with him, and would you have been looked at by those blue eyes [belonging to Lucie Manette] as he was, and commiserated by that agitated face as he was? Come on, and have it out in plain words! You hate the fellow.'
Many have felt that Carton and Darnay are doppelgängers, which Eric Rabkin defines as a pair "of characters that together, represent one psychological persona in the narrative". If so, they would prefigure such works as Robert Louis Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Darnay is worthy and respectable but dull (at least to most modern readers), Carton disreputable but magnetic.
One can only suspect whose psychological persona it is that Carton and Darnay together embody (if they do), but it is often thought to be the psyche of Dickens himself. Dickens was quite aware that between them, Carton and Darnay shared his own initials.
Characters
Many of Dickens' characters are "flat", not "round", in the novelist E. M. Forster's famous terms, meaning roughly that they have only one mood. In Tale, for example, the Marquis is unremittingly wicked and relishes being so; Lucie is perfectly loving and supportive. (As a corollary, Dickens often gives these characters verbal tics or visual quirks that he mentions over and over, such as the dints in the nose of the Marquis.) Forster believed that Dickens never truly created rounded characters, but a character such as Carton surely at least comes closer to roundness.
* Sydney Carton – A quick-minded but depressed English barrister alcoholic, and cynic; his Christ-like self-sacrifice redeems his own life and that of Charles Darnay.
* Lucie Manette – An ideal Victorian lady, perfect in every way. She was loved by both Carton and Charles Darnay (whom she marries), and is the daughter of Dr. Manette. She is the "golden thread" after whom Book Two is named, so called because she holds her father's and her family's lives together (and because of her blond hair like her mother's). She also ties nearly every character in the book together.
* Charles Darnay – A young French noble of the Evrémonde family. In disgust at the cruelty of his family to the French peasantry, he has taken on the name "Darnay" (after his mother's maiden name, D'Aulnais) and left France for England.
* Dr. Alexandre Manette – Lucie's father, kept a prisoner in the Bastille for eighteen years.
* Monsieur Ernest Defarge – The owner of a French wine shop and leader of the Jacquerie; husband of Madame Defarge; servant to Dr. Manette as a youth. One of the key revolutionary leaders, he leads the revolution with a noble cause, unlike many of other revolutionaries.
* Madame Therese Defarge – A vengeful female revolutionary, arguably the novel's antagonist
* The Vengeance – A companion of Madame Defarge referred to as her "shadow" and lieutenant, a member of the sisterhood of women revolutionaries in Saint Antoine, and revolutionary zealot. (Many Frenchmen and women did change their names to show their enthusiasm for the Revolution)
* Jarvis Lorry – An elderly manager at Tellson's Bank and a dear friend of Dr. Manette.
* Miss Pross – Lucie Manette's governess since Lucie was ten years old. Fiercely loyal to Lucie and to England.
* The Marquis St. Evrémonde – The cruel uncle of Charles Darnay.
* John Barsad (real name Solomon Pross) – A spy for Britain who later becomes a spy for France (at which point he must hide that he is British). He is the long-lost brother of Miss Pross.
* Roger Cly – Another spy, Barsad's collaborator.
* Jerry Cruncher – Porter and messenger for Tellson's Bank and secret "Resurrection Man" (body-snatcher). His first name is short for Jeremiah.
* Young Jerry Cruncher - Son of Jerry and Mrs. Cruncher. Young Jerry often follows his father around to his father's odd jobs, and at one point in the story, follows his father at night and discovers that his father is a resurrection man. Young Jerry looks up to his father as a role model, and aspires to become a resurrection man himself when he grows up.
* Mrs. Cruncher - Wife of Jerry Cruncher. She is a very religious woman, but her husband, being a bit paranoid, claims she is praying against him, and that is why he doesn't succeed at work often. She is often abused verbally, and almost as often, abused physically, by Jerry, but at the end of the story, he appears to feel a bit guilty about this.
* Mr. Stryver – An arrogant and ambitious barrister, senior to Sydney Carton. There is a frequent mis-perception that Stryver's full name is "C. J. Stryver", but this is very unlikely. The mistake comes from a line in Book 2, Chapter 12: "After trying it, Stryver, C. J., was satisfied that no plainer case could be." The initials C. J. almost certainly refer to a legal title (probably "chief justice"); Stryver is imagining that he is playing every role in a trial in which he browbeats Lucie Manette into marrying him.
* The Seamstress – A young woman caught up in The Terror. She precedes Sydney Carton, who comforts her, to the guillotine.
* Gabelle – Gabelle is "the Postmaster, and some other taxing functionary, united" for the tenants of the Marquis St. Evrémonde. Gabelle is imprisoned by the revolutionaries, and his beseeching letter brings Darnay to France. Gabelle is "named after the hated salt tax".
* Gaspard – Gaspard is the man whose son is run over by the Marquis. He then kills the Marquis and goes into hiding for a year. He eventually is found, arrested, and executed.
Adaptations
Films
There have been at least five feature films based on the book:
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1911 silent film.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1917 silent film.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1922 silent film.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1935 black-and-white MGM film starring Ronald Colman, Elizabeth Allan, Reginald Owen, Basil Rathbone and Edna Mae Oliver. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1958 version, starring Dirk Bogarde, Dorothy Tutin, Christopher Lee, Leo McKern and Donald Pleasance.
In the 1981 film History of the World, Part I, the French Revolution segment appears to be a pastiche of A Tale of Two Cities.
In the film A Simple Wish, the protagonist's father Oliver (possibly a reference to another of Dickens' famous novels, Oliver Twist) is vying for a spot in his theatre company's production of a musical of A Tale of Two Cities, of which we see the beginning and end, using the two famous quotes, including "It is a far, far better thing that I do", as part of a few solos.
Terry Gilliam also developed a film version in the mid-1990s with Mel Gibson and Liam Neeson. The project was eventually abandoned.
Radio
In 1938, The Mercury Theatre on the Air (aka The Campbell Playhouse) produced a radio adapted version starring Orson Welles.
In 1945, a portion of the novel was adapted to the syndicated program The Weird Circle as "Dr. Manette's Manuscript."
In 1950, a radio adaptation written by Terence Rattigan and John Gielgud was broadcast by the BBC. They had written it in 1935, as a stage play, but it was not produced.
In June 1989, BBC Radio 4 produced a 7-hour drama adapted for radio by Nick McCarty and directed by Ian Cotterell. This adaptation is occasionally repeated by BBC Radio 7. The cast included:
* Charles Dance as Sydney Carton
* Maurice Denham as Dr. Alexandre Manette
* Charlotte Attenborough as Lucie Manette
* Richard Pasco as Jarvis Lorry
* John Duttine as Charles Darnay
* Barbara Leigh-Hunt as Miss Pross
* Margaret Robertson as Madame Defarge
* John Hollis as Jerry Cruncher
* John Bull as Ernest Defarge
* Aubrey Woods as Mr. Stryver
* Eva Stuart as Mrs. Cruncher
* John Moffat as Marquis St. Evremonde
* Geoffrey Whitehead as John Barsad and Jacques #2
* Nicholas Courtney as Jacques #3 and The Woodcutter
Television programs
An 8-part mini-series was produced by the BBC in 1957 starring Peter Wyngarde as "Sydney Carton", Edward de Souza as "Charles Darnay" and Wendy Hutchinson as "Lucie Manette".
Another mini-series, this one in 10 parts, was produced by the BBC in 1965.
A third BBC mini-series (in 8 parts) was produced in 1980 starring Paul Shelley as "Carton/Darnay", Sally Osborne as "Lucie Manette" and Nigel Stock as "Jarvis Lorry".
The novel was adapted into a 1980 television movie starring Chris Sarandon as "Sydney Carton/Charles Darnay". Peter Cushing as "Dr. Alexandre Manette", Alice Krige as "Lucie Manette", Flora Robson as "Miss Pross", Barry Morse as "The Marquis St. Evremonde" and Billie Whitelaw as "Madame Defarge".
In 1989 Granada Television made a mini-series starring James Wilby as "Sydney Carton", Serena Gordon as "Lucie Manette", Xavier Deluc as "Charles Darnay", Anna Massey as "Miss Pross" and John Mills as "Jarvis Lorry", which was shown on American television as part of the PBS television series Masterpiece Theatre.
In the 1970 Monty Python's Flying Circus episode "The Attila the Hun Show", the sketch "The News for Parrots" included a scene of A Tale of Two Cities (As told for parrots).
The children's television series Wishbone adapted the novel for the episode "A Tale of Two Sitters".
This novel was also mentioned in the Nickelodeon show Hey Arnold, where Oscar was learning how to read.
Books
In Nicholas Meyer's novel The Canary Trainer, descended from Charles and Lucie, once more titled the Marquis de St. Evremonde, attends the Paris Opera during the events of The Phantom of the Opera.
American author Susanne Alleyn's novel A Far Better Rest, a reimagining of A Tale of Two Cities from the point of view of Sydney Carton, was published in the USA in 2000.
Diane Mayer self-published her novel Evremonde through iUniverse in 2005; it tells the story of Charles and Lucie Darnay and their children after the French Revolution.
Simplified versions of A Tale of Two Cities for English language learners have been published by Penguin Readers, in several levels of difficulty.
Stage musicals
There have been four musicals based on the novel:
A 1968 stage version, Two Cities, the Spectacular New Musical, with music by Jeff Wayne, lyrics by Jerry Wayne and starring Edward Woodward.
A Tale of Two Cities, Jill Santoriello's musical adaptation of A Tale of Two Cities, was performed at the Asolo Repertory Theatre in Sarasota, Florida, in October and November 2007. James Stacy Barbour ("Sydney Carton") and Jessica Rush ("Lucie Manette") were among the cast. A production of the musical began previews on Broadway on 19 August 2008, opening on 18 September at the Al Hirschfeld Theatre. Warren Carlyle is the director/choreographer; the cast includes James Stacy Barbour as "Sydney Carton", Brandi Burkhardt as "Lucie Manette", Aaron Lazar as "Charles Darnay", Gregg Edelman as "Dr. Manette", Katherine McGrath as "Miss Pross", Michael Hayward-Jones as "Jarvis Lorry" and Natalie Toro as "Madame Defarge".
In 2006, Howard Goodall collaborated with Joanna Read in writing a separate musical adaptation of the novel called Two Cities. The central plot and characters were maintained, though Goodall set the action during the Russian Revolution.
The novel has also been adapted as a musical by Takarazuka Revue, the all-female opera company in Japan. The first production was in 1984, starring Mao Daichi at the Grand Theater, and the second was in 2003, starring Jun Sena at the Bow Hall.
Opera
Arthur Benjamin's operatic version of the novel, subtitled Romantic Melodrama in six scenes, was premiered by the BBC on 17 April 1953, conducted by the composer; it received its stage premiere at Sadler's Wells on 22 July 1957, under the baton of Leon Lovett.
双城记-创作团队
导演： 杰克·康威 罗伯特·Z·伦纳德
主演： 罗纳德·考尔曼 唐纳德·伍兹 伊丽莎白·艾兰
编剧 Writer：查尔斯·狄更斯 Charles Dickens 塞缪尔·N·贝尔曼 S.N. Behrman W.P. Lipscomb Thomas
制作人 Produced by：大卫·O·塞尔兹尼克 David O. Selznick
双城记-影评
这是一个最好的时代，也是一个最坏的时代；这是明智的时代，这是愚昧的时代；这是信任的纪元，这是怀疑的纪元；这是光明的季节，这是黑暗的季节；这是希望的春日，这是失望的冬日；我们面前应有尽有，我们面前一无所有；我们都将直上天堂，我们都将直下地狱。。。
——狄更斯 《双城记》
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness; it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity; it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness; it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair; we had everything before us, we had nothing before us; we were all going directly to Heaven, we were all going the other way.
——Charles Dichens (A Tale of Two Cities)
为什么叫双城记？狄更斯的这部作品，让我想起了卡萨布兰卡，为了所爱的人，放弃了所爱的人。了解这个时代的背景是很重要的，不然前面会觉的转的太快。总的来说，大作家的小说还是无懈可击的。当下的社会与狄更斯眼中书中的时代是否相似？我们的出口又在哪里？欣赏狄更斯的这段名言。
双城记-幕后花絮
本片改编自狄更斯的同名不朽名著《双城记》，在大制作家大卫．塞茨尼克与导演杰克．康韦的倾力摄制下，完成了这部反映法国大革命时代悲剧的杰作，也是根据本书拍摄的六个电影版本中成绩最好的一部。狄更斯的小说利用各种元素描述一个动人心魄催人泪下的爱情故事，自出版以来受到无数读者的热心追捧，一版再版。本片并没有完全包括小说展现出来的所有元素，但却没有遗漏任何最为重要的情节。当然，没有哪一部通过优秀的小说改编的电...
双城记-《双城记》原著简介：
1775年12月的一个月夜，寓居巴黎的年轻医生梅尼特散步时，突然被厄弗里蒙地侯爵兄弟强迫出诊。在侯爵府第中，他目睹一个发狂的绝色农妇和一个身受剑伤的少年饮恨而死的惨状，并获悉侯爵兄弟为了片刻淫乐杀害他们全家的内情。他拒绝侯爵兄弟的重金贿赂，写信向朝廷告发。不料控告信落到被告人手中，医生被关进巴士底狱，从此与世隔绝，杳无音讯。两年后，妻子心碎而死。幼小的孤女路茜被好友劳雷接到伦敦，在善良的女仆普洛斯抚养下长大。
18 年后，梅尼特医生获释。这位精神失常的白发老人被巴黎圣安东尼区的一名酒贩、他旧日的仆人得伐石收留。这时，女儿路茜已经成长，专程接他去英国居住。旅途上，他们邂逅法国青年查理·代尔纳，受到他的细心照料。
原来代尔纳就是侯爵的儿子。他憎恨自己家族的罪恶，毅然放弃财产的继承权和贵族的姓氏，移居伦敦，当了一名法语教师。在与梅尼特父女的交往中，他对路茜产生了真诚的爱情。梅尼特为了女儿的幸福，决定埋葬过去，欣然同意他们的婚事。
在法国，代尔纳父母相继去世，叔父厄弗里蒙地侯爵继续为所欲为。当他那狂载的马车若无其事地轧死一个农民的孩子后，终于被孩子父亲用刀杀死。一场革命的风暴正在酝酿之中，得伐石的酒店就是革命活动的联络点，他的妻子不停地把贵族的暴行编织成不同的花纹，记录在围巾上，渴望复仇。
1739年法国大革命的风暴终于袭来了。巴黎人民攻占了巴士底狱，把贵族一个个送上断头台。远在伦敦的代尔纳为了营救管家盖白勒，冒险回国，一到巴黎就被捕入狱。梅尼特父女闻讯后星夜赶到。医生的出庭作证使代尔纳回到妻子的身边。可是，几小时后，代尔纳又被逮捕。在法庭上，得伐石宣读了当年医生在狱中写下的血书：向苍天和大地控告厄弗里蒙地家族的最后一个人。法庭判处代尔纳死刑。
就在这时，一直暗暗爱慕路茜的律师助手卡尔登来到巴黎，买通狱卒，混入监狱，顶替了昏迷中的代尔纳，梅尼特父女早已准备就绪，代尔纳一到，马上出发。一行人顺利地离开法国。
得伐石太太在代尔纳被判决后，又到梅尼特住所搜捕路茜及其幼女，在与普洛斯的争斗中，因枪支走火而毙命。而断头台上，卡尔登为了爱情，从容献身。
双城记-导读
双城记双城记
世界名著《双城记》---作者狄更斯"A Tale of Two Cities" (1859) by Charles Dickens (1812 - 1870)
《双城记》是狄更斯最重要的代表作之一。早在创作《双城记》之前很久，狄更斯就对法国大革命极为关注，反复研读英国历史学家卡莱尔的《法国革命史》和其他学者的有关著作。他对法国大革命的浓厚兴趣发端于对当时英国潜伏着的严重的社会危机的担忧。1854年底，他说：“我相信，不满情绪像这样冒烟比火烧起来还要坏得多，这特别像法国在第一次革命爆发前的公众心理，这就有危险，由于千百种原因——如收成不好、贵族阶级的专横与无能把已经紧张的局面最后一次加紧、海外战争的失利、国内偶发事件等等——变成那次从未见过的一场可怕的大火。”可见，《双城记》这部历史小说的创作动机在于借古讽今，以法国大革命的历史经验为借鉴，给英国统治阶级敲响警钟；同时，通过对革命恐怖的极端描写，也对心怀愤懑、希图以暴力对抗暴政的人民群众提出警告，幻想为社会矛盾日益加深的英国现状寻找一条出路。
从这个目的出发，小说深刻地揭露了法国大革命前深深激化了的社会矛盾，强烈地抨击贵族阶级的荒淫残暴，并深切地同情下层人民的苦难。作品尖锐地指出，人民群众的忍耐是有限度的，在贵族阶级的残暴统治下，人民群众迫于生计，必然奋起反抗。这种反抗是正义的。小说还描绘了起义人民攻击巴士底狱等壮观场景，表现了人民群众的伟大力量。然而，作者站在资产阶级人道主义的立场上，即反对残酷压迫人民的暴政，也反对革命人民反抗暴政的暴力。在狄更斯笔下，整个革命被描写成一场毁灭一切的巨大灾难，它无情地惩罚罪恶的贵族阶级，也盲目地杀害无辜的人们。
这部小说塑造了三类人物。一类是以厄弗里蒙地侯爵兄弟为代表的封建贵族，他们“唯一不可动摇的哲学就是压迫人”，是作者痛加鞭挞的对象。另一类是得伐石夫妇等革命群众。必须指出的是，他们的形象是被扭曲的。例如得伐石的妻子狄安娜，她出生于被侮辱、被迫害的农家，对封建贵族怀着深仇大恨，作者深切地同情她的悲惨遭遇，革命爆发前后很赞赏她坚强的性格、卓越的才智和非凡的组织领导能力；但当革命进一步深入时，就笔锋一转，把她贬斥为一个冷酷、凶狠、狭隘的复仇者。尤其是当她到医生住所搜捕路茜和小路茜时，更被表现为嗜血成性的狂人。最后，作者让她死在自己的枪口之下，明确地表示了否定的态度。第三类是理想化人物，是作者心目中以人道主义解决社会矛盾、以博爱战胜仇恨的榜样，包括梅尼特父女、代尔纳、劳雷和卡尔登等。梅尼特医生被侯爵兄弟害得家破人亡，对侯爵兄弟怀有深仇大恨，但是为了女儿的爱，可以摒弃宿仇旧恨；代尔纳是侯爵兄弟的子侄，他大彻大悟，谴责自己家族的罪恶，抛弃爵位和财产，决心以自己的行动来“赎罪”。这对互相辉映的人物，一个是贵族暴政的受害者，宽容为怀；一个是贵族侯爵的继承人，主张仁爱。他们中间，更有作为女儿和妻子的路茜。在爱的纽带的维系下，他们组成一个互相谅解、感情融洽的幸福家庭。这显然是作者设想的一条与暴力革命截然相反的解决社会矛盾的出路，是不切实际的。
《双城记》有其不同于一般历史小说的地方，它的人物和主要情节都是虚构的。在法国大革命广阔的真实背景下，作者以虚构人物梅尼特医生的经历为主线索，把冤狱、爱情与复仇三个互相独立而又互相关联的故事交织在一起，情节错综，头绪纷繁。作者采取倒叙、插叙、伏笔、铺垫等手法，使小说结构完整严密，情节曲折紧张而富有戏剧性，表现了卓越的艺术技巧。《双城记》风格肃穆、沉郁，充满忧愤，但缺少早期作品的幽默。
It depicts the plight of the French peasantry demoralized by the French aristocracy in the years leading up to the revolution, the corresponding brutality demonstrated by the revolutionaries toward the former aristocrats in the early years of the revolution, and many unflattering social parallels with life in London during the same time period. It follows the lives of several protagonists through these events, most notably Charles Darnay, a French once-aristocrat who falls victim to the indiscriminate wrath of the revolution despite his virtuous nature, and Sydney Carton, a dissipated British barrister who endeavours to redeem his ill-spent life out of love for Darnay's wife, Lucie Manette.
The novel was published in weekly installments (not monthly, as with most of his other novels). The first installment ran in the first issue of Dickens' literary periodical All the Year Round appearing on 30 April 1859; the thirty-first and last ran on 25 November of the same year.
Plot summary
Book the First: Recalled to Life
“ It was the best of times, it was the worst of times... ”
—Opening line of A Tale of Two Cities
It is 1775. Jarvis Lorry, an employee of Tellson's Bank, is travelling from England to France to bring Dr. Alexandre Manette to London. At Dover, before crossing to France, he meets seventeen-year-old Lucie Manette and reveals to her that her father, Dr. Manette, is not dead, as she had been told. He has been a prisoner in the Bastille for the last 18 years.
Lorry and Lucie travel to Saint Antoine, a suburb of Paris, where they meet the Defarges. Monsieur Ernest and Madame Therese Defarge own a wine shop. They also (secretly) lead a band of revolutionaries, who refer to each other by the codename "Jacques" (drawn from the name of an actual French revolutionary group, the Jacquerie).
Monsieur Defarge (who was Dr. Manette's servant before Manette's imprisonment, and now has care of him) takes them to see Dr. Manette. Manette has withdrawn from reality due to the horror of his imprisonment. He sits in a dark room all day making shoes, a trade he had learned whilst imprisoned. At first he does not know his daughter, but eventually recognizes her by her long golden hair which resembles her mother's. Dr. Manette had long kept a strand of his wife's hair which was found on his sleeve when he was imprisoned. Lucie's eyes are blue also just like his. Lorry and Lucie take him back to England.
Book the Second: The Golden Thread
"The Golden Thread" redirects here. For the legal judgement, see Golden thread (law).
It is now 1780. French emigrant Charles Darnay is being tried at the Old Bailey for treason. Two British spies, John Barsad and Roger Cly, are trying to frame the innocent Darnay for their own gain. They claim that Darnay, a Frenchman, gave information about British troops in North America to the French. Darnay is acquitted when a witness who claims he would be able to recognise Darnay anywhere cannot tell Darnay apart from a barrister present in court (not one of those defending Darnay), Sydney Carton, who just happens to look almost identical to him.
In Paris, the Marquis St. Evrémonde (Monseigneur), Darnay's uncle, runs over and kills the son of the peasant Gaspard; he throws a coin to Gaspard to compensate him for his loss. Monsieur Defarge comforts Gaspard. As the Marquis's coach drives off, Defarge throws the coin back into the coach, enraging the Marquis.
Arriving at his château, the Marquis meets with his nephew: Charles Darnay. (Darnay's real surname, therefore, is Evrémonde; out of disgust with his family, Darnay has adopted a version of his mother's maiden name, D'Aulnais.) They argue: Darnay has sympathy for the peasantry, while the Marquis is cruel and heartless:
"Repression is the only lasting philosophy. The dark deference of fear and slavery, my friend," observed the Marquis, "will keep the dogs obedient to the whip, as long as this roof," looking up to it, "shuts out the sky."
That night, Gaspard (who has followed the Marquis to his château, hanging under his coach) murders the Marquis in his sleep. He leaves a note saying, "Drive him fast to his tomb. This, from JACQUES."
In London, Darnay gets Dr. Manette's permission to wed Lucie. But Carton confesses his love to Lucie as well. Knowing she will not love him in return, Carton promises to "embrace any sacrifice for you and for those dear to you".
On the morning of the marriage, Darnay, at Dr. Manette's request, reveals who his family is, a detail which Dr. Manette had asked him to withhold until then. This unhinges Dr. Manette, who reverts to his obsessive shoemaking. His sanity is restored before Lucie returns from her honeymoon; to prevent a further relapse, Lorry destroys the shoemaking bench, which Dr. Manette had brought with him from Paris.
It is 14 July 1789. The Defarges help to lead the storming of the Bastille. Defarge enters Dr. Manette's former cell, "One Hundred and Five, North Tower". The reader does not know what Monsieur Defarge is searching for until Book 3, Chapter 9. (It is a statement in which Dr. Manette explains why he was imprisoned.)
In the summer of 1792, a letter reaches Tellson's bank. Mr. Lorry, who is planning to go to Paris to save the French branch of Tellson's, announces that the letter is addressed to Evrémonde. Nobody knows who Evrémonde is, because Darnay has kept his real name name a secret in England. Darnay acquires the letter by pretending Evrémonde is an acquaintance of his. The letter turns out to be from Gabelle, a servant of the former Marquis. Gabelle has been imprisoned, and begs the new Marquis to come to his aid. Darnay, who feels guilty, leaves for Paris to help Gabelle.
Book the Third: The Track of a Storm
"The Sea Rises", an illustration for Book 2, Chapter 21 by "Phiz"
In France, Darnay is denounced for emigrating from France, and imprisoned in La Force Prison in Paris. Dr. Manette and Lucie—along with Miss Pross, Jerry Cruncher, and "Little Lucie", the daughter of Charles and Lucie Darnay—come to Paris and meet Mr. Lorry to try to free Darnay. A year and three months pass, and Darnay is finally tried.
Dr. Manette, who is seen as a hero for his imprisonment in the hated Bastille, is able to get him released. But that same evening Darnay is again arrested, and is put on trial again the next day, under new charges brought by the Defarges and one "unnamed other". We soon discover that this other is Dr. Manette, through the testimony of his statement (his own account of his imprisonment, written in the Bastille in the "last month of the tenth year of [his] captivity"); Manette does not know that his statement has been found, and is horrified when his words are used to condemn Darnay.
On an errand, Miss Pross is amazed to see her long-lost brother, Solomon Pross, but Pross does not want to be recognised. Sydney Carton suddenly appears (stepping forward from the shadows much as he had done after Darnay's first trial in London) and identifies Solomon Pross as John Barsad, one of the men who tried to frame Darnay for treason at his first trial in London. Carton threatens to reveal Solomon's identity as a Briton and an opportunist who spies for the French or the British as it suits him. If this were revealed, Solomon would surely be executed, so Carton's hand is strong.
Darnay is confronted at the tribunal by Monsieur Defarge, who identifies Darnay as the Marquis St. Evrémonde and reads the letter Dr. Manette had hidden in his cell in the Bastille. Defarge can identify Darnay as Evrémonde because Barsad told him Darnay's identity when Barsad was fishing for information at the Defarges' wine shop in Book 2, Chapter 16. The letter describes how Dr. Manette was locked away in the Bastille by the deceased Marquis Evrémonde (Darnay's father) and his twin brother (who held the title of Marquis when we met him earlier in the book, and is the Marquis who was killed by Gaspard; Darnay's uncle) for trying to report their crimes against a peasant family. The younger brother had become infatuated with a girl. He had kidnapped and raped her and killed her husband, the knowledge of which killed her father, and her brother died in the act of fighting to protect her honor. Prior to his death, the brother of the raped peasant had hidden the last member of the family, his younger sister, "somewhere safe". The paper concludes by condemning the Evrémondes, "them and their descendants, to the last of their race". Dr. Manette is horrified, but his protests are ignored—he is not allowed to take back his condemnation. Darnay is sent to the Conciergerie and sentenced to be guillotined the next day.
Carton wanders into the Defarges' wine shop, where he overhears Madame Defarge talking about her plans to have the rest of Darnay's family (Lucie and "Little Lucie") condemned. Carton discovers that Madame Defarge was the surviving sister of the peasant family savaged by the Evrémondes. The only plot detail that might give one any sympathy for Madame Defarge is the loss of her family and that she has no (family) name. "Defarge" is her married name, and Dr. Manette cannot learn her family name, though he asks her dying sister for it. The next morning, when Dr. Manette returns shattered after having spent the previous night in many failed attempts to save Charles' life, he reverts to his obsessive shoemaking. Carton urges Lorry to flee Paris with Lucie, her father and "Little Lucie".
That same morning Carton visits Darnay in prison. Carton drugs Darnay, and Barsad (whom Carton is blackmailing) has Darnay carried out of the prison. Carton—who looks so similar to Darnay that a witness at Darnay's trial in England could not tell them apart—has decided to pretend to be Darnay, and to be executed in his place. He does this out of love for Lucie, recalling his earlier promise to her. Following Carton's earlier instructions, Darnay's family and Lorry flee Paris and France with an unconscious man in their coach who carries Carton's identification papers, but is actually Darnay.
Meanwhile Madame Defarge, armed with a pistol, goes to the residence of Lucie's family, hoping to catch them mourning for Darnay (since it was illegal to sympathise with or mourn for an enemy of the Republic); however, Lucie, her child, Dr. Manette and Mr. Lorry are already gone. To give them time to escape, Miss Pross confronts Madame Defarge and they struggle. Pross speaks only English and Defarge speaks only French, so neither can understand each other verbally. In the fight, Madame Defarge's pistol goes off, killing her; the noise of the shot and the shock of Madame Defarge's death cause Miss Pross to go permanently deaf.
The novel concludes with the guillotining of Sydney Carton. Carton's unspoken last thoughts are prophetic: Carton foresees that many of the revolutionaries, including Defarge, Barsad and The Vengeance (a lieutenant of Madame Defarge) will be sent to the guillotine themselves, and that Darnay and Lucie will have a son whom they will name after Carton: a son who will fulfill all the promise that Carton wasted. Lucie and Darnay have a first son earlier in the book who is born and dies within a single paragraph. It seems likely that this first son appears in the novel so that their later son, named after Carton, can represent another way in which Carton restores Lucie and Darnay through his sacrifice.
“ It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done; it is a far, far better rest that I go to, than I have ever known. ”
—Final sentence of A Tale of Two Cities
Analysis
A Tale of Two Cities is one of only two works of historical fiction by Charles Dickens (Barnaby Rudge is the other one). It has fewer characters and sub-plots than a typical Charles Dickens novel. The author's primary historical source was The French Revolution: A History by Thomas Carlyle: Charles Dickens wrote in his Preface to Tale that "no one can hope to add anything to the philosophy of Mr. Carlyle's wonderful book" Carlyle's view that history cycles through destruction and resurrection was an important influence on the novel, illustrated especially well by the life and death of Sydney Carton.
Language
Dickens uses literal translations of French idioms for characters who can't speak English, such as "What the devil do you do in that galley there?!!" and "Where is my husband? ---Here you see me." The Penguin Classics edition of the novel notes that "Not all readers have regarded the experiment as a success."
Humor
Dickens is renowned for his humor, but A Tale of Two Cities is one of his least comical books. Nonetheless, Jerry Cruncher, Miss Pross, and Mr. Stryver provide much comedy. Dickens also uses sarcasm as humour in the book to show different points of view. The book is full of tragic situations, therefore, leaving little room for intended humor provided by Dickens.
Foreshadowing
A Tale of Two Cities contains much foreshadowing:
* Carton's promise to Lucie, the "echoing footsteps" heard by the Manettes in their quiet home, and the wine spilling from the wine cask are only a few of dozens of instances.
* Carton promises Lucie he would die for her because he loves her so much.
* Echoing footsteps can either be the people coming into their lives or the revolutionaries.
* The wine spilling in the streets can be blood running through the streets of France.
* The wine cask breaking is a corrupted government, freedom, or blood from guillotine.
* The negro cupids show danger, and death from the guillotine.
Themes
"Recalled to Life"
In Dickens' England, resurrection always sat firmly in a Christian context. Most broadly, Sydney Carton is resurrected in spirit at the novel's close (even as he, paradoxically, gives up his physical life to save Darnay's—just as, in Christian belief, Christ died for the sins of all people.) More concretely, "Book the First" deals with the rebirth of Dr. Manette from the living death of his incarceration.
Resurrection appears for the first time when Mr. Lorry replies to the message carried by Jerry Cruncher with the words "Recalled to Life". Resurrection also appears during Mr. Lorry's coach ride to Dover, as he constantly ponders a hypothetical conversation with Dr. Manette: ("Buried how long?" "Almost eighteen years." ... "You know that you are recalled to life?" "They tell me so.") He believes he is helping with Dr. Manette's revival, and imagines himself "digging" Dr. Manette up from his grave.
Resurrection is the main theme in the novel. In Jarvis Lorry's thoughts of Dr. Manette, resurrection is first spotted as a theme. It is also the last theme: Carton's sacrifice. Dickens originally wanted to call the entire novel Recalled to Life. (This instead became the title of the first of the novel's three "books".)
Jerry is also part of the recurring theme: he himself is involved in death and resurrection in way that the reader does not yet know. The first piece of foreshadowing comes in his remark to himself: "You'd be in a blazing bad way, if recalling to life was to come into fashion, Jerry!" The black humour of this statement becomes obvious only much later on. Five years later, one cloudy and very dark night (in June 1780), Mr. Lorry reawakens the reader's interest in the mystery by telling Jerry it is "Almost a night ... to bring the dead out of their graves". Jerry responds firmly that he has never seen the night do that.
It turns out that Jerry Cruncher's involvement with the theme of resurrection is that he is what the Victorians called a "Resurrection Man", one who (illegally) digs up dead bodies to sell to medical men (there was no legal way to procure cadavers for study at that time).
The opposite of resurrection is of course death. Death and resurrection appear often in the novel. Dickens is angered that in France and England, courts hand out death sentences for insignificant crimes. In France, peasants are even put to death without any trial, at the whim of a noble. The Marquis tells Darnay with pleasure that "[I]n the next room (my bedroom), one fellow ... was poniarded on the spot for professing some insolent delicacy respecting his daughter—his daughter!"
Interestingly, the demolition of Dr. Manette's shoe-making workbench by Miss Pross and Mr. Lorry is described as "the burning of the body". It seems clear that this is a rare case where death or destruction (the opposite of resurrection) has a positive connotation, since the "burning" helps liberate the doctor from the memory of his long imprisonment. But Dickens' description of this kind and healing act is strikingly odd:
"The Accomplices", an illustration for Book 2, Chapter 19 by "Phiz"
So wicked do destruction and secrecy appear to honest minds, that Mr. Lorry and Miss Pross, while engaged in the commission of their deed and in the removal of its traces, almost felt, and almost looked, like accomplices in a horrible crime.
Sydney Carton's martyrdom atones for all his past wrongdoings. He even finds God during the last few days of his life, repeating Christ's soothing words, "I am the resurrection and the life". Resurrection is the dominant theme of the last part of the novel. Darnay is rescued at the last moment and recalled to life; Carton chooses death and resurrection to a life better than that which he has ever known: "it was the peacefullest man's face ever beheld there ... he looked sublime and prophetic".
In the broadest sense, at the end of the novel Dickens foresees a resurrected social order in France, rising from the ashes of the old one.
Water
Many in the Jungian archetypal tradition might agree with Hans Biedermann, who writes that water "is the fundamental symbol of all the energy of the unconscious—an energy that can be dangerous when it overflows its proper limits (a frequent dream sequence)." This symbolism suits Dickens' novel; in A Tale of Two Cities, the frequent images of water stand for the building anger of the peasant mob, an anger that Dickens sympathises with to a point, but ultimately finds irrational and even animalistic.
Early in the book, Dickens suggests this when he writes, “[T]he sea did what it liked, and what it liked was destruction.” The sea here represents the coming mob of revolutionaries. After Gaspard murders the Marquis, he is “hanged there forty feet high—and is left hanging, poisoning the water.” The poisoning of the well represents the bitter impact of Gaspard's execution on the collective feeling of the peasants.
After Gaspard’s death, the storming of the Bastille is led (from the St. Antoine neighbourhood, at least) by the Defarges; “As a whirlpool of boiling waters has a centre point, so, all this raging circled around Defarge’s wine shop, and every human drop in the cauldron had a tendency to be sucked towards the vortex...” The crowd is envisioned as a sea. “With a roar that sounded as if all the breath in France had been shaped into a detested word [the word Bastille], the living sea rose, wave upon wave, depth upon depth, and overflowed the city...”
Darnay’s jailer is described as “unwholesomely bloated in both face and person, as to look like a man who had been drowned and filled with water.” Later, during the Reign of Terror, the revolution had grown “so much more wicked and distracted ... that the rivers of the South were encumbered with bodies of the violently drowned by night...” Later a crowd is “swelling and overflowing out into the adjacent streets ... the Carmagnole absorbed them every one and whirled them away.”
During the fight with Miss Pross, Madame Defarge clings to her with “more than the hold of a drowning woman”. Commentators on the novel have noted the irony that Madame Defarge is killed by her own gun, and perhaps Dickens means by the above quote to suggest that such vicious vengefulness as Madame Defarge's will eventually destroy even its perpetrators.
So many read the novel in a Freudian light, as exalting the (British) superego over the (French) id. Yet in Carton's last walk, he watches an eddy that "turned and turned purposeless, until the stream absorbed it, and carried it onto the sea"—his fulfilment, while masochistic and superego-driven, is nonetheless an ecstatic union with the subconscious.
Darkness and light
As is common in English literature, good and evil are symbolised with light and darkness. Lucie Manette is often associated with light and Madame Defarge with darkness.
Lucie meets her father for the first time in a room kept by the Defarges:." Lucie's hair symbolises joy as she winds "the golden thread that bound them all together". She is adorned with "diamonds, very bright and sparkling", and symbolic of the happiness of the day of her marriage.
Darkness represents uncertainty, fear and peril. It is dark when Mr. Lorry rides to Dover; it is dark in the prisons; dark shadows follow Madame Defarge; dark, gloomy doldrums disturb Dr. Manette; his capture and captivity are shrouded in darkness; the Marquis’s estate is burned in the dark of night; Jerry Cruncher raids graves in the darkness; Charles's second arrest also occurs at night. Both Lucie and Mr. Lorry feel the dark threat that is Madame Defarge. "That dreadful woman seems to throw a shadow on me," remarks Lucie. Although Mr. Lorry tries to comfort her, "the shadow of the manner of these Defarges was dark upon himself". Madame Defarge is "like a shadow over the white road", the snow symbolising purity and Madame Defarge's darkness corruption. Dickens also compares the dark colour of blood to the pure white snow: the blood takes on the shade of the crimes of its shedders.
Social injustice
Charles Dickens was a champion of the maltreated poor because of his terrible experience when he was forced to work in a factory as a child. His sympathies, however, lie only up to a point with the revolutionaries; he condemns the mob madness which soon sets in. When madmen and -women massacre eleven hundred detainees in one night and hustle back to sharpen their weapons on the grindstone, they display "eyes which any unbrutalised beholder would have given twenty years of life, to petrify with a well-directed gun".
The reader is shown the poor are brutalised in France and England alike. As crime proliferates, the executioner in England is "stringing up long rows of miscellaneous criminals; now hanging housebreaker ... now burning people in the hand" or hanging a broke man for stealing sixpence. In France, a boy is sentenced to have his hands removed and be burned alive, only because he did not kneel down in the rain before a parade of monks passing some fifty yards away. At the lavish residence of Monseigneur, we find "brazen ecclesiastics of the worst world worldly, with sensual eyes, loose tongues, and looser lives ... Military officers destitute of military knowledge ... [and] Doctors who made great fortunes ... for imaginary disorders".
The Marquis recalls with pleasure the days when his family had the right of life and death over their slaves, "when many such dogs were taken out to be hanged". He won't even allow a widow to put up a board bearing her dead husband’s name, to discern his resting place from all the others. He orders Madame Defarge's sick brother-in-law to heave a cart all day and allay frogs at night to exacerbate the young man's illness and hasten his death.
In England, even banks endorse unbalanced sentences: a man may be condemned to death for nicking a horse or opening a letter. Conditions in the prisons are dreadful. "Most kinds of debauchery and villainy were practised, and ... dire diseases were bred", sometimes killing the judge before the accused.
So riled is Dickens at the brutality of English law that he depicts some of its punishments with sarcasm: "the whipping-post, another dear old institution, very humanising and softening to behold in action". He faults the law for not seeking reform: "Whatever is right" is the dictum of the Old Bailey. The gruesome portrayal of quartering highlights its atrocity.
Without entirely forgiving him, Dickens understands that Jerry Cruncher robs graves only to feed his son, and reminds the reader that Mr. Lorry is more likely to rebuke Jerry for his humble social status than anything else. Jerry reminds Mr. Lorry that doctors, men of the cloth, undertakers and watchmen are also conspirators in the selling of bodies.
Dickens wants his readers to be careful that the same revolution that so damaged France will not happen in Britain, which (at least at the beginning of the book) is shown to be nearly as unjust as France. But his warning is addressed not to the British lower classes, but to the aristocracy. He repeatedly uses the metaphor of sowing and reaping; if the aristocracy continues to plant the seeds of a revolution through behaving unjustly, they can be certain of harvesting that revolution in time. The lower classes do not have any agency in this metaphor: they simply react to the behaviour of the aristocracy. In this sense it can be said that while Dickens sympathises with the poor, he identifies with the rich: they are the book's audience, its "us" and not its "them". "Crush humanity out of shape once more, under similar hammers, and it will twist itself into the same tortured forms. Sow the same seed of rapacious licence and oppression over again, and it will surely yield the same fruit according to its kind".
Relation to Dickens' personal life
Some have argued that in A Tale of Two Cities Dickens reflects on his recently begun affair with eighteen-year-old actress Ellen Ternan, which was possibly asexual but certainly romantic. Lucie Manette resembles Ternan physically, and some have seen "a sort of implied emotional incest" in the relationship between Dr. Manette and his daughter.
After starring in a play by Wilkie Collins entitled The Frozen Deep, Dickens was first inspired to write Tale. In the play, Dickens played the part of a man who sacrifices his own life so that his rival may have the woman they both love; the love triangle in the play became the basis for the relationships between Charles Darnay, Lucie Manette, and Sydney Carton in Tale.
Sydney Carton and Charles Darnay may also bear importantly on Dickens' personal life. The plot hinges on the near-perfect resemblance between Sydney Carton and Charles Darnay; the two look so alike that Carton twice saves Darnay through the inability of others to tell them apart. It is implied that Carton and Darnay not only look alike, but they have the same "genetic" endowments (to use a term that Dickens would not have known): Carton is Darnay made bad. Carton suggests as much:
'Do you particularly like the man [Darnay]?' he muttered, at his own image [which he is regarding in a mirror]; 'why should you particularly like a man who resembles you? There is nothing in you to like; you know that. Ah, confound you! What a change you have made in yourself! A good reason for talking to a man, that he shows you what you have fallen away from and what you might have been! Change places with him, and would you have been looked at by those blue eyes [belonging to Lucie Manette] as he was, and commiserated by that agitated face as he was? Come on, and have it out in plain words! You hate the fellow.'
Many have felt that Carton and Darnay are doppelgängers, which Eric Rabkin defines as a pair "of characters that together, represent one psychological persona in the narrative". If so, they would prefigure such works as Robert Louis Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Darnay is worthy and respectable but dull (at least to most modern readers), Carton disreputable but magnetic.
One can only suspect whose psychological persona it is that Carton and Darnay together embody (if they do), but it is often thought to be the psyche of Dickens himself. Dickens was quite aware that between them, Carton and Darnay shared his own initials.
Characters
Many of Dickens' characters are "flat", not "round", in the novelist E. M. Forster's famous terms, meaning roughly that they have only one mood. In Tale, for example, the Marquis is unremittingly wicked and relishes being so; Lucie is perfectly loving and supportive. (As a corollary, Dickens often gives these characters verbal tics or visual quirks that he mentions over and over, such as the dints in the nose of the Marquis.) Forster believed that Dickens never truly created rounded characters, but a character such as Carton surely at least comes closer to roundness.
* Sydney Carton – A quick-minded but depressed English barrister alcoholic, and cynic; his Christ-like self-sacrifice redeems his own life and that of Charles Darnay.
* Lucie Manette – An ideal Victorian lady, perfect in every way. She was loved by both Carton and Charles Darnay (whom she marries), and is the daughter of Dr. Manette. She is the "golden thread" after whom Book Two is named, so called because she holds her father's and her family's lives together (and because of her blond hair like her mother's). She also ties nearly every character in the book together.
* Charles Darnay – A young French noble of the Evrémonde family. In disgust at the cruelty of his family to the French peasantry, he has taken on the name "Darnay" (after his mother's maiden name, D'Aulnais) and left France for England.
* Dr. Alexandre Manette – Lucie's father, kept a prisoner in the Bastille for eighteen years.
* Monsieur Ernest Defarge – The owner of a French wine shop and leader of the Jacquerie; husband of Madame Defarge; servant to Dr. Manette as a youth. One of the key revolutionary leaders, he leads the revolution with a noble cause, unlike many of other revolutionaries.
* Madame Therese Defarge – A vengeful female revolutionary, arguably the novel's antagonist
* The Vengeance – A companion of Madame Defarge referred to as her "shadow" and lieutenant, a member of the sisterhood of women revolutionaries in Saint Antoine, and revolutionary zealot. (Many Frenchmen and women did change their names to show their enthusiasm for the Revolution)
* Jarvis Lorry – An elderly manager at Tellson's Bank and a dear friend of Dr. Manette.
* Miss Pross – Lucie Manette's governess since Lucie was ten years old. Fiercely loyal to Lucie and to England.
* The Marquis St. Evrémonde – The cruel uncle of Charles Darnay.
* John Barsad (real name Solomon Pross) – A spy for Britain who later becomes a spy for France (at which point he must hide that he is British). He is the long-lost brother of Miss Pross.
* Roger Cly – Another spy, Barsad's collaborator.
* Jerry Cruncher – Porter and messenger for Tellson's Bank and secret "Resurrection Man" (body-snatcher). His first name is short for Jeremiah.
* Young Jerry Cruncher - Son of Jerry and Mrs. Cruncher. Young Jerry often follows his father around to his father's odd jobs, and at one point in the story, follows his father at night and discovers that his father is a resurrection man. Young Jerry looks up to his father as a role model, and aspires to become a resurrection man himself when he grows up.
* Mrs. Cruncher - Wife of Jerry Cruncher. She is a very religious woman, but her husband, being a bit paranoid, claims she is praying against him, and that is why he doesn't succeed at work often. She is often abused verbally, and almost as often, abused physically, by Jerry, but at the end of the story, he appears to feel a bit guilty about this.
* Mr. Stryver – An arrogant and ambitious barrister, senior to Sydney Carton. There is a frequent mis-perception that Stryver's full name is "C. J. Stryver", but this is very unlikely. The mistake comes from a line in Book 2, Chapter 12: "After trying it, Stryver, C. J., was satisfied that no plainer case could be." The initials C. J. almost certainly refer to a legal title (probably "chief justice"); Stryver is imagining that he is playing every role in a trial in which he browbeats Lucie Manette into marrying him.
* The Seamstress – A young woman caught up in The Terror. She precedes Sydney Carton, who comforts her, to the guillotine.
* Gabelle – Gabelle is "the Postmaster, and some other taxing functionary, united" for the tenants of the Marquis St. Evrémonde. Gabelle is imprisoned by the revolutionaries, and his beseeching letter brings Darnay to France. Gabelle is "named after the hated salt tax".
* Gaspard – Gaspard is the man whose son is run over by the Marquis. He then kills the Marquis and goes into hiding for a year. He eventually is found, arrested, and executed.
Adaptations
Films
There have been at least five feature films based on the book:
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1911 silent film.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1917 silent film.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1922 silent film.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1935 black-and-white MGM film starring Ronald Colman, Elizabeth Allan, Reginald Owen, Basil Rathbone and Edna Mae Oliver. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture.
* A Tale of Two Cities, a 1958 version, starring Dirk Bogarde, Dorothy Tutin, Christopher Lee, Leo McKern and Donald Pleasance.
In the 1981 film History of the World, Part I, the French Revolution segment appears to be a pastiche of A Tale of Two Cities.
In the film A Simple Wish, the protagonist's father Oliver (possibly a reference to another of Dickens' famous novels, Oliver Twist) is vying for a spot in his theatre company's production of a musical of A Tale of Two Cities, of which we see the beginning and end, using the two famous quotes, including "It is a far, far better thing that I do", as part of a few solos.
Terry Gilliam also developed a film version in the mid-1990s with Mel Gibson and Liam Neeson. The project was eventually abandoned.
Radio
In 1938, The Mercury Theatre on the Air (aka The Campbell Playhouse) produced a radio adapted version starring Orson Welles.
In 1945, a portion of the novel was adapted to the syndicated program The Weird Circle as "Dr. Manette's Manuscript."
In 1950, a radio adaptation written by Terence Rattigan and John Gielgud was broadcast by the BBC. They had written it in 1935, as a stage play, but it was not produced.
In June 1989, BBC Radio 4 produced a 7-hour drama adapted for radio by Nick McCarty and directed by Ian Cotterell. This adaptation is occasionally repeated by BBC Radio 7. The cast included:
* Charles Dance as Sydney Carton
* Maurice Denham as Dr. Alexandre Manette
* Charlotte Attenborough as Lucie Manette
* Richard Pasco as Jarvis Lorry
* John Duttine as Charles Darnay
* Barbara Leigh-Hunt as Miss Pross
* Margaret Robertson as Madame Defarge
* John Hollis as Jerry Cruncher
* John Bull as Ernest Defarge
* Aubrey Woods as Mr. Stryver
* Eva Stuart as Mrs. Cruncher
* John Moffat as Marquis St. Evremonde
* Geoffrey Whitehead as John Barsad and Jacques #2
* Nicholas Courtney as Jacques #3 and The Woodcutter
Television programs
An 8-part mini-series was produced by the BBC in 1957 starring Peter Wyngarde as "Sydney Carton", Edward de Souza as "Charles Darnay" and Wendy Hutchinson as "Lucie Manette".
Another mini-series, this one in 10 parts, was produced by the BBC in 1965.
A third BBC mini-series (in 8 parts) was produced in 1980 starring Paul Shelley as "Carton/Darnay", Sally Osborne as "Lucie Manette" and Nigel Stock as "Jarvis Lorry".
The novel was adapted into a 1980 television movie starring Chris Sarandon as "Sydney Carton/Charles Darnay". Peter Cushing as "Dr. Alexandre Manette", Alice Krige as "Lucie Manette", Flora Robson as "Miss Pross", Barry Morse as "The Marquis St. Evremonde" and Billie Whitelaw as "Madame Defarge".
In 1989 Granada Television made a mini-series starring James Wilby as "Sydney Carton", Serena Gordon as "Lucie Manette", Xavier Deluc as "Charles Darnay", Anna Massey as "Miss Pross" and John Mills as "Jarvis Lorry", which was shown on American television as part of the PBS television series Masterpiece Theatre.
In the 1970 Monty Python's Flying Circus episode "The Attila the Hun Show", the sketch "The News for Parrots" included a scene of A Tale of Two Cities (As told for parrots).
The children's television series Wishbone adapted the novel for the episode "A Tale of Two Sitters".
This novel was also mentioned in the Nickelodeon show Hey Arnold, where Oscar was learning how to read.
Books
In Nicholas Meyer's novel The Canary Trainer, descended from Charles and Lucie, once more titled the Marquis de St. Evremonde, attends the Paris Opera during the events of The Phantom of the Opera.
American author Susanne Alleyn's novel A Far Better Rest, a reimagining of A Tale of Two Cities from the point of view of Sydney Carton, was published in the USA in 2000.
Diane Mayer self-published her novel Evremonde through iUniverse in 2005; it tells the story of Charles and Lucie Darnay and their children after the French Revolution.
Simplified versions of A Tale of Two Cities for English language learners have been published by Penguin Readers, in several levels of difficulty.
Stage musicals
There have been four musicals based on the novel:
A 1968 stage version, Two Cities, the Spectacular New Musical, with music by Jeff Wayne, lyrics by Jerry Wayne and starring Edward Woodward.
A Tale of Two Cities, Jill Santoriello's musical adaptation of A Tale of Two Cities, was performed at the Asolo Repertory Theatre in Sarasota, Florida, in October and November 2007. James Stacy Barbour ("Sydney Carton") and Jessica Rush ("Lucie Manette") were among the cast. A production of the musical began previews on Broadway on 19 August 2008, opening on 18 September at the Al Hirschfeld Theatre. Warren Carlyle is the director/choreographer; the cast includes James Stacy Barbour as "Sydney Carton", Brandi Burkhardt as "Lucie Manette", Aaron Lazar as "Charles Darnay", Gregg Edelman as "Dr. Manette", Katherine McGrath as "Miss Pross", Michael Hayward-Jones as "Jarvis Lorry" and Natalie Toro as "Madame Defarge".
In 2006, Howard Goodall collaborated with Joanna Read in writing a separate musical adaptation of the novel called Two Cities. The central plot and characters were maintained, though Goodall set the action during the Russian Revolution.
The novel has also been adapted as a musical by Takarazuka Revue, the all-female opera company in Japan. The first production was in 1984, starring Mao Daichi at the Grand Theater, and the second was in 2003, starring Jun Sena at the Bow Hall.
Opera
Arthur Benjamin's operatic version of the novel, subtitled Romantic Melodrama in six scenes, was premiered by the BBC on 17 April 1953, conducted by the composer; it received its stage premiere at Sadler's Wells on 22 July 1957, under the baton of Leon Lovett.
故事改编自狄更斯的作品《圣诞颂歌》，主要讲述了性情刻薄、冷酷的守财奴艾柏纳泽·斯克鲁奇，面对温暖的圣诞节，却讨厌周遭的一切庆祝活动。于是上天派来 3个精灵让他看看自己过去的所作所为，以及亲友私下对他的态度。这一切渐渐唤醒他人性的另一面——同情、仁慈、爱心及喜悦，瞬间，他那固有的自私及冷酷迅速崩塌，消失殆尽，从此变成了一个乐善好施的人。
The book was written and published at a time when Britain was experiencing a nostalgic interest in its forgotten Christmas traditions, and at the time when new customs such as the Christmas tree and greeting cards were being introduced. Dickens's sources for the tale appear to be many and varied but are principally the humiliating experiences of his childhood, his sympathy for the poor, and the Christmas stories of Washington Irving.
The tale was pirated immediately, was adapted several times to the stage, and has been credited with restoring the holiday to one of merriment and festivity in Britain and America after a period of sobriety and sombreness. A Christmas Carol remains popular, has never been out of print, and has been adapted to film, opera, and other media.
The book was written and published at a time when Britain was experiencing a nostalgic interest in its forgotten Christmas traditions, and at the time when new customs such as the Christmas tree and greeting cards were being introduced. Dickens's sources for the tale appear to be many and varied but are principally the humiliating experiences of his childhood, his sympathy for the poor, and the Christmas stories of Washington Irving.
The tale was pirated immediately, was adapted several times to the stage, and has been credited with restoring the holiday to one of merriment and festivity in Britain and America after a period of sobriety and sombreness. A Christmas Carol remains popular, has never been out of print, and has been adapted to film, opera, and other media.
《大卫·科波菲尔》是英国小说家查尔斯·狄更斯的第八部长篇小说，被称为他“心中最宠爱的孩子”，于一八四九至一八五O年间，分二十个部分逐月发表全书采用第一人称叙事语气，其中融进了作者本人的许多生活经历。狄更斯出身社会底层，祖父、祖母都长期在克鲁勋爵府当佣人。父亲约翰是海军军需处职员，在狄更斯十二岁那年，因负债无力偿还，带累妻子儿女和他一起住进了马夏尔西债务人监狱。当时狄更斯在泰晤士河畔的华伦黑鞋油作坊当童工，比他大两岁的姐姐范妮在皇家音乐学院学习，全家人中只有他俩没有在狱中居住。父亲出狱后，狄更斯曾一度进惠灵顿学校学习，不久又因家贫而永久辍学，十五岁时进律师事务所当学徒。后来，他学会速记，被伦敦民事律师议会聘为审案记录员。一八三一至一八三二年间，狄更斯先后担任《议会镜报》和《真阳报》派驻议会的记者。这些经历有助于他日后走上写作的道路。他一生所受学校教育不足四年，他的成功全靠自己的天才、勤奋以及艰苦生活的磨练。一八三六年，狄更斯终于以长篇小说《匹克威克外传》而名满天下，当时他年仅二十四岁。
一八四八年，范妮因患肺结核早逝，她的死使狄更斯非常悲伤，因为在众多兄弟姐妹中，只有他俩在才能、志趣上十分接近。他俩都有杰出的表演才能，童年时曾随父亲到罗彻斯特的米特尔饭店，站在大餐桌上表演歌舞，赢得众人的赞叹。范妮死后，狄更斯写下一篇七千字的回忆文章，记录他俩一起度过的充满艰辛的童年。狄更斯身后，他的好友福斯特在《狄更斯传》中首次向公众披露了狄更斯的早年，小说，根据的正是这篇回忆。狄更斯写这篇回忆是为创作一部自传体长篇小说做准备。他小说主人公取过许多名字，最后才想到“大卫·科波菲尔”。福斯特听了，立刻叫好，因为这个名字的缩写D.C.正是作者名字缩写的颠倒。于是小说主人公的名字便定了下来。
狄更斯早期作品大多是结构松散的“流浪汉传奇”，足凭借灵感信笔挥洒的即兴创作，而本书则是他的中期作品，更加注重结构技巧和艺术的分寸感。狄更斯在本书第十一章中，把他的创作方法概括为“经验想象，糅合为一”。他写小说，并不拘泥于临摹实际发生的事，而是充分发挥想象力，利用生活素材进行崭新的创造。尽管书中大卫幼年时跟母亲学字母的情景是他本人的亲身经历，大卫在母亲改嫁后，在极端孤寂的环境中阅读的正是他本人在那个年龄所读的书，母亲被折磨死后，大卫被送去当童工的年龄也正是狄更斯当童工时的年龄，然而，小说和实事完全不同：狄更斯不是孤儿，而他笔下的大卫却是“遗腹子”。同时，狄更斯又把自己父母的某些性格糅进了大卫的房东、推销商米考伯夫妇身上。
大卫早年生活的篇章以孩子的心理视角向我们展示了一个早已被成年人淡忘的童年世界，写得十分真切感人。例如：大卫以儿童特殊的敏感对追求母亲的那个冷酷、残暴、贪婪的商人默德斯东一开始就怀有敌意，当默德斯东虚情假意地伸手拍拍大卫时，他发现那只手放肆地碰到母亲的手，便生气地把它推开。大卫向母亲复述默德斯东带他出去玩时的情景，当他说到默德斯东的一个朋友在谈话中老提起一位“漂亮的小寡妇”时，母亲一边笑着，一边要他把当时的情景讲了一遍又一遍。叙事完全从天真无邪的孩子的视角出发，幼儿并不知道人家讲的就是自己的母亲，而年轻寡妇要求再醮、对幸福生活的热烈憧憬已跃然纸上。又如：大卫跟保姆佩葛蒂到她哥哥家去玩，她的哥哥辟果提先生是一位渔民。大卫看见他从海上作业后回来洗脸，觉得他与虾蟹具有某种相似之处，因为那张黑脸被热水一烫，立刻就发红了。这个奇特的联想，充满童趣和狄更斯特有的幽默。
Plot summary
The story deals with the life of David Copperfield from childhood to maturity. David is born in England in about 1820. David's father had died six months before he was born, and seven years later, his mother marries Mr Edward Murdstone. David is given good reason to dislike his stepfather and has similar feelings for Mr Murdstone's sister Jane, who moves into the house soon afterwards. Mr Murdstone thrashes David for falling behind with his studies. Following one of these thrashings, David bites him and is sent away to a boarding school, Salem House, with a ruthless headmaster, Mr. Creakle. Here he befriends James Steerforth and Tommy Traddles, both of whom he meets again later on.
David returns home for the holidays to find out that his mother has had a baby boy. Soon after David goes back to Salem House, his mother and her baby die and David has to return home immediately. Mr Murdstone sends him to work in a factory in London, of which Murdstone is a joint owner. The grim reality of hand-to-mouth factory existence echoes Dickens' own travails in a blacking factory. His landlord, Mr Wilkins Micawber, is sent to a debtor's prison (the King's Bench Prison) after going bankrupt, and is there for several months before being released and moving to Plymouth. David now has nobody left to care for him in London, and decides to run away.
He walks all the way from London to Dover, to find his only relative, his aunt Miss Betsey. The eccentric Betsey Trotwood agrees to bring him up, despite Mr Murdstone visiting in a bid to regain custody of David. David's aunt renames him 'Trotwood Copperfield', soon shortened to "Trot", and for the rest of the novel he is called by either name, depending on whether he is communicating with someone he has known for a long time, or someone he has only recently met.
The story follows David as he grows to adulthood, and is enlivened by the many well-known characters who enter, leave and re-enter his life. These include Peggotty, his faithful former housekeeper for his mother, her family, and their orphaned niece Little Em'ly who lives with them and charms the young David. David's romantic but self-serving schoolfriend, Steerforth, seduces and dishonors Little Em'ly, triggering the novel's greatest tragedy; and his landlord's daughter and ideal "angel in the house," Agnes Wickfield, becomes his confidante. The two most familiar characters are David's sometime mentor, the constantly debt-ridden Mr Wilkins Micawber, and the devious and fraudulent clerk, Uriah Heep, whose misdeeds are eventually discovered with Micawber's assistance. Micawber is painted as a sympathetic character, even as the author deplores his financial ineptitude; and Micawber, like Dickens's own father, is briefly imprisoned for insolvency.
In typical Dickens fashion, the major characters get some measure of what they deserve, and few narrative threads are left hanging. Dan Peggotty safely transports Little Em'ly to a new life in Australia; accompanying these two central characters are Mrs. Gummidge and the Micawbers. Everybody involved finally finds security and happiness in their new lives in Australia. David first marries the beautiful but naïve Dora Spenlow, but she dies after failing to recover from a miscarriage early in their marriage. David then does some soul-searching and eventually marries and finds true happiness with the sensible Agnes, who had secretly always loved him. They have several children, including a daughter named in honor of Betsey Trotwood.
Analysis
The story is told almost entirely from the point of view of the first person narrator, David Copperfield himself, and was the first Dickens novel to be written as such a narration.
Critically, it is considered a Bildungsroman, i.e., a novel of self-cultivation, and would be influential in the genre which included Dickens's own Great Expectations (1861), Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre, published only two years prior, Thomas Hardy's Jude the Obscure, Samuel Butler's The Way of All Flesh, H. G. Wells's Tono-Bungay, D. H. Lawrence's Sons and Lovers, and James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.
Tolstoy regarded Dickens as the best of all English novelists, and considered Copperfield to be his finest work, ranking the "Tempest" chapter (chapter 55, LV – the story of Ham and the storm and the shipwreck) the standard by which the world's great fiction should be judged. Henry James remembered hiding under a small table as a boy to hear instalments read by his mother. Dostoyevsky read it enthralled in a Siberian prison camp. Franz Kafka called his first book Amerika a "sheer imitation". James Joyce paid it reverence through parody in Ulysses. Virginia Woolf, who normally had little regard for Dickens, confessed the durability of this one novel, belonging to "the memories and myths of life". It was Freud's favourite novel.
Characters in David Copperfield
* David Copperfield – An optimistic, diligent, and persevering character, he is the protagonist. He is later called "Trotwood Copperfield" by some ("David Copperfield" is also the name of the hero's father, who dies before David is born). He has many nicknames: James Steerforth nicknames him "Daisy", Dora calls him "Doady", and his aunt refers to him, as a reference to his would-be sister (if he had been born a girl), in and on "Trot" – as in Betsey Trotwood Copperfield.
* Clara Copperfield – David's kind mother, described as being innocently childish, who dies while David is at Salem House. She dies just after the birth of her second child, who dies along with her.
* Peggotty – The faithful servant of the Copperfield family and a lifelong companion to David (referred to at times as Mrs. Barkis after her marriage to Mr. Barkis). Inherits £3,000—a large sum in the mid-19th century—when Mr. Barkis dies. After his death, she becomes Betsey Trotwood's servant.
* Betsey Trotwood – David's eccentric and temperamental yet kindhearted great-aunt; she becomes his guardian after he runs away from Grinby and Murdstone's warehouse in Blackfriars (London). She is present on the night of David's birth but leaves after hearing that Clara Copperfield's child is a boy instead of a girl.
* Mr. Chillip – A shy doctor who assists at David's birth and faces the wrath of Betsey Trotwood after he informs her that Clara's baby is a boy instead of a girl.
* Mr. Barkis – An aloof carter who declares his intention to marry Peggotty. He says to David: "Tell her, 'Barkis is willin'!' Just so." He is a bit of a miser, and hides his surprisingly vast liquid wealth in a plain box labeled "Old Clothes". He bequeaths to his wife the then astronomical sum of £3,000 when he dies about ten years later.
* Edward Murdstone – Young David's cruel stepfather, who canes him for falling behind in his studies. David reacts by biting Mr Murdstone, who then sends him to Salem House, the private school owned by his friend Mr. Creakle. After David's mother dies, Mr Murdstone sends him to work in a factory, where he has to clean wine bottles. He appears at Betsey Trotwood's house after David runs away. Mr Murdstone appears to show signs of repentance when confronted with Copperfield's aunt, but later in the book we hear he has married another young woman and applied his old principles of "firmness."
* Jane Murdstone – Mr. Murdstone's equally cruel sister, who moves into the Copperfield house after Mr. Murdstone marries Clara Copperfield. She is the "Confidential Friend" of David's first wife, Dora Spenlow, and encourages many of the problems that occur between David Copperfield and Dora's father, Mr. Spenlow. Later, she rejoins her brother and his new wife in a relationship very much like the one they had with David's mother.
* Daniel Peggotty – Peggotty's brother; a humble but generous Yarmouth fisherman who takes his nephew Ham and niece Emily into his custody after each of them has been orphaned. After Emily's departure, he travels around the world in search of her. He eventually finds her in London, and after that they emigrate to Australia.
* Emily (Little Em'ly) – A niece of Mr. Peggotty. She is a childhood friend of David Copperfield, who loves her in his childhood days. She leaves her cousin and fiancé, Ham, for Steerforth, but returns after Steerforth deserts her. She emigrates to Australia with Mr. Peggotty after being rescued from a London brothel.
* Ham Peggotty – A good-natured nephew of Mr. Peggotty and the fiancé of Emily before she leaves him for Steerforth. He later loses his life while attempting to rescue a sailor, who happens to be Steerforth, from a shipwreck. His death is hidden from his family due to the fact that David does not want them to worry on the brink of their journey.
* Mrs. Gummidge – The widow of Daniel Peggotty's partner in a boat. She is a self-described "lone, lorn creetur" who spends much of her time pining for "the old 'un" (her late husband). After Emily runs away from home with Steerforth, she changes her attitude to better comfort everyone around her and tries to be very caring and motherly. She too emigrates to Australia with Dan and the rest of the surviving family.
* Martha Endell – A young woman of a bad reputation who helps Daniel Peggotty find his niece after she returns to London. She has worked as a prostitute, and been victim to the idea of suicide.
* Mr. Creakle – The harsh headmaster of young David's boarding school, who is assisted by Tungay. Mr. Creakle is a friend of Mr. Murdstone. He singles out David for extra torment. Later he becomes a Middlesex magistrate, and is considered enlightened for his day.
"I am married". Etching by Phiz.
* James Steerforth – A close friend of David, he is of a romantic and charming disposition and has known David ever since his first days at Salem House. Although well-liked by most, he proves himself to be lacking in character by seducing and later abandoning Little Em'ly. He eventually drowns at Yarmouth with Ham Peggotty, who had been trying to rescue him.
* Tommy Traddles – David's friend from Salem House. They meet again later and become eventual lifelong friends. Traddles works hard but faces great obstacles because of his lack of money and connections. He eventually succeeds in making a name and a career for himself.
* Wilkins Micawber – A gentle man who befriends David as a young boy. He suffers from much financial difficulty and even has to spend time in a debtor's prison. Eventually he emigrates to Australia where he enjoys a successful career as a sheep farmer and becomes a magistrate. He is based on Dickens' father, John Dickens.
* Mr. Dick (Richard Babley) – A slightly deranged, rather childish but amiable man who lives with Betsey Trotwood. His madness is amply described in as much as that he claims to have the "trouble" of King Charles I in his head.
* Dr. Strong – The headmaster of David's Canterbury school, whom he visits on various occasions.
* Anne Strong – The young wife of Dr. Strong. Although she remains loyal to him, she fears that he suspects that she is involved in an affair with Jack Maldon.
* Jack Maldon – A cousin and childhood sweetheart of Anne Strong. He continues to bear affection for her and tries to seduce her into leaving Dr. Strong.
* Mr. Wickfield – The father of Agnes Wickfield and lawyer to Betsey Trotwood. He is prone to alcoholism.
* Agnes Wickfield – Mr. Wickfield's mature and lovely daughter and close friend of David since childhood. She later becomes David's second wife and mother of their children.
* Uriah Heep – A wicked young man who serves as partner to Mr. Wickfield. He is finally discovered to have stolen money and is imprisoned as a punishment. He always talks of being "'umble" (humble) and nurtures a deep hatred of David Copperfield and many others.
* Mrs. Steerforth – The wealthy widowed mother of James Steerforth. She herself is incredibly like her son.
* Miss Dartle – A strange, vitriolic woman who lives with Mrs. Steerforth. She has a secret love for Steerforth and blames others such as Emily and even Steerforth's own mother for corrupting him. She is described as being extremely skinny and displays a visible scar on her lip caused by Steerforth. She is also Steerforth's cousin.
* Mr. Spenlow – An employer of David's during his days as a proctor and the father of Dora Spenlow. He dies suddenly of a heart attack while driving his phaeton home.
* Dora Spenlow – The adorable but foolish daughter of Mr. Spenlow who becomes David's first wife. She is described as being impractical and with many similarities to David's mother. She dies of illness on the same day as her dog, Jip.
* Mr.Sharp – He was the chief teacher of Salem House and had more authority than Mr.Mell.He looked weak,both in health and character;his head seemed to be very heavy for him:he walked on one side.He had a big nose.
* Mr.Mell – A tall, thin young man with hollow cheeks.His hair was dusty and dry too,with rather short sleeves and legs.
一八四八年，范妮因患肺结核早逝，她的死使狄更斯非常悲伤，因为在众多兄弟姐妹中，只有他俩在才能、志趣上十分接近。他俩都有杰出的表演才能，童年时曾随父亲到罗彻斯特的米特尔饭店，站在大餐桌上表演歌舞，赢得众人的赞叹。范妮死后，狄更斯写下一篇七千字的回忆文章，记录他俩一起度过的充满艰辛的童年。狄更斯身后，他的好友福斯特在《狄更斯传》中首次向公众披露了狄更斯的早年，小说，根据的正是这篇回忆。狄更斯写这篇回忆是为创作一部自传体长篇小说做准备。他小说主人公取过许多名字，最后才想到“大卫·科波菲尔”。福斯特听了，立刻叫好，因为这个名字的缩写D.C.正是作者名字缩写的颠倒。于是小说主人公的名字便定了下来。
狄更斯早期作品大多是结构松散的“流浪汉传奇”，足凭借灵感信笔挥洒的即兴创作，而本书则是他的中期作品，更加注重结构技巧和艺术的分寸感。狄更斯在本书第十一章中，把他的创作方法概括为“经验想象，糅合为一”。他写小说，并不拘泥于临摹实际发生的事，而是充分发挥想象力，利用生活素材进行崭新的创造。尽管书中大卫幼年时跟母亲学字母的情景是他本人的亲身经历，大卫在母亲改嫁后，在极端孤寂的环境中阅读的正是他本人在那个年龄所读的书，母亲被折磨死后，大卫被送去当童工的年龄也正是狄更斯当童工时的年龄，然而，小说和实事完全不同：狄更斯不是孤儿，而他笔下的大卫却是“遗腹子”。同时，狄更斯又把自己父母的某些性格糅进了大卫的房东、推销商米考伯夫妇身上。
大卫早年生活的篇章以孩子的心理视角向我们展示了一个早已被成年人淡忘的童年世界，写得十分真切感人。例如：大卫以儿童特殊的敏感对追求母亲的那个冷酷、残暴、贪婪的商人默德斯东一开始就怀有敌意，当默德斯东虚情假意地伸手拍拍大卫时，他发现那只手放肆地碰到母亲的手，便生气地把它推开。大卫向母亲复述默德斯东带他出去玩时的情景，当他说到默德斯东的一个朋友在谈话中老提起一位“漂亮的小寡妇”时，母亲一边笑着，一边要他把当时的情景讲了一遍又一遍。叙事完全从天真无邪的孩子的视角出发，幼儿并不知道人家讲的就是自己的母亲，而年轻寡妇要求再醮、对幸福生活的热烈憧憬已跃然纸上。又如：大卫跟保姆佩葛蒂到她哥哥家去玩，她的哥哥辟果提先生是一位渔民。大卫看见他从海上作业后回来洗脸，觉得他与虾蟹具有某种相似之处，因为那张黑脸被热水一烫，立刻就发红了。这个奇特的联想，充满童趣和狄更斯特有的幽默。
Plot summary
The story deals with the life of David Copperfield from childhood to maturity. David is born in England in about 1820. David's father had died six months before he was born, and seven years later, his mother marries Mr Edward Murdstone. David is given good reason to dislike his stepfather and has similar feelings for Mr Murdstone's sister Jane, who moves into the house soon afterwards. Mr Murdstone thrashes David for falling behind with his studies. Following one of these thrashings, David bites him and is sent away to a boarding school, Salem House, with a ruthless headmaster, Mr. Creakle. Here he befriends James Steerforth and Tommy Traddles, both of whom he meets again later on.
David returns home for the holidays to find out that his mother has had a baby boy. Soon after David goes back to Salem House, his mother and her baby die and David has to return home immediately. Mr Murdstone sends him to work in a factory in London, of which Murdstone is a joint owner. The grim reality of hand-to-mouth factory existence echoes Dickens' own travails in a blacking factory. His landlord, Mr Wilkins Micawber, is sent to a debtor's prison (the King's Bench Prison) after going bankrupt, and is there for several months before being released and moving to Plymouth. David now has nobody left to care for him in London, and decides to run away.
He walks all the way from London to Dover, to find his only relative, his aunt Miss Betsey. The eccentric Betsey Trotwood agrees to bring him up, despite Mr Murdstone visiting in a bid to regain custody of David. David's aunt renames him 'Trotwood Copperfield', soon shortened to "Trot", and for the rest of the novel he is called by either name, depending on whether he is communicating with someone he has known for a long time, or someone he has only recently met.
The story follows David as he grows to adulthood, and is enlivened by the many well-known characters who enter, leave and re-enter his life. These include Peggotty, his faithful former housekeeper for his mother, her family, and their orphaned niece Little Em'ly who lives with them and charms the young David. David's romantic but self-serving schoolfriend, Steerforth, seduces and dishonors Little Em'ly, triggering the novel's greatest tragedy; and his landlord's daughter and ideal "angel in the house," Agnes Wickfield, becomes his confidante. The two most familiar characters are David's sometime mentor, the constantly debt-ridden Mr Wilkins Micawber, and the devious and fraudulent clerk, Uriah Heep, whose misdeeds are eventually discovered with Micawber's assistance. Micawber is painted as a sympathetic character, even as the author deplores his financial ineptitude; and Micawber, like Dickens's own father, is briefly imprisoned for insolvency.
In typical Dickens fashion, the major characters get some measure of what they deserve, and few narrative threads are left hanging. Dan Peggotty safely transports Little Em'ly to a new life in Australia; accompanying these two central characters are Mrs. Gummidge and the Micawbers. Everybody involved finally finds security and happiness in their new lives in Australia. David first marries the beautiful but naïve Dora Spenlow, but she dies after failing to recover from a miscarriage early in their marriage. David then does some soul-searching and eventually marries and finds true happiness with the sensible Agnes, who had secretly always loved him. They have several children, including a daughter named in honor of Betsey Trotwood.
Analysis
The story is told almost entirely from the point of view of the first person narrator, David Copperfield himself, and was the first Dickens novel to be written as such a narration.
Critically, it is considered a Bildungsroman, i.e., a novel of self-cultivation, and would be influential in the genre which included Dickens's own Great Expectations (1861), Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre, published only two years prior, Thomas Hardy's Jude the Obscure, Samuel Butler's The Way of All Flesh, H. G. Wells's Tono-Bungay, D. H. Lawrence's Sons and Lovers, and James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.
Tolstoy regarded Dickens as the best of all English novelists, and considered Copperfield to be his finest work, ranking the "Tempest" chapter (chapter 55, LV – the story of Ham and the storm and the shipwreck) the standard by which the world's great fiction should be judged. Henry James remembered hiding under a small table as a boy to hear instalments read by his mother. Dostoyevsky read it enthralled in a Siberian prison camp. Franz Kafka called his first book Amerika a "sheer imitation". James Joyce paid it reverence through parody in Ulysses. Virginia Woolf, who normally had little regard for Dickens, confessed the durability of this one novel, belonging to "the memories and myths of life". It was Freud's favourite novel.
Characters in David Copperfield
* David Copperfield – An optimistic, diligent, and persevering character, he is the protagonist. He is later called "Trotwood Copperfield" by some ("David Copperfield" is also the name of the hero's father, who dies before David is born). He has many nicknames: James Steerforth nicknames him "Daisy", Dora calls him "Doady", and his aunt refers to him, as a reference to his would-be sister (if he had been born a girl), in and on "Trot" – as in Betsey Trotwood Copperfield.
* Clara Copperfield – David's kind mother, described as being innocently childish, who dies while David is at Salem House. She dies just after the birth of her second child, who dies along with her.
* Peggotty – The faithful servant of the Copperfield family and a lifelong companion to David (referred to at times as Mrs. Barkis after her marriage to Mr. Barkis). Inherits £3,000—a large sum in the mid-19th century—when Mr. Barkis dies. After his death, she becomes Betsey Trotwood's servant.
* Betsey Trotwood – David's eccentric and temperamental yet kindhearted great-aunt; she becomes his guardian after he runs away from Grinby and Murdstone's warehouse in Blackfriars (London). She is present on the night of David's birth but leaves after hearing that Clara Copperfield's child is a boy instead of a girl.
* Mr. Chillip – A shy doctor who assists at David's birth and faces the wrath of Betsey Trotwood after he informs her that Clara's baby is a boy instead of a girl.
* Mr. Barkis – An aloof carter who declares his intention to marry Peggotty. He says to David: "Tell her, 'Barkis is willin'!' Just so." He is a bit of a miser, and hides his surprisingly vast liquid wealth in a plain box labeled "Old Clothes". He bequeaths to his wife the then astronomical sum of £3,000 when he dies about ten years later.
* Edward Murdstone – Young David's cruel stepfather, who canes him for falling behind in his studies. David reacts by biting Mr Murdstone, who then sends him to Salem House, the private school owned by his friend Mr. Creakle. After David's mother dies, Mr Murdstone sends him to work in a factory, where he has to clean wine bottles. He appears at Betsey Trotwood's house after David runs away. Mr Murdstone appears to show signs of repentance when confronted with Copperfield's aunt, but later in the book we hear he has married another young woman and applied his old principles of "firmness."
* Jane Murdstone – Mr. Murdstone's equally cruel sister, who moves into the Copperfield house after Mr. Murdstone marries Clara Copperfield. She is the "Confidential Friend" of David's first wife, Dora Spenlow, and encourages many of the problems that occur between David Copperfield and Dora's father, Mr. Spenlow. Later, she rejoins her brother and his new wife in a relationship very much like the one they had with David's mother.
* Daniel Peggotty – Peggotty's brother; a humble but generous Yarmouth fisherman who takes his nephew Ham and niece Emily into his custody after each of them has been orphaned. After Emily's departure, he travels around the world in search of her. He eventually finds her in London, and after that they emigrate to Australia.
* Emily (Little Em'ly) – A niece of Mr. Peggotty. She is a childhood friend of David Copperfield, who loves her in his childhood days. She leaves her cousin and fiancé, Ham, for Steerforth, but returns after Steerforth deserts her. She emigrates to Australia with Mr. Peggotty after being rescued from a London brothel.
* Ham Peggotty – A good-natured nephew of Mr. Peggotty and the fiancé of Emily before she leaves him for Steerforth. He later loses his life while attempting to rescue a sailor, who happens to be Steerforth, from a shipwreck. His death is hidden from his family due to the fact that David does not want them to worry on the brink of their journey.
* Mrs. Gummidge – The widow of Daniel Peggotty's partner in a boat. She is a self-described "lone, lorn creetur" who spends much of her time pining for "the old 'un" (her late husband). After Emily runs away from home with Steerforth, she changes her attitude to better comfort everyone around her and tries to be very caring and motherly. She too emigrates to Australia with Dan and the rest of the surviving family.
* Martha Endell – A young woman of a bad reputation who helps Daniel Peggotty find his niece after she returns to London. She has worked as a prostitute, and been victim to the idea of suicide.
* Mr. Creakle – The harsh headmaster of young David's boarding school, who is assisted by Tungay. Mr. Creakle is a friend of Mr. Murdstone. He singles out David for extra torment. Later he becomes a Middlesex magistrate, and is considered enlightened for his day.
"I am married". Etching by Phiz.
* James Steerforth – A close friend of David, he is of a romantic and charming disposition and has known David ever since his first days at Salem House. Although well-liked by most, he proves himself to be lacking in character by seducing and later abandoning Little Em'ly. He eventually drowns at Yarmouth with Ham Peggotty, who had been trying to rescue him.
* Tommy Traddles – David's friend from Salem House. They meet again later and become eventual lifelong friends. Traddles works hard but faces great obstacles because of his lack of money and connections. He eventually succeeds in making a name and a career for himself.
* Wilkins Micawber – A gentle man who befriends David as a young boy. He suffers from much financial difficulty and even has to spend time in a debtor's prison. Eventually he emigrates to Australia where he enjoys a successful career as a sheep farmer and becomes a magistrate. He is based on Dickens' father, John Dickens.
* Mr. Dick (Richard Babley) – A slightly deranged, rather childish but amiable man who lives with Betsey Trotwood. His madness is amply described in as much as that he claims to have the "trouble" of King Charles I in his head.
* Dr. Strong – The headmaster of David's Canterbury school, whom he visits on various occasions.
* Anne Strong – The young wife of Dr. Strong. Although she remains loyal to him, she fears that he suspects that she is involved in an affair with Jack Maldon.
* Jack Maldon – A cousin and childhood sweetheart of Anne Strong. He continues to bear affection for her and tries to seduce her into leaving Dr. Strong.
* Mr. Wickfield – The father of Agnes Wickfield and lawyer to Betsey Trotwood. He is prone to alcoholism.
* Agnes Wickfield – Mr. Wickfield's mature and lovely daughter and close friend of David since childhood. She later becomes David's second wife and mother of their children.
* Uriah Heep – A wicked young man who serves as partner to Mr. Wickfield. He is finally discovered to have stolen money and is imprisoned as a punishment. He always talks of being "'umble" (humble) and nurtures a deep hatred of David Copperfield and many others.
* Mrs. Steerforth – The wealthy widowed mother of James Steerforth. She herself is incredibly like her son.
* Miss Dartle – A strange, vitriolic woman who lives with Mrs. Steerforth. She has a secret love for Steerforth and blames others such as Emily and even Steerforth's own mother for corrupting him. She is described as being extremely skinny and displays a visible scar on her lip caused by Steerforth. She is also Steerforth's cousin.
* Mr. Spenlow – An employer of David's during his days as a proctor and the father of Dora Spenlow. He dies suddenly of a heart attack while driving his phaeton home.
* Dora Spenlow – The adorable but foolish daughter of Mr. Spenlow who becomes David's first wife. She is described as being impractical and with many similarities to David's mother. She dies of illness on the same day as her dog, Jip.
* Mr.Sharp – He was the chief teacher of Salem House and had more authority than Mr.Mell.He looked weak,both in health and character;his head seemed to be very heavy for him:he walked on one side.He had a big nose.
* Mr.Mell – A tall, thin young man with hollow cheeks.His hair was dusty and dry too,with rather short sleeves and legs.
艰难时世（Hard Times）是英国作家狄更斯的长篇小说作品，发表于1854年，故事描写某工业市镇的生活。
纺织厂厂主、银行家庞得贝（Josiah Bounderby）和退休的五金批发商人、国会议员兼教育家汤玛斯·葛莱恩（Thomas Gradgrind）是好朋友，他们一起控制著市镇的经济体系与教育机构。他们注重实利而且不讲情义，自命不凡，以功利主义作为生活原则。负责侍候庞得贝的是寡妇史巴斯特太太。
葛莱恩对子女的教育主张“实事求是，脚踏实地”，他们在学会走路时，就被赶进教室，终日和数字打交道，他们不允许阅读诗歌和故事。葛雷梗把年轻的女儿露意莎（Louisa）嫁给了年龄比她大得多的庞得贝，寡妇史巴斯特太太嫉妒她，使她受尽痛苦，导致女儿婚姻破裂。她责备父亲：“你的哲学和教育都不能救我了。”在葛莱恩自己的教育主张下，他的儿子汤姆（Tom）被迫协助庞得贝工作，他生活放荡且负债累累，偷了庞得贝银行的钱逃跑，躲到马戏团里，扮演一名小丑的角色。经过了一连串的惨痛教训，又受到马戏团的女孩西丝·朱浦（Sissy, Cecilia Jupe）的感化，逐渐的改变了生活态度，被父亲送到美洲。但病死在省亲的途中。庞得贝喜欢吹嘘自己白手起家，诬蔑工人由于妄想过奢侈生活才产生不满情绪。五年后庞得贝中风猝死在焦煤镇的街上，露意莎再嫁了人。
Background
The novel is unusual in that it did not contain illustrations; nor is it set in or around London (both usual in Dickens' novels). Instead the story is set in the fictitious Victorian industrial Coketown, a generic Northern English mill-town partially based upon 19th-century Preston.
Dickens' reasons for writing Hard Times were mostly monetary. Sales of his weekly periodical, Household Words, were low, and he hoped the inclusion of this novel in instalments would increase sales. Since publication it has received a mixed response from a diverse range of critics, such as F.R. Leavis, George Bernard Shaw, and Thomas Macaulay, mainly focusing on Dickens' treatment of trade unions and his post-Industrial Revolution pessimism regarding the divide between capitalistic mill owners and undervalued workers during the Victorian era.
Prevalence of utilitarianism
The Utilitarians were one of the targets of this novel. Utilitarianism was a prevalent school of thought during this period, its most famous proponents being Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Theoretical Utilitarian ethics hold that promotion of general social welfare is the ultimate goal for the individual and society in general: "the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people." Dickens believed that in practical terms, the pursuit of a totally rationalized society could lead to great misery.
Bentham's former secretary, Edwin Karbunkle, helped design the Poor Law of 1834, which deliberately made workhouse life as uncomfortable as possible. In the novel, this is conveyed in Bitzer's response to Gradgrind's appeal for compassion.
Dickens was appalled by what was, in his interpretation, a selfish philosophy, which was combined with materialist laissez-faire capitalism in the education of some children at the time, as well as in industrial practices. In Dickens' interpretation, the prevalence of utilitarian values in educational institutions promoted contempt between mill owners and workers, creating young adults whose imaginations had been neglected, due to an over-emphasis on facts at the expense of more imaginative pursuits.
Dickens wished to satirize radical Utilitarians whom he described in a letter to Charles Knight as "see[ing] figures and averages, and nothing else." He also wished to campaign for reform of working conditions. Dickens had visited factories in Manchester as early as 1839, and was appalled by the environment in which workers toiled. Drawing upon his own childhood experiences, Dickens resolved to "strike the heaviest blow in my power" for those who laboured in horrific conditions.
John Stuart Mill had a similar, rigorous education to that of Louisa Gradgrind, consisting of analytical, logical, mathematical, and statistical exercises. In his twenties, Mill had a nervous breakdown, believing his capacity for emotion had been enervated by his father's stringent emphasis on analysis and mathematics in his education. In the book, Louisa herself follows a parallel course, being unable to express herself and falling into a temporary depression as a result of her dry education.
Publication
The novel was published as a serial in his weekly publication, Household Words. Sales were highly responsive and encouraging for Dickens who remarked that he was "Three parts mad, and the fourth delirious, with perpetual rushing at Hard Times". The novel was serialised, every week, between April 1 and August 12, 1854. It sold well, and a complete volume was published in August, totalling 110,000 words. Another related novel, North and South by Elizabeth Gaskell, was also published in this magazine.
Synopsis
The novel follows a classical tripartite structure, and the titles of each book are related to Galatians 6:7, "For whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap." The interpretation of this quote being, whatever is effected upon or done in the present will have a direct effect on what happens later. Book I is entitled "Sowing", Book II is entitled "Reaping", and the third is "Garnering."
Book I: Sowing
Mr. Gradgrind, whose voice is "dictatorial", opens the novel by stating "Now, what I want is facts" at his school in Coketown. He is a man of "facts and calculations." He interrogates one of his pupils, Sissy, whose father is involved with the circus, the members of which are "Fancy" in comparison to Gradgrind's espousal of "Fact." Since her father rides and tends to horses, Gradgrind offers Sissy the definition of horse. She is rebuffed for not being able to define a horse factually; her classmate Bitzer does, however, provide a more zoological profile description and factual definition. She does not learn easily, and is censured for suggesting that she would carpet a floor with pictures of flowers "So you would carpet your room—or your husband's room, if you were a grown woman, and had a husband—with representations of flowers, would you? Why would you?" She is taught to disregard Fancy altogether. It is Fancy Vs Fact.
Louisa and Thomas, two of Mr. Gradgrind's children, pay a visit after school to the touring circus run by Mr. Sleary, only to find their father, who is disconcerted by their trip since he believes the circus to be the bastion of Fancy and conceit. With their father, Louisa and Tom trudge off in a despondent mood. Mr. Gradgrind has three younger children: Adam Smith, (after the famous theorist of laissez-faire policy), Malthus (after Rev. Thomas Malthus, who wrote An Essay on the Principle of Population, warning of the dangers of future overpopulation) and Jane.
Gradgrind apprehends Louisa and Tom, his two eldest children, at the circus.
Josiah Bounderby, "a man perfectly devoid of sentiment", is revealed as being Gradgrind's boss. Bounderby is a manufacturer and mill owner who is affluent as a result of his enterprise and capital. Bounderby is what one might call a "self-made man" who has risen from the gutter. He is not averse to giving dramatic summaries of his childhood, which terrify Mr. Gradgrind's wife who is often rendered insensate by these horrific stories. He is described in an acerbic manner as being "the Bully of Humility."
Mr. Gradgrind and Bounderby visit the public-house where Sissy resides to inform her that she cannot attend the school anymore due to the risk of her ideas propagating in the class. Sissy meets the two collaborators, informing them her father has abandoned her not out of malice, but out of desire for Sissy to lead a better life without him. This was the reasoning behind him enlisting her at Gradgrind's school and Gradgrind is outraged at this desertion. At this point members of the circus appear, fronted by their manager Mr. Sleary. Mr. Gradgrind gives Sissy a choice: either to return to the circus and forfeit her education, or to continue her education and never to return to the circus. Sleary and Gradgrind both have their say on the matter, and at the behest of Josephine Sleary she decides to leave the circus and bid all the close friends she had formed farewell.
Back at the Gradgrind house, Tom and Louisa sit down and discuss their feelings, however repressed they seem to be. Tom, already at this present stage of education finds himself in a state of dissatisfaction, and Louisa also expresses her discontent at her childhood while staring into the fire. Louisa's ability to wonder, however, has not been entirely extinguished by her rigorous education based in Fact.
We are introduced to the workers at the mills, known as the "Hands." Amongst them is a man named Stephen Blackpool or "Old Stephen" who has led a toilsome life. He is described as a "man of perfect integrity." He has ended his day's work, and his close companion Rachael is about somewhere. He eventually meets up with her, and they walk home discussing their day. On entering his house he finds that his drunken wretch of a wife, who has been in exile from Coketown, has made an unwelcome return to his house. She is unwell, and mumbles inebriated remarks to Stephen, who is greatly perturbed by this event.
The next day, Stephen makes a visit to Bounderby to try and end his woeful, childless marriage through divorce. Mrs. Sparsit, Mr. Bounderby's paid companion, is "dejected by the impiety" of Stephen and Bounderby explains that he could not afford to effect an annulment anyway. Stephen is very bewildered and dejected by this verdict given by Bounderby.
Meanwhile, Mr. Gradgrind prepares to talk to his daughter about a "business proposal", but she is seemingly apathetic in his company, and this seems to frustrate Mr. Gradgrind's efforts. He says that a proposal of marriage has been made to Louisa by Josiah Bounderby, who is some 30 years her senior. Gradgrind uses statistics to prove that an age inequity in marriage does not prove an unhappy or short marriage however. Louisa passively accepts this offer. Bounderby is rendered ecstatic by the news, as is Louisa's mother, who again is so overwhelmed that she is overcome yet again. Sissy is confounded by but piteous of Louisa.
Bounderby and Louisa get married, and they set out to their honeymoon in "Lyon"; so Bounderby can observe the progress of his 'Hands' (labourers who work in his factories there). Tom, her brother, bumps into her before they leave. They hug each other, Tom bidding her farewell and promising to look for her after they come back from their honeymoon.
Book 2: Reaping
Book Two opens with the attention focused on Bounderby's new bank in Coketown, of which Bitzer alongside the austere Mrs. Sparsit keep watch at night for intruders or burglars. A dashing gentleman enters, asking for directions to Bounderby's house, as Gradgrind has sent him from London, along with a letter. It is James Harthouse, a languid fellow, who was unsure what to do with his life, so became an MP as he saw it as a way out. For this, Dickens despises him.
Harthouse is introduced to Bounderby, who again reverts to almost improbable stories of his childhood to entertain Gradgrind. Harthouse is utterly bored by the blusterous millowner, yet is astounded by his wife, Louisa, and notices her melancholy nature. Louisa's brother Tom works for Bounderby, and he has become reckless and wayward in his conduct, despite his meticulous education. Tom decides to take a liking to James Harthouse, on the basis of his clothes, showing his superficiality. Tom is later debased to animal status, as he comes to be referred to as the "whelp", a denunciatory term for a young man. Tom is very forthcoming in his contempt for Bounderby in the presence of Harthouse, who soaks up all these secretive revelations.
Stephen is called to Bounderby's mansion, where he informs him of his abstention from joining the union led by the orator Slackbridge, and Bounderby accuses Stephen of fealty and of pledging an oath of secrecy to the union. Stephen denies this, and states that he avoided the Union because of a promise he'd made earlier to Rachael. Bounderby is bedevilled by this conflict of interest and accuses Stephen of being waspish. He dismisses him on the spot, on the basis that he has betrayed both employer and union. Later on a bank theft takes place at the Bounderby bank, and Stephen Blackpool is inculpated in the crime, due to him loitering around the bank at Tom's promise of better times to come, the night before the robbery.
Sparsit observes that the relationship between James Harthouse and Louisa is moving towards a near tryst. She sees Louisa as moving down her "staircase", metaphorically speaking. She sets off from the bank to spy upon them, and catches them at what seems to be a propitious moment. However, despite Harthouse confessing his love to Louisa, Louisa is restrained, and refuses an affair. Sparsit is infatuated with the idea that the two do not know they are being observed. Harthouse departs as does Louisa, and Mrs. Sparsit tries to stay in pursuit, thinking that Louisa is going to assent to the affair, though Louisa has not. She follows Louisa to the railway station assuming that Louisa has hired a coachman to dispatch her to Coketown. Sparsit however, misses the fact that Louisa has instead boarded a train to her father's house. Sparsit relinquishes defeat and proclaims "I have lost her!" When Louisa arrives at her father's house, she is revealed to be in an extreme state of disconsolate grief. She accuses her father of denying her the opportunity to have an innocent childhood, and that her rigorous education has stifled her ability to express her emotions. Louisa collapses at her father's feet, into an insensible torpor.
Book 3: Garnering
Mrs. Sparsit arrives at Mr. Bounderby's house, and reveals to him the news her surveillance has brought. Mr. Bounderby, who is rendered irate by this news, journeys to Stone Lodge, where Louisa is resting. Mr. Gradgrind tries to disperse calm upon the scene, and reveals that Louisa resisted the temptation of adultery. Bounderby is inconsolable and he is immensely indignant and ill-mannered towards everyone present, including Mrs. Sparsit, for her falsehood. Bounderby finishes by offering the ultimatum to Louisa of returning to him, by 12 o'clock the next morning, else the marriage is forfeited. Suffice it to say, Mr. Bounderby resumes his bachelorhood when the request is not met.
The discomfited Harthouse leaves Coketown, on an admonition from Sissy Jupe, never to return. He submits. Meanwhile, Mr. Gradgrind and Louisa cast suspicions that Tom, the "whelp", may have committed the bank robbery. Stephen Blackpool who has been absent from Coketown, trying to find mill work under a pseudonym, tries to exculpate himself from the robbery. On walking back to Coketown, he falls down the Old Hell Shaft, an old pit, completing his terminal bad luck in life. He is rescued by villagers, but after speaking to Rachael for the last time, he dies.
Louisa suspects that Tom had a word with Stephen, making a false offer to him, and therefore urging him to loiter outside of the bank. Mr. Gradgrind and Sissy concur with this theory and resolve to find Tom, since he is in danger. Sissy makes a plan for rescue and escape, however, and she reveals that she suspected Tom early on during the proceedings. She sends Tom off to the circus that she used to be a part of, namely Mr. Sleary's. Louisa and Sissy travel to the circus; Tom is there, disguised in blackface. Remorselessly, Tom says that he had little money, and that robbery was the only solution to his dilemma. Mr. Sleary is not aware of this and agrees to help him reach Liverpool, and Mr. Gradgrind, prays that his son is able to board a ship that will send him to the faraway Americas. The party is stopped, however, by Bitzer, who is anxious to claim his reward for the misdemeanour. The "excellent young man" is entreated to show compassion and questions whether he has a heart, to which Bitzer, cynically responds, that of course he has a heart, and that the "circulation could not be carried on without one." Sleary is dismayed by this revelation, and agrees to take Bitzer and Tom to the bank without any further delays. However, he sees that Mr. Gradgrind has been kind to Sissy, and agrees to detain and divert Bitzer whilst Tom leaves for Liverpool.
Returning to Coketown, Mrs. Sparsit is relieved of her duty to Bounderby who has no qualms about firing a lady, however "highly connected" she may be. The final chapter of the book details the fates of the characters. Mrs. Sparsit returns to live with her aunt, Lady Scadgers. The two have feelings of acrimony towards each other. Bounderby dies of a fit in a street one day. Tom dies in the Americas, having begged for penitence in a half-written letter to his sister, Louisa. Louisa herself grows old and never remarries. Mr. Gradgrind abandons his Utilitarian stance, which brings contempt from his fellow MPs, who give him a hard time. Rachael continues to labour while still consistently maintaining her work ethic and honesty. Sissy is the moral victor of the story, as her children have also escaped the desiccative education of the Gradgrind school and grown learned in "childish lore."
Major characters
Mr. Gradgrind
Thomas Gradgrind is a utilitarian who is the founder of the educational system in Coketown. "Eminently practical" is Gradgrind's recurring description throughout the novel, and practicality is something he zealously aspires to. He represents the stringency of Fact, statistics and other materialistic pursuits. He is a "square" person and this can be seen not only through Dickens´description of his personality but also through the description of his physical appearance, "square shoulders".
Only after his daughter's breakdown does he come to a realisation that things such as poetry, fiction and other pursuits are not "destructive nonsense." In the third book, not only does he notice the existence of the unknown thought of "fancy" but he ironically asks Bitzer (one of his students in book the first, who gives a perfect description of a horse) if he has a heart (to save Tom) and in this situation, Bitzer again gives a very scientific response.
Mr. Bounderby
Josiah Bounderby is a business associate of Mr. Gradgrind. A thunderous merchant given to lecturing others, and boasting about being a self-made man. He employs many of the other central characters of the novel, and his rise to prosperity is shown to be an example of social mobility. He marries Mr. Gradgrind's daughter Louisa, some 30 years his junior, in what turns out to be a loveless marriage. They then had no children. Bounderby is the main target of Dickens' attack on the supposed moral superiority of the wealthy, and is revealed to be an hypocrite in his sensational comeuppance at the end of the novel. He is the " bully of humility" as he tells everyone that he is a "self made man" and that his mother left him to be looked after by his grandmother but then, due to Mrs. Sparsit's wrong accusation of thinking that Mrs. Pegler was the bank robber, we find that he has been lying.
He uses Mrs. Sparsit in order to give him status as she belonged to the "Powlers" a very important family in the same way as Bounderby takes advantage of Mrs. Sparsit expecting people of a lower status to respect her presence.
Louisa
Louisa (Loo) Gradgrind, later Louisa Bounderby, is the unemotional, distant and eldest child of the Gradgrind family. She has been taught to abnegate her emotions, and finds it hard to express herself clearly, saying as a child she has "unmanageable thoughts." She is married to Josiah Bounderby, in a very logical and businesslike manner, representing the emphasis on factuality and business pathos of her education. Her union is a disaster and she is tempted into adultery by James Harthouse, yet she manages to resist this temptation with help from Sissy.
All her life she has been "gazing into the fire" "wondering" in the first book we find that she wonders not knowing what it is she is wondering about, in book two with Mrs. Gradgrind's death we get the impression that she well will find out as Mrs. Gradgrind (another victim of the system) says: "there is something wrong" she dies without knowing what it is. It is at the end of book two after Harthouse's love declaration when Louisa understands the meaning of love, fancy, everything that until that moment her life had lacked. She realizes how immature the decision of marrying Bounderby was (only because of Tom's insistence). She then goes to complain to her father and all he says is: "I never knew you were unhappy my child". This shows how Louisa has made him recognize the existence of fancy. Fancy is transmitted through a chain, as Harthouse does to Louisa and Louisa to Gradgrind. The chain breaks at the end of the novel when Gradgrind tries to pass it onto Bitzer.
Sissy Jupe
Cecilia (Sissy) Jupe is the embodiment of imagination, hope and faith. Abandoned by her father, a circus performer at Sleary's circus. Gradgrind offers Sissy the chance to study at his school and to come and live at Stone Lodge with the Gradgrind children. Sleary also offers her a place and tells her she will be treated like one of the family, but Sissy follows her father's wishes of her having a good education, goes to live with Gradgrind. She goes through "hard times" when she is with the Gradgrinds at the beginning because she does not understand the difference between a life based upon facts and one based upon fancy, like hers. When she does notice this, she leaves school in order to look after ill Mrs. Gradgrind. She always asks Mr. Gradgrind if a letter from her father arrived.
Due to Sissy's high morals and natural warm-heartedness she has a huge influence on the Gradgrind family. When Mrs Gradgrind dies she largely takes over the role of mothering the younger Gradgrind Children: Jane, Adam Smith and Malthus.
She is the biggest representative of fancy in the novel. She offers the contrast between fact and fancy. She finishes happy and surrounded by children.
Tom
Thomas (Tom) Gradgrind, Junior is the eldest son and second child of the Gradgrinds. Tom develops as a thoroughly contemptible character. Initially sullen and bitterly resentful of his father's Utilitarian Gradgrindian education, Tom has a very strong relationship with his sister Louisa. At length, Tom starts work in Bounderby's bank (which he later robs), and descends into sybaritic gambling and drinking - he is indiscreet over Louisa's marriage to Bounderby with James Harthouse. Nonetheless Louisa never ceases to deeply adore Tom, and she aids Sissy and Mr. Gradgrind in saving her brother from arrest. It is also hinted that Tom has romantic feelings for Sissy that are partly reciprocated. He is, ultimately, an insecure wastrel.
Known as "the whelp" (small puppy) this is the way of Dickens mocking this character. He takes advantage of his loving sister in order to get out of the life that his father is giving him which he doesn't like. We might feel sympathy towards him at some points of the novel (mostly in book one) as he has the same kind of feelings as Louisa.
He tells Blackpool to wait for him outside the bank and if he has something to give him, he will make sure Bitzer gives it to him. He tricks him by doing so as he only does so in order to make him look as if it was him who robbed the bank, maybe as a form of revenge after Bounderby sacking him. He is found out in book three where Blackpool is shown to be innocent. Mr. Gradgrind makes signs to put them up in the whole town clearing Blackpool's name and putting the blame on his own son.
Old Stephen
Stephen Blackpool, or "Old Stephen" as he is referred to by his fellow Hands, is a worker at one of Bounderby's mills. His life is immensely strenuous, and he is married to a constantly inebriated wife who comes and goes throughout the novel. She remains anonymous and unidentified throughout the novel. He forms a close bond with Rachael, a co-worker. After a dispute with Bounderby, he is dismissed from his work at the Coketown mills and is forced to find work elsewhere. Whilst absent from Coketown he is accused of a crime for which he has been framed. Tragically, on his way back to vindicate himself, he falls down a mine-shaft. He is rescued but dies of his injuries.
Stephen is a man "of perfect integrity", a man who will never give up his moral standpoint to follow along with the crowd, a quality which leads to the conflict with Slackbridge and the Trade Union.
Other characters
Bitzer – is a very pale classmate of Sissy's and brought up on facts and is taught to operate according to self-interest. He takes up a job in Bounderby's bank, and later tries to arrest Tom.
Mrs. Sparsit – is a "classical" widow who has fallen upon despairing circumstances. She is employed by Bounderby, yet her officiousness and prying get her fired in a humorous send-off by Bounderby.
James Harthouse – enters the novel in the 2nd book. James is an indolent, languid, upper-class gentleman, who attempts to woo Louisa, and gets sent away by Sissy.
Mrs. Pegler – a "mysterious old woman" who turns out to be Bounderby's mother.
Slackbridge – trade union leader
Various circus folk", including Signor Jupe (Sissy's father, who never actually appears in the novel), his dog Merrylegs, Mr. Sleary (the lisping manager of the circus) and Cupid, used to represent that the world of the circus is not always as pure as is represented by Sissy and Sleary.
Mrs. Gradgrind – the wife of Mr. Gradgrind, who is an invalid and complains constantly. Her marriage to Thomas is a precursor of Louisa's marriage to Bounderby.
Mr. M'Choakumchild – the teacher of the class containing Sissy Jupe and Bitzer, says very little but his name suggests a cold personality that stifles imagination.
Major themes
Relating back to Dickens' aim to "strike the heaviest blow in my power," he wished to educate readers about the working conditions of some of the factories in the industrial towns of Manchester, and Preston. Relating to this also, Dickens wished to expose the assumption that prosperity runs parallel to morality, something which is cruelly shattered in this novel by his portrayal of the moral monsters, Mr. Bounderby, and James Harthouse, the cynical aristocrats. Dickens was also campaigning for the importance of imagination in life, and not for people's life to be reduced to a collection of material facts and statistical analyses. Dickens' favourable portrayal of the Circus, which he describes as caring so "little for Plain Fact", is an example of this.
Fact vs. Fancy
This theme is developed early on, the bastion of Fact being the eminently practical Mr. Gradgrind, and his model school, which teaches nothing but Facts. Any imaginative or aesthetic subjects are eradicated from the curriculum, but analysis, deduction and mathematics are emphasised. Conversely, Fancy is the opposite of Fact, encompassing, fiction, music, poetry, and novelty shows such as Sleary's circus. It is interesting that Mr. Sleary is reckoned to be a fool by the Fact men, but it is Sleary who realises people must be "amuthed" (amused). This is made cognisant by Tom's sybaritic gambling and Louisa, who is virtually soulless as a young child, and as a married woman. Bitzer, who has adhered to Gradgrind's teachings as a child, turns out to be an uncompassionate egotist.
Officiousness and spying
Prying and knowledge is key to several characters, namely Mrs. Sparsit and Mr. Bounderby. Mr. Bounderby spends his whole time fabricating stories about his childhood, covering up the real nature of his upbringing, which is solemnly revealed at the end of the novel. While not a snooper himself, he is undone by Sparsit unwittingly revealing the mysterious old woman to be his own mother, and she unravels Josiah's secrets about his upbringing and fictitious stories. Mr. Bounderby himself superintends through calculating tabular statements and statistics, and is always secretly rebuking the people of Coketown for indulging in conceitful activities. This gives Bounderby a sense of superiority, as it does with Mrs. Sparsit, who prides herself on her salacious knowledge gained from spying on others. All "superintendents" of the novel are undone in one way, or another.
Honesty
This is closely related to Dickens' typical social commentary, which is a theme he uses throughout his entire œuvre. Dickens portrays the wealthy in this novel as being morally corrupt. Bounderby has no moral scruples; he fires Blackpool "for a novelty". He also conducts himself without any shred of decency, frequently losing his temper. He is cynically false about his childhood. Harthouse, a leisured gent, is compared to an "iceberg" who will cause a wreck unwittingly, due to him being "not a moral sort of fellow", as he states himself. Stephen Blackpool, a destitute worker, is equipped with perfect morals, always abiding by his promises, and always thoughtful and considerate of others, as is Sissy Jupe.
Literary significance & criticism
Critics have had a diverse range of opinions on the novel. Renowned critic John Ruskin declared Hard Times to be his favourite Dickens work due to its exploration of important social questions. However, Thomas Macaulay branded it "sullen socialism", on the grounds that Dickens did not fully comprehend the politics of the time. This point was also made by George Bernard Shaw, who decreed Hard Times to be a novel of "passionate revolt against the whole industrial order of the modern world." Shaw criticized the novel for its failure to provide an accurate account of trade unionism of the time, deeming Dickens' character of Slackbridge, the poisonous orator as "a mere figment of middle-class imagination."
F. R. Leavis, in his controversial book, The Great Tradition, described the book as essentially being a moral fable, and awarded it the distinction of being a work of art, decreeing it the only significant novel of Dickens worth scrutinizing.
Walter Allen, in an introduction to an alternative edition, characterised Hard Times as being an unsurpassed "critique of industrial society", which was later superseded by works of D. H. Lawrence. Other writers have described the novel as being, as G. K. Chesterton commented in his work Appreciations and Criticisms, "the harshest of his stories"; whereas George Orwell praised the novel (and Dickens himself) for "generous anger."
纺织厂厂主、银行家庞得贝（Josiah Bounderby）和退休的五金批发商人、国会议员兼教育家汤玛斯·葛莱恩（Thomas Gradgrind）是好朋友，他们一起控制著市镇的经济体系与教育机构。他们注重实利而且不讲情义，自命不凡，以功利主义作为生活原则。负责侍候庞得贝的是寡妇史巴斯特太太。
葛莱恩对子女的教育主张“实事求是，脚踏实地”，他们在学会走路时，就被赶进教室，终日和数字打交道，他们不允许阅读诗歌和故事。葛雷梗把年轻的女儿露意莎（Louisa）嫁给了年龄比她大得多的庞得贝，寡妇史巴斯特太太嫉妒她，使她受尽痛苦，导致女儿婚姻破裂。她责备父亲：“你的哲学和教育都不能救我了。”在葛莱恩自己的教育主张下，他的儿子汤姆（Tom）被迫协助庞得贝工作，他生活放荡且负债累累，偷了庞得贝银行的钱逃跑，躲到马戏团里，扮演一名小丑的角色。经过了一连串的惨痛教训，又受到马戏团的女孩西丝·朱浦（Sissy, Cecilia Jupe）的感化，逐渐的改变了生活态度，被父亲送到美洲。但病死在省亲的途中。庞得贝喜欢吹嘘自己白手起家，诬蔑工人由于妄想过奢侈生活才产生不满情绪。五年后庞得贝中风猝死在焦煤镇的街上，露意莎再嫁了人。
Background
The novel is unusual in that it did not contain illustrations; nor is it set in or around London (both usual in Dickens' novels). Instead the story is set in the fictitious Victorian industrial Coketown, a generic Northern English mill-town partially based upon 19th-century Preston.
Dickens' reasons for writing Hard Times were mostly monetary. Sales of his weekly periodical, Household Words, were low, and he hoped the inclusion of this novel in instalments would increase sales. Since publication it has received a mixed response from a diverse range of critics, such as F.R. Leavis, George Bernard Shaw, and Thomas Macaulay, mainly focusing on Dickens' treatment of trade unions and his post-Industrial Revolution pessimism regarding the divide between capitalistic mill owners and undervalued workers during the Victorian era.
Prevalence of utilitarianism
The Utilitarians were one of the targets of this novel. Utilitarianism was a prevalent school of thought during this period, its most famous proponents being Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Theoretical Utilitarian ethics hold that promotion of general social welfare is the ultimate goal for the individual and society in general: "the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people." Dickens believed that in practical terms, the pursuit of a totally rationalized society could lead to great misery.
Bentham's former secretary, Edwin Karbunkle, helped design the Poor Law of 1834, which deliberately made workhouse life as uncomfortable as possible. In the novel, this is conveyed in Bitzer's response to Gradgrind's appeal for compassion.
Dickens was appalled by what was, in his interpretation, a selfish philosophy, which was combined with materialist laissez-faire capitalism in the education of some children at the time, as well as in industrial practices. In Dickens' interpretation, the prevalence of utilitarian values in educational institutions promoted contempt between mill owners and workers, creating young adults whose imaginations had been neglected, due to an over-emphasis on facts at the expense of more imaginative pursuits.
Dickens wished to satirize radical Utilitarians whom he described in a letter to Charles Knight as "see[ing] figures and averages, and nothing else." He also wished to campaign for reform of working conditions. Dickens had visited factories in Manchester as early as 1839, and was appalled by the environment in which workers toiled. Drawing upon his own childhood experiences, Dickens resolved to "strike the heaviest blow in my power" for those who laboured in horrific conditions.
John Stuart Mill had a similar, rigorous education to that of Louisa Gradgrind, consisting of analytical, logical, mathematical, and statistical exercises. In his twenties, Mill had a nervous breakdown, believing his capacity for emotion had been enervated by his father's stringent emphasis on analysis and mathematics in his education. In the book, Louisa herself follows a parallel course, being unable to express herself and falling into a temporary depression as a result of her dry education.
Publication
The novel was published as a serial in his weekly publication, Household Words. Sales were highly responsive and encouraging for Dickens who remarked that he was "Three parts mad, and the fourth delirious, with perpetual rushing at Hard Times". The novel was serialised, every week, between April 1 and August 12, 1854. It sold well, and a complete volume was published in August, totalling 110,000 words. Another related novel, North and South by Elizabeth Gaskell, was also published in this magazine.
Synopsis
The novel follows a classical tripartite structure, and the titles of each book are related to Galatians 6:7, "For whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap." The interpretation of this quote being, whatever is effected upon or done in the present will have a direct effect on what happens later. Book I is entitled "Sowing", Book II is entitled "Reaping", and the third is "Garnering."
Book I: Sowing
Mr. Gradgrind, whose voice is "dictatorial", opens the novel by stating "Now, what I want is facts" at his school in Coketown. He is a man of "facts and calculations." He interrogates one of his pupils, Sissy, whose father is involved with the circus, the members of which are "Fancy" in comparison to Gradgrind's espousal of "Fact." Since her father rides and tends to horses, Gradgrind offers Sissy the definition of horse. She is rebuffed for not being able to define a horse factually; her classmate Bitzer does, however, provide a more zoological profile description and factual definition. She does not learn easily, and is censured for suggesting that she would carpet a floor with pictures of flowers "So you would carpet your room—or your husband's room, if you were a grown woman, and had a husband—with representations of flowers, would you? Why would you?" She is taught to disregard Fancy altogether. It is Fancy Vs Fact.
Louisa and Thomas, two of Mr. Gradgrind's children, pay a visit after school to the touring circus run by Mr. Sleary, only to find their father, who is disconcerted by their trip since he believes the circus to be the bastion of Fancy and conceit. With their father, Louisa and Tom trudge off in a despondent mood. Mr. Gradgrind has three younger children: Adam Smith, (after the famous theorist of laissez-faire policy), Malthus (after Rev. Thomas Malthus, who wrote An Essay on the Principle of Population, warning of the dangers of future overpopulation) and Jane.
Gradgrind apprehends Louisa and Tom, his two eldest children, at the circus.
Josiah Bounderby, "a man perfectly devoid of sentiment", is revealed as being Gradgrind's boss. Bounderby is a manufacturer and mill owner who is affluent as a result of his enterprise and capital. Bounderby is what one might call a "self-made man" who has risen from the gutter. He is not averse to giving dramatic summaries of his childhood, which terrify Mr. Gradgrind's wife who is often rendered insensate by these horrific stories. He is described in an acerbic manner as being "the Bully of Humility."
Mr. Gradgrind and Bounderby visit the public-house where Sissy resides to inform her that she cannot attend the school anymore due to the risk of her ideas propagating in the class. Sissy meets the two collaborators, informing them her father has abandoned her not out of malice, but out of desire for Sissy to lead a better life without him. This was the reasoning behind him enlisting her at Gradgrind's school and Gradgrind is outraged at this desertion. At this point members of the circus appear, fronted by their manager Mr. Sleary. Mr. Gradgrind gives Sissy a choice: either to return to the circus and forfeit her education, or to continue her education and never to return to the circus. Sleary and Gradgrind both have their say on the matter, and at the behest of Josephine Sleary she decides to leave the circus and bid all the close friends she had formed farewell.
Back at the Gradgrind house, Tom and Louisa sit down and discuss their feelings, however repressed they seem to be. Tom, already at this present stage of education finds himself in a state of dissatisfaction, and Louisa also expresses her discontent at her childhood while staring into the fire. Louisa's ability to wonder, however, has not been entirely extinguished by her rigorous education based in Fact.
We are introduced to the workers at the mills, known as the "Hands." Amongst them is a man named Stephen Blackpool or "Old Stephen" who has led a toilsome life. He is described as a "man of perfect integrity." He has ended his day's work, and his close companion Rachael is about somewhere. He eventually meets up with her, and they walk home discussing their day. On entering his house he finds that his drunken wretch of a wife, who has been in exile from Coketown, has made an unwelcome return to his house. She is unwell, and mumbles inebriated remarks to Stephen, who is greatly perturbed by this event.
The next day, Stephen makes a visit to Bounderby to try and end his woeful, childless marriage through divorce. Mrs. Sparsit, Mr. Bounderby's paid companion, is "dejected by the impiety" of Stephen and Bounderby explains that he could not afford to effect an annulment anyway. Stephen is very bewildered and dejected by this verdict given by Bounderby.
Meanwhile, Mr. Gradgrind prepares to talk to his daughter about a "business proposal", but she is seemingly apathetic in his company, and this seems to frustrate Mr. Gradgrind's efforts. He says that a proposal of marriage has been made to Louisa by Josiah Bounderby, who is some 30 years her senior. Gradgrind uses statistics to prove that an age inequity in marriage does not prove an unhappy or short marriage however. Louisa passively accepts this offer. Bounderby is rendered ecstatic by the news, as is Louisa's mother, who again is so overwhelmed that she is overcome yet again. Sissy is confounded by but piteous of Louisa.
Bounderby and Louisa get married, and they set out to their honeymoon in "Lyon"; so Bounderby can observe the progress of his 'Hands' (labourers who work in his factories there). Tom, her brother, bumps into her before they leave. They hug each other, Tom bidding her farewell and promising to look for her after they come back from their honeymoon.
Book 2: Reaping
Book Two opens with the attention focused on Bounderby's new bank in Coketown, of which Bitzer alongside the austere Mrs. Sparsit keep watch at night for intruders or burglars. A dashing gentleman enters, asking for directions to Bounderby's house, as Gradgrind has sent him from London, along with a letter. It is James Harthouse, a languid fellow, who was unsure what to do with his life, so became an MP as he saw it as a way out. For this, Dickens despises him.
Harthouse is introduced to Bounderby, who again reverts to almost improbable stories of his childhood to entertain Gradgrind. Harthouse is utterly bored by the blusterous millowner, yet is astounded by his wife, Louisa, and notices her melancholy nature. Louisa's brother Tom works for Bounderby, and he has become reckless and wayward in his conduct, despite his meticulous education. Tom decides to take a liking to James Harthouse, on the basis of his clothes, showing his superficiality. Tom is later debased to animal status, as he comes to be referred to as the "whelp", a denunciatory term for a young man. Tom is very forthcoming in his contempt for Bounderby in the presence of Harthouse, who soaks up all these secretive revelations.
Stephen is called to Bounderby's mansion, where he informs him of his abstention from joining the union led by the orator Slackbridge, and Bounderby accuses Stephen of fealty and of pledging an oath of secrecy to the union. Stephen denies this, and states that he avoided the Union because of a promise he'd made earlier to Rachael. Bounderby is bedevilled by this conflict of interest and accuses Stephen of being waspish. He dismisses him on the spot, on the basis that he has betrayed both employer and union. Later on a bank theft takes place at the Bounderby bank, and Stephen Blackpool is inculpated in the crime, due to him loitering around the bank at Tom's promise of better times to come, the night before the robbery.
Sparsit observes that the relationship between James Harthouse and Louisa is moving towards a near tryst. She sees Louisa as moving down her "staircase", metaphorically speaking. She sets off from the bank to spy upon them, and catches them at what seems to be a propitious moment. However, despite Harthouse confessing his love to Louisa, Louisa is restrained, and refuses an affair. Sparsit is infatuated with the idea that the two do not know they are being observed. Harthouse departs as does Louisa, and Mrs. Sparsit tries to stay in pursuit, thinking that Louisa is going to assent to the affair, though Louisa has not. She follows Louisa to the railway station assuming that Louisa has hired a coachman to dispatch her to Coketown. Sparsit however, misses the fact that Louisa has instead boarded a train to her father's house. Sparsit relinquishes defeat and proclaims "I have lost her!" When Louisa arrives at her father's house, she is revealed to be in an extreme state of disconsolate grief. She accuses her father of denying her the opportunity to have an innocent childhood, and that her rigorous education has stifled her ability to express her emotions. Louisa collapses at her father's feet, into an insensible torpor.
Book 3: Garnering
Mrs. Sparsit arrives at Mr. Bounderby's house, and reveals to him the news her surveillance has brought. Mr. Bounderby, who is rendered irate by this news, journeys to Stone Lodge, where Louisa is resting. Mr. Gradgrind tries to disperse calm upon the scene, and reveals that Louisa resisted the temptation of adultery. Bounderby is inconsolable and he is immensely indignant and ill-mannered towards everyone present, including Mrs. Sparsit, for her falsehood. Bounderby finishes by offering the ultimatum to Louisa of returning to him, by 12 o'clock the next morning, else the marriage is forfeited. Suffice it to say, Mr. Bounderby resumes his bachelorhood when the request is not met.
The discomfited Harthouse leaves Coketown, on an admonition from Sissy Jupe, never to return. He submits. Meanwhile, Mr. Gradgrind and Louisa cast suspicions that Tom, the "whelp", may have committed the bank robbery. Stephen Blackpool who has been absent from Coketown, trying to find mill work under a pseudonym, tries to exculpate himself from the robbery. On walking back to Coketown, he falls down the Old Hell Shaft, an old pit, completing his terminal bad luck in life. He is rescued by villagers, but after speaking to Rachael for the last time, he dies.
Louisa suspects that Tom had a word with Stephen, making a false offer to him, and therefore urging him to loiter outside of the bank. Mr. Gradgrind and Sissy concur with this theory and resolve to find Tom, since he is in danger. Sissy makes a plan for rescue and escape, however, and she reveals that she suspected Tom early on during the proceedings. She sends Tom off to the circus that she used to be a part of, namely Mr. Sleary's. Louisa and Sissy travel to the circus; Tom is there, disguised in blackface. Remorselessly, Tom says that he had little money, and that robbery was the only solution to his dilemma. Mr. Sleary is not aware of this and agrees to help him reach Liverpool, and Mr. Gradgrind, prays that his son is able to board a ship that will send him to the faraway Americas. The party is stopped, however, by Bitzer, who is anxious to claim his reward for the misdemeanour. The "excellent young man" is entreated to show compassion and questions whether he has a heart, to which Bitzer, cynically responds, that of course he has a heart, and that the "circulation could not be carried on without one." Sleary is dismayed by this revelation, and agrees to take Bitzer and Tom to the bank without any further delays. However, he sees that Mr. Gradgrind has been kind to Sissy, and agrees to detain and divert Bitzer whilst Tom leaves for Liverpool.
Returning to Coketown, Mrs. Sparsit is relieved of her duty to Bounderby who has no qualms about firing a lady, however "highly connected" she may be. The final chapter of the book details the fates of the characters. Mrs. Sparsit returns to live with her aunt, Lady Scadgers. The two have feelings of acrimony towards each other. Bounderby dies of a fit in a street one day. Tom dies in the Americas, having begged for penitence in a half-written letter to his sister, Louisa. Louisa herself grows old and never remarries. Mr. Gradgrind abandons his Utilitarian stance, which brings contempt from his fellow MPs, who give him a hard time. Rachael continues to labour while still consistently maintaining her work ethic and honesty. Sissy is the moral victor of the story, as her children have also escaped the desiccative education of the Gradgrind school and grown learned in "childish lore."
Major characters
Mr. Gradgrind
Thomas Gradgrind is a utilitarian who is the founder of the educational system in Coketown. "Eminently practical" is Gradgrind's recurring description throughout the novel, and practicality is something he zealously aspires to. He represents the stringency of Fact, statistics and other materialistic pursuits. He is a "square" person and this can be seen not only through Dickens´description of his personality but also through the description of his physical appearance, "square shoulders".
Only after his daughter's breakdown does he come to a realisation that things such as poetry, fiction and other pursuits are not "destructive nonsense." In the third book, not only does he notice the existence of the unknown thought of "fancy" but he ironically asks Bitzer (one of his students in book the first, who gives a perfect description of a horse) if he has a heart (to save Tom) and in this situation, Bitzer again gives a very scientific response.
Mr. Bounderby
Josiah Bounderby is a business associate of Mr. Gradgrind. A thunderous merchant given to lecturing others, and boasting about being a self-made man. He employs many of the other central characters of the novel, and his rise to prosperity is shown to be an example of social mobility. He marries Mr. Gradgrind's daughter Louisa, some 30 years his junior, in what turns out to be a loveless marriage. They then had no children. Bounderby is the main target of Dickens' attack on the supposed moral superiority of the wealthy, and is revealed to be an hypocrite in his sensational comeuppance at the end of the novel. He is the " bully of humility" as he tells everyone that he is a "self made man" and that his mother left him to be looked after by his grandmother but then, due to Mrs. Sparsit's wrong accusation of thinking that Mrs. Pegler was the bank robber, we find that he has been lying.
He uses Mrs. Sparsit in order to give him status as she belonged to the "Powlers" a very important family in the same way as Bounderby takes advantage of Mrs. Sparsit expecting people of a lower status to respect her presence.
Louisa
Louisa (Loo) Gradgrind, later Louisa Bounderby, is the unemotional, distant and eldest child of the Gradgrind family. She has been taught to abnegate her emotions, and finds it hard to express herself clearly, saying as a child she has "unmanageable thoughts." She is married to Josiah Bounderby, in a very logical and businesslike manner, representing the emphasis on factuality and business pathos of her education. Her union is a disaster and she is tempted into adultery by James Harthouse, yet she manages to resist this temptation with help from Sissy.
All her life she has been "gazing into the fire" "wondering" in the first book we find that she wonders not knowing what it is she is wondering about, in book two with Mrs. Gradgrind's death we get the impression that she well will find out as Mrs. Gradgrind (another victim of the system) says: "there is something wrong" she dies without knowing what it is. It is at the end of book two after Harthouse's love declaration when Louisa understands the meaning of love, fancy, everything that until that moment her life had lacked. She realizes how immature the decision of marrying Bounderby was (only because of Tom's insistence). She then goes to complain to her father and all he says is: "I never knew you were unhappy my child". This shows how Louisa has made him recognize the existence of fancy. Fancy is transmitted through a chain, as Harthouse does to Louisa and Louisa to Gradgrind. The chain breaks at the end of the novel when Gradgrind tries to pass it onto Bitzer.
Sissy Jupe
Cecilia (Sissy) Jupe is the embodiment of imagination, hope and faith. Abandoned by her father, a circus performer at Sleary's circus. Gradgrind offers Sissy the chance to study at his school and to come and live at Stone Lodge with the Gradgrind children. Sleary also offers her a place and tells her she will be treated like one of the family, but Sissy follows her father's wishes of her having a good education, goes to live with Gradgrind. She goes through "hard times" when she is with the Gradgrinds at the beginning because she does not understand the difference between a life based upon facts and one based upon fancy, like hers. When she does notice this, she leaves school in order to look after ill Mrs. Gradgrind. She always asks Mr. Gradgrind if a letter from her father arrived.
Due to Sissy's high morals and natural warm-heartedness she has a huge influence on the Gradgrind family. When Mrs Gradgrind dies she largely takes over the role of mothering the younger Gradgrind Children: Jane, Adam Smith and Malthus.
She is the biggest representative of fancy in the novel. She offers the contrast between fact and fancy. She finishes happy and surrounded by children.
Tom
Thomas (Tom) Gradgrind, Junior is the eldest son and second child of the Gradgrinds. Tom develops as a thoroughly contemptible character. Initially sullen and bitterly resentful of his father's Utilitarian Gradgrindian education, Tom has a very strong relationship with his sister Louisa. At length, Tom starts work in Bounderby's bank (which he later robs), and descends into sybaritic gambling and drinking - he is indiscreet over Louisa's marriage to Bounderby with James Harthouse. Nonetheless Louisa never ceases to deeply adore Tom, and she aids Sissy and Mr. Gradgrind in saving her brother from arrest. It is also hinted that Tom has romantic feelings for Sissy that are partly reciprocated. He is, ultimately, an insecure wastrel.
Known as "the whelp" (small puppy) this is the way of Dickens mocking this character. He takes advantage of his loving sister in order to get out of the life that his father is giving him which he doesn't like. We might feel sympathy towards him at some points of the novel (mostly in book one) as he has the same kind of feelings as Louisa.
He tells Blackpool to wait for him outside the bank and if he has something to give him, he will make sure Bitzer gives it to him. He tricks him by doing so as he only does so in order to make him look as if it was him who robbed the bank, maybe as a form of revenge after Bounderby sacking him. He is found out in book three where Blackpool is shown to be innocent. Mr. Gradgrind makes signs to put them up in the whole town clearing Blackpool's name and putting the blame on his own son.
Old Stephen
Stephen Blackpool, or "Old Stephen" as he is referred to by his fellow Hands, is a worker at one of Bounderby's mills. His life is immensely strenuous, and he is married to a constantly inebriated wife who comes and goes throughout the novel. She remains anonymous and unidentified throughout the novel. He forms a close bond with Rachael, a co-worker. After a dispute with Bounderby, he is dismissed from his work at the Coketown mills and is forced to find work elsewhere. Whilst absent from Coketown he is accused of a crime for which he has been framed. Tragically, on his way back to vindicate himself, he falls down a mine-shaft. He is rescued but dies of his injuries.
Stephen is a man "of perfect integrity", a man who will never give up his moral standpoint to follow along with the crowd, a quality which leads to the conflict with Slackbridge and the Trade Union.
Other characters
Bitzer – is a very pale classmate of Sissy's and brought up on facts and is taught to operate according to self-interest. He takes up a job in Bounderby's bank, and later tries to arrest Tom.
Mrs. Sparsit – is a "classical" widow who has fallen upon despairing circumstances. She is employed by Bounderby, yet her officiousness and prying get her fired in a humorous send-off by Bounderby.
James Harthouse – enters the novel in the 2nd book. James is an indolent, languid, upper-class gentleman, who attempts to woo Louisa, and gets sent away by Sissy.
Mrs. Pegler – a "mysterious old woman" who turns out to be Bounderby's mother.
Slackbridge – trade union leader
Various circus folk", including Signor Jupe (Sissy's father, who never actually appears in the novel), his dog Merrylegs, Mr. Sleary (the lisping manager of the circus) and Cupid, used to represent that the world of the circus is not always as pure as is represented by Sissy and Sleary.
Mrs. Gradgrind – the wife of Mr. Gradgrind, who is an invalid and complains constantly. Her marriage to Thomas is a precursor of Louisa's marriage to Bounderby.
Mr. M'Choakumchild – the teacher of the class containing Sissy Jupe and Bitzer, says very little but his name suggests a cold personality that stifles imagination.
Major themes
Relating back to Dickens' aim to "strike the heaviest blow in my power," he wished to educate readers about the working conditions of some of the factories in the industrial towns of Manchester, and Preston. Relating to this also, Dickens wished to expose the assumption that prosperity runs parallel to morality, something which is cruelly shattered in this novel by his portrayal of the moral monsters, Mr. Bounderby, and James Harthouse, the cynical aristocrats. Dickens was also campaigning for the importance of imagination in life, and not for people's life to be reduced to a collection of material facts and statistical analyses. Dickens' favourable portrayal of the Circus, which he describes as caring so "little for Plain Fact", is an example of this.
Fact vs. Fancy
This theme is developed early on, the bastion of Fact being the eminently practical Mr. Gradgrind, and his model school, which teaches nothing but Facts. Any imaginative or aesthetic subjects are eradicated from the curriculum, but analysis, deduction and mathematics are emphasised. Conversely, Fancy is the opposite of Fact, encompassing, fiction, music, poetry, and novelty shows such as Sleary's circus. It is interesting that Mr. Sleary is reckoned to be a fool by the Fact men, but it is Sleary who realises people must be "amuthed" (amused). This is made cognisant by Tom's sybaritic gambling and Louisa, who is virtually soulless as a young child, and as a married woman. Bitzer, who has adhered to Gradgrind's teachings as a child, turns out to be an uncompassionate egotist.
Officiousness and spying
Prying and knowledge is key to several characters, namely Mrs. Sparsit and Mr. Bounderby. Mr. Bounderby spends his whole time fabricating stories about his childhood, covering up the real nature of his upbringing, which is solemnly revealed at the end of the novel. While not a snooper himself, he is undone by Sparsit unwittingly revealing the mysterious old woman to be his own mother, and she unravels Josiah's secrets about his upbringing and fictitious stories. Mr. Bounderby himself superintends through calculating tabular statements and statistics, and is always secretly rebuking the people of Coketown for indulging in conceitful activities. This gives Bounderby a sense of superiority, as it does with Mrs. Sparsit, who prides herself on her salacious knowledge gained from spying on others. All "superintendents" of the novel are undone in one way, or another.
Honesty
This is closely related to Dickens' typical social commentary, which is a theme he uses throughout his entire œuvre. Dickens portrays the wealthy in this novel as being morally corrupt. Bounderby has no moral scruples; he fires Blackpool "for a novelty". He also conducts himself without any shred of decency, frequently losing his temper. He is cynically false about his childhood. Harthouse, a leisured gent, is compared to an "iceberg" who will cause a wreck unwittingly, due to him being "not a moral sort of fellow", as he states himself. Stephen Blackpool, a destitute worker, is equipped with perfect morals, always abiding by his promises, and always thoughtful and considerate of others, as is Sissy Jupe.
Literary significance & criticism
Critics have had a diverse range of opinions on the novel. Renowned critic John Ruskin declared Hard Times to be his favourite Dickens work due to its exploration of important social questions. However, Thomas Macaulay branded it "sullen socialism", on the grounds that Dickens did not fully comprehend the politics of the time. This point was also made by George Bernard Shaw, who decreed Hard Times to be a novel of "passionate revolt against the whole industrial order of the modern world." Shaw criticized the novel for its failure to provide an accurate account of trade unionism of the time, deeming Dickens' character of Slackbridge, the poisonous orator as "a mere figment of middle-class imagination."
F. R. Leavis, in his controversial book, The Great Tradition, described the book as essentially being a moral fable, and awarded it the distinction of being a work of art, decreeing it the only significant novel of Dickens worth scrutinizing.
Walter Allen, in an introduction to an alternative edition, characterised Hard Times as being an unsurpassed "critique of industrial society", which was later superseded by works of D. H. Lawrence. Other writers have described the novel as being, as G. K. Chesterton commented in his work Appreciations and Criticisms, "the harshest of his stories"; whereas George Orwell praised the novel (and Dickens himself) for "generous anger."
《荒凉山庄》（Bleak House）
或译为《萧斋》，发表于1852年至1853年之间，是狄更斯最长的作品之一，它以错综复杂的情节揭露英国法律制度和司法机构的黑暗。
这部小说内容讽刺英国古老的“大法官庭”（Chancery）的作风，是司法体制颟顸、邪恶、无能的象征。小说描写了一件争夺遗产的诉讼案，由于司法人员从中营私、徇讦，竟使得案情拖延二十年。在一个偶然机会里，男爵夫人的私生女艾瑟?萨莫森（Esther Summerson）被那一群律师得知，于是追根究柢的律师藉此威胁男爵夫人，甚至整死一名流浪少年，男爵夫人被迫离家出走，死于一场暴风雪。其中一名律师被他所利用的人杀害。这二十年期间申诉者居住在荒凉山庄，主人约翰?詹狄士（John Jarndyce）成为一对表兄妹的监护人，等待法官做最后的判决，最后整笔遗产正好全数支付有关的法律诉讼费用，跟诉讼案有关的人死的死，发疯的发疯。多数评论家如萧伯纳、切斯特顿、康拉德、崔尔琳等人皆认为这部小说是“创下小说写作高峰”，也是第一本“法律小说”。
At the novel's core is long-running litigation in England's Court of Chancery, Jarndyce and Jarndyce, which has far-reaching consequences for all involved. This case revolves around a testator who apparently made several wills, all of them seeking to bequeath money and land surrounding the Manor of Marr in South Yorkshire. The litigation, which already has consumed years and sixty to seventy thousand pounds sterling in court costs, is emblematic of the failure of Chancery. Dickens's assault on the flaws of the British judiciary system is based in part on his own experiences as a law clerk, and in part on his experiences as a Chancery litigant seeking to enforce his copyright on his earlier books. His harsh characterisation of the slow, arcane Chancery law process gave memorable form to pre-existing widespread frustration with the system. Though Chancery lawyers and judges criticized Dickens's portrait of Chancery as exaggerated and unmerited, his novel helped to spur an ongoing movement that culminated in enactment of the legal reform in the 1870s. In fact, Dickens was writing just as Chancery was reforming itself, with the Six Clerks and Masters mentioned in Chapter One abolished in 1842 and 1852 respectively: the need for further reform was being widely debated. These facts raise an issue as to when Bleak House is actually set. Technically it must be before 1842, and at least some of his readers at the time would have been aware of this. However, there is some question as to whether this timeframe is consistent with some of the themes of the novel. The great English legal historian Sir William Holdsworth (see below), set the action in 1827.
或译为《萧斋》，发表于1852年至1853年之间，是狄更斯最长的作品之一，它以错综复杂的情节揭露英国法律制度和司法机构的黑暗。
这部小说内容讽刺英国古老的“大法官庭”（Chancery）的作风，是司法体制颟顸、邪恶、无能的象征。小说描写了一件争夺遗产的诉讼案，由于司法人员从中营私、徇讦，竟使得案情拖延二十年。在一个偶然机会里，男爵夫人的私生女艾瑟?萨莫森（Esther Summerson）被那一群律师得知，于是追根究柢的律师藉此威胁男爵夫人，甚至整死一名流浪少年，男爵夫人被迫离家出走，死于一场暴风雪。其中一名律师被他所利用的人杀害。这二十年期间申诉者居住在荒凉山庄，主人约翰?詹狄士（John Jarndyce）成为一对表兄妹的监护人，等待法官做最后的判决，最后整笔遗产正好全数支付有关的法律诉讼费用，跟诉讼案有关的人死的死，发疯的发疯。多数评论家如萧伯纳、切斯特顿、康拉德、崔尔琳等人皆认为这部小说是“创下小说写作高峰”，也是第一本“法律小说”。
At the novel's core is long-running litigation in England's Court of Chancery, Jarndyce and Jarndyce, which has far-reaching consequences for all involved. This case revolves around a testator who apparently made several wills, all of them seeking to bequeath money and land surrounding the Manor of Marr in South Yorkshire. The litigation, which already has consumed years and sixty to seventy thousand pounds sterling in court costs, is emblematic of the failure of Chancery. Dickens's assault on the flaws of the British judiciary system is based in part on his own experiences as a law clerk, and in part on his experiences as a Chancery litigant seeking to enforce his copyright on his earlier books. His harsh characterisation of the slow, arcane Chancery law process gave memorable form to pre-existing widespread frustration with the system. Though Chancery lawyers and judges criticized Dickens's portrait of Chancery as exaggerated and unmerited, his novel helped to spur an ongoing movement that culminated in enactment of the legal reform in the 1870s. In fact, Dickens was writing just as Chancery was reforming itself, with the Six Clerks and Masters mentioned in Chapter One abolished in 1842 and 1852 respectively: the need for further reform was being widely debated. These facts raise an issue as to when Bleak House is actually set. Technically it must be before 1842, and at least some of his readers at the time would have been aware of this. However, there is some question as to whether this timeframe is consistent with some of the themes of the novel. The great English legal historian Sir William Holdsworth (see below), set the action in 1827.
《董贝父子》无论从形式方面还是从内容方面而论，都在狄更斯的作品中占据特别重要的地位，它突破了早期作品中流浪汉体（thepicaresque）的影响，紧紧围绕一个中心人物、一个主导观念来展开故事，在狄更斯的小说中是第一部结构严谨的代表作。作者在序言、书信中多次提到，在写《董贝父子》时，他时刻注意“扣紧该书的一般目的与设计，并以此严格束缚自己”。《董贝父子》形式上的新特点是跟内容方面的发展相联系的。在这以前，狄更斯在小说中曾抨击了负债人监狱、新的济贫法、地方上的所谓慈善事业以及大城市底层的罪恶与黑暗，多多少少把它们当作孤立的现象。《董贝父子》却试图在更严谨的形式中以现代城市为背景，通过一个资产者的典型形象表达出对资本主义社会的总体观，而不复在个别社会弊病上做文章。当然，这并不一定意味着作者的小说艺术向着更高级阶段发展——结构的严谨在美学上不一定比流浪汉体小说的松散更优越，它们可以各有各自的美，但无论如何，《董贝父子》代表了作者思想的深化，表现了他对社会问题的进一步思考。
英国19世纪小说专家凯瑟琳·蒂洛逊在她的学术名著《19世纪40年代的小说》一书中把《董贝父子》列为40年代的代表作不是偶然的。《董贝父子》具有鲜明的时代特色：作者在这里表现一个新时代——40年代工业发达的英国社会。小说中的伦敦是一个金融和商业中心、一个大港口，又是上流社会社交中心。董贝就是处在这样生活漩涡中的巨商。《董贝父子》用不少篇幅描写一个破落的航海仪器商所罗门·吉尔斯；他的小店铺里摆着些过时的仪器，从来没有人光顾，除非是进来问路或兑换零钱。吉尔斯悲叹道：“竞争、不停的竞争——新发明、层出不穷的新发明……世界把我抛在后边了”。时代的落伍者所罗门·吉尔斯和他的小店铺在小说中与董贝先生和他的大公司形成对比，愈加突出了《董贝父子》内容题材的时代特色。
狄更斯就是在这样一种背景上塑造了一个资产者的典型形象。关于《董贝父子》的创作意图，狄更斯曾说，在这里他要处理的是“傲慢”问题，正如前一部小说《马丁·柴则尔维持》里要着重描写“自私自利”。的确，在董贝形象的塑造上，作者是从傲慢入手的。小说一开始就写到，在董贝先生看来，“世界是为了董贝父子经商而创造的，太阳和月亮是为了给他们光亮而创造的。河川和海洋是为了让他们航船而构成的；虹霓使他们有逢到好天气的希望；风的顺逆影响他们实业的成败；星辰在他们的轨道内运行，保持以他们为中心的一种不能侵犯的系统”。董贝公司称霸四海，在当时的资本主义经济体系中居于中心地位，于是董贝先生就自认是世界的中心，他的傲慢由此而来。他的傲慢不是由于作为一个人有任何优越于他人的地方，而是由于他的公司的地位、他的资本力量。在董贝的形象中，狄更斯不把问题局限于一般的自私贪婪，事实上在私德方面，董贝基本上是恩格斯说的那种“具有各种私德的可敬人物”。正如西方马克思主义者A·T·杰克逊所指出的，“董贝的傲慢是他作为一家大公司的头目的地位带给他的品质”。因此，傲慢只是其表，而根本问题在于董贝作为人，与资本同一了。他失去了人的本质，只是资本的化身，亦如某些西方评论所说的，是“19世纪企业精神”的象征，“一种制度、竞争心理和冷酷无情”的典范。《董贝父子》以连载形式问世以后，当时便有评论指出： “描绘董贝这类的人物简直是当务之急——伦敦的世界里充满了冷漠的、装模作样的、僵硬的、炫耀金钱的人物，想法跟董贝一模一样……”可见董贝的形象在当时的英国社会是具有代表性的。
首先狄更斯强调了董贝作为一个资产者的非人性。他把感情完全排除在自己的视野之外：“董贝父子一向跟皮货打交道，而不跟感情打交道”。实际上《董贝父子》很少涉及具体的商业活动，它其实是一部以家庭生活为题材的小说，通过家庭关系，表现了作为丈夫、作为父亲的董贝，唯其如此，更加烘托了他的冷酷无情。
董贝父子-剧情
《董贝父子》有两处描写了董贝先生竟然流露了一种天然感情。第一次是在他太太生了男孩之后，他到卧室去看望，“对董贝太太居然也加上了一个亲密的称呼（虽然不是没有一些犹豫，因为他毕竟是一个不惯于叫出那种称呼的人），叫道：‘董贝太太，我的——我的亲爱的’。”在他们夫妻之间这一称呼是那样生疏，以至“那位生病的太太抬起眼睛朝他望去的时候，顿时间脸上涨满了微感惊讶的红晕”。其实即使这一次难得的感情流露，也不是与公司无关的。董贝先生想到自己得了儿子，从此以后“咱们的公司，不但名义上，而且事实上，又该叫做‘董贝父子’啦，董——贝父子！”他是在品尝这几个字的甜美滋味时情不自禁地叫了一声 “我的亲爱的”！从他的内心感情来说，我们无从判断这“亲爱的”是指他的太太还是更多指他的公司。同样，在《董贝父子》一书中我们始终无法判断这“董贝父子”是指公司还是指这爷儿俩的关系。这种有意无意的含混自然是意味深长的。
董贝先生第二次感情流露是在看着刚出生的儿子时，他想到“他得成就一番命中注定的事业哪。命中注定的事业，小家伙！”接着“把孩子的一只手举到自己的嘴唇上吻了一下，然后，好像深怕这种举动有损他的尊严似的，他非常不自然地走开了”。总之，就是这两次不可多得的感情流露，董贝先生也感到“犹豫”，“不习惯”，“有损尊严”，总之是“不自然”，即不合乎他那“资本化”了的本性。
在对董贝的描写中，作者把他比作“雕像”、“木头人”，“全身直挺挺的不会打弯”，或是“刮得光光、剪裁整齐的阔绅士，光溜利索，像刚印出来的钞票”。作者用一系列冰、霜、雪之类的形象来渲染董贝的特点，他的住宅阴冷，他的办公室凄凉。在保罗受洗礼的那一天，不仅教堂里寒气逼人，而且在董贝随后举行的宴会上摆着的食物都是冰冷的，与席上的整个气氛一致，作者还说，坐在首席上的董贝本人犹如一个“冰冻绅士”的标本。总之，作者通过夸张的细节描写，把董贝置于一层层冰霜的包裹之中，把他描写成一位十足的没有人性的冷血动物。
正如恩格斯所说的，资产阶级“除了快快发财以外，不知道世界上还有别的快乐”一样，继承人意味着资本的延续，也就是资产阶级理想中通向“永恒”与“不朽”的唯一道路，本质上还是发财的快乐。《董贝父子》一书的主线和总的设计都是围绕着董贝先生为自己，也是为公司，寻找继承人的故事。如果按19世纪小说专家史蒂芬·马科斯的划分，把作品划分成四个部分，那么可以看出，第一部分以继承人小保罗的诞生开始，以他的死亡告终；第二部分描写了董贝先生的悲痛以及他的第二次结婚，亦即再次要得到继承人；第三部分表现了董贝先生婚后夫妻不睦，终于导致他的夫人私奔；第四部分描写了董贝先生精神瓦解、企业倒闭，最后被他赶出家门的女儿弗洛伦斯用自己的爱给他以安慰和力量，使老年的董贝在失去资本、失去继承人之后恢复了自己的人性。而具有讽刺意味的是，“所谓董贝父子”，如书中一个人物说的“归根结蒂是董贝父女”！但开始时，董贝先生哪里能猜到等待他的命运！他把自己的感情全部倾注在公司的继承人、刚刚诞生的儿子身上，至于女儿，既然不是继承人，对董贝公司没有意义，对他本人也就没有意义，相当于“不能投资的一块劣币”。其实，就是对于他的儿子小保罗，董贝先生也只能以自己的方式去爱。这是一种异化了的感情。他只把保罗当作继承人来对待，当作“董贝父子公司”中的“子”而不是作为一个有独立生存权利的人、一个有权过快乐童年的儿童。董贝把保罗从降生到成人的时期都看作是难熬的过渡时期，“他急于进入未来，恨不得快点打发掉这中间的时光”。董贝对儿子的感情是那样的独占，他不信任奶娘波利·图德尔，生怕儿子会对她有感情，从而受到“下等人”的沾染，后来董贝还是因为她擅自把保罗带回家而把这个好心的女人打发掉，致使婴儿突然断奶，从此体弱多病。董贝先生“望子成龙”心切，他把幼小的保罗送往布林伯博士学院。这是一座以填塞死知识著称的住宿学校。在那里，孩子们白天被逼得背诵天书一样的古代典籍，晚上做梦都说希腊文！“那是一座大暖房，一架不停地移动的拔苗助长的机器，所有的孩子都提前‘开花’，但是不足三个礼拜就枯萎凋谢”。在那里，可怜的小保罗的头脑被塞满了一大堆希腊罗马的古董，他哭着说，“我要当儿童”，可那在董贝培养继承人的计划里是不允许的。保罗在这些催化剂的作用下精神备受摧残，不久以后便死去。具有讽刺意味的是，从解雇奶娘到提前送进学校的整个过程来看，不是别人，正是董贝先生自己一手促成了儿子的死亡。他完全按照自己性格的逻辑，按照他的“异化”了的感情行事，不可能有其他做法。这不能不说是董贝的悲剧。值得注意的还有，董贝不仅在儿子活着的时候对儿子的感情是“异化”的，而且在儿子死亡以后，他的反应也是“异化”的，那与其说是失去亲骨肉的切肤之痛，倒更像是他的“自我”受到打击、傲慢受到挫折而引起的痛苦。当老奶娘图德尔的丈夫向董贝表示哀悼时，董贝不仅不为之感动，反而因为不相干的人（与公司不相干）妄想分担他的痛苦而感到气愤，好像自己受了污辱。这不是被资本“异化”了的感情又是什么呢？
对董贝来说，更可悲的是，由于他的古板、冷漠、没有人情味，他的儿子与他感情疏远而衷心喜爱那些董贝所厌恶、鄙视的人——姐姐弗洛伦斯、奶娘波利·图德尔，还有公司里的小雇员沃尔特·盖伊，在自己幼小生命的最后时刻对他们恋恋不舍而把自己的父亲排除在外。在思想上父子二人更是格格不入；董贝是那样急切盼望儿子成长为精明的生意人，而幼小的保罗却问“钱能干什么？”，当父亲说钱可以办到一切，他并不信服，说“它不能救活我妈妈”。“它不是残酷的吗？”狄更斯通过儿童的眼光批判了董贝所代表的价值观。
保罗虽然年纪幼小，却总像是生活在一个彼岸世界，他“可以在糊墙纸上看出微型的老虎和狮子…… 看见一些人影冲着地板上的方块和棱形图案作怪脸，而别人却什么也看不见”。他像个老人似的长时间坐在海边上，面对着一片天水茫茫沉思不语。他纳闷“它没结没完地说些什么呀？”——“我知道他们一直是在说些什么的。说的总是同样的事情。那儿是什么地方呀？”他热切地凝望那天水之际，在大海的喧腾中，听到了时间老人的召唤，感到了死亡的预兆，最后在海涛声中他安然与世长辞……。可以说，小保罗在任何意义上也不是董贝的继承人。《董贝父子》的第一部分，也是最精采部分，便以董贝在培育继承人方面的彻底失败而告终。《董贝父子》最初连载发表时，保罗·罗贝夭亡的一章在当时读者中引起强烈反响，“举国上下，共同哀悼”，仅次于“自己家里办丧事”。当时许多人，包括政界文化界著名人物都毫不隐讳自己为小保罗的死而痛哭流涕。这当然与当时盛行的感伤主义阅读趣味分不开。小保罗的死，与《老古玩店》中小耐儿的死一样，都是19世纪小说中公认的感伤主义的典范。但是，不可否认，保罗之死的著名篇章充满了晶莹的诗意—— “小船在波上的飘荡已经引得他要去安眠了。河岸多么葱翠，长在河岸上的花草多么明艳，那芦苇又是多么婷婷袅袅！这时小船已经驶到海里，可是还在平静地向前滑去”。小保罗去了，好像得到了他的天然归宿。他不属于公司，更远离“货币、通货、钞票、外汇率”所构成的那个他命中要成就的“事业”。在那个孜孜名利的浮华世界上，保罗的死显出了超尘拔俗的光彩，在默默无言之中对以“董贝父子公司”为代表的金钱利欲做出了最有力的批判。
经过第一个打击，董贝并没有总结教训、达到自我认识。不久以后，他又处心积虑地为得到继承人而设法。他跟年轻美貌的寡妇伊迪丝·格兰杰结婚了。这纯粹是一笔交易，董贝就像在骡马市上相马似地观察伊迪丝的才华与教养，最后决定买下。伊迪丝愤然对她母亲说“十年以来，奴隶市场上的奴隶和集市上的马都没有像我这样被展览出售，炫耀给看客。”在这第二次婚姻中，董贝又失败了。在伊迪丝身上，他碰到了对手，跟他一样傲慢，跟他一样强硬。两下里冲突的结果，伊迪丝为报复丈夫而与公司的经理卡克私奔，造成了伦敦上流社会的头号丑闻。此外，董贝刚愎自用，在卡克的纵恿下投资不当，在家庭危机的同时，他的商船“子嗣”号在海上遇难，他的公司倒闭，他本人宣告破产。昔日富丽堂皇的宅第被债仅人剥得一干二净，连老鼠都不愿逗留，只剩下一个董贝像个幽灵似地在空楼中游荡。在他举刀自杀的那一刹那，女儿弗洛伦斯赶到他跟前，用自己的爱感化了他，使董贝终于认识到，自己是有罪的，“需要得到宽恕”。董贝那违背天理人性的傲慢被弗洛伦斯的爱克服了。在老年，他终于开始过上一种合乎人性的生活。董贝的命运，并不取决于外部事态的发展；是董贝自己性格的内在逻辑导致他的全面崩溃。他是在自己惩罚自己，并在一重一重的惩罚中一层一层地暴露出资产阶级本性中那些违反天理人情的因素。
若只看故事情节，我们也不能否认《董贝父子》的结局是浅薄无力的。法国著名批评家泰纳说董贝的“转变”毁了一本出色的小说。一位当代评论家用不屑的口气问道：难道要把董贝父子公司的世界贸易交给眼泪汪汪的弗洛伦斯去经营吗？在这里，我们又回到小说的时代特色问题。像弗洛伦斯那类的“安琪儿”是按照当时盛行的公式描写的，本来就不现实，而董贝先生在铁路四通八达国际贸易发达的时代是个真实的形象、一个阶级的代表。弗洛伦斯怎么可能用自己的眼泪去感化董贝的铁石心肠呢？《董贝父子》一书的价值不在于作者虚构出怎么样的方案去解决矛盾，而在于他在四十年代资本主义经济发达的历史时期塑造了一个资产阶级的典型形象，从而深刻地揭示了关于那个阶级的真理。
也是在《董贝父子》一书中，狄更斯第一次采用了一个象征来贯穿全书，以传达出一个总的世界图景、一种对时代、对社会的理解。他曾用过雾、浊流、垃圾等形象作为这种象征，而在这里是铁路。铁路——火车、铁轨——的形象在书中出现多次，往往在关键时刻渲染气氛，烘托主题。用铁路的形象来概括四十年代工业化的英国，当然是最恰当不过的，在19世纪上半叶，铁路的发展速度是惊人的。据统计，1825年还只有25英里的铁路线，到了1845年就发展成2200多公里，即在不到二十年的时间里便增加了一百倍。处在火车、电报时代的董贝比起乘驿车的匹克威克先生简直属于两个完全不同的世界。铁路的发展改变了人们的生活方式，改变了人们对空间和时间的概念，还产生了一支新的劳动队伍：铁路工人。铁路意味着力量、运动和速度，意味着更快的生活节奏。这时，铁路是社会变革的象征，它给破烂不堪的旧址带来了新的生命。书中写到，由于铁路的建设，波利·图德尔一家原来住的贫民区“斯塔格斯花园”已不复存在——“它从地面上消失了，原来一些朽烂的凉亭残存的地方，现在耸立着高大的宫殿；大理石的圆柱两边开道，通向铁路的新世界”。书中还写到，原先堆放垃圾的空地已被吞没，代之而起的是“一层层库房，里面装满了丰富的物资和贵重的商品”。而原是荒无人烟的地方现在修起了花园、别墅、教堂和令人心旷神怡的林荫大道。过去以掘煤为生的图德尔，现在也在新建设起来的铁路上当上了一名司炉工。从这个角度可以说，狄更斯是站在赞赏的立场去看以铁路为象征的工业化对社会物质发展的积极意义。
但是，另一方面，铁路、火车在狄更斯笔下又充满了威胁，它力大无穷而又难以控制，它在急驰中似有自己的目的而把人的意愿置于不顾。当保罗将要死去时，书中描写了火车的运动：“日日夜夜，往返不停，翻腾的热浪犹如生命的血流”。保罗在父亲的培养下正在悄悄死去，而车声隆隆正以雷霆万钧之势驶来，显得那样冷酷无情。保罗死后，董贝乘火车旅行，火车的机械运动与董贝的沉重心情互相衬托，后来，董贝去追赶拐骗他妻子私奔的卡克，他们一个在逃，一个紧追，这时火车像个可怕的怪兽，“混身冒火的魔鬼”，愤怒地奔腾咆哮，活像个复仇神，终于非常戏剧性地把卡克碾死。
这里，问题并不在于死在火车轮下的卡克是罪有应得。重要的是，在这里，火车的形象狰狞可怕；它的来临“伴随着大地的震响，在耳边颤抖的声浪，以及遥远的尖叫声；一片暗光由远而近，刹那间变成两支火红的眼睛和一团烈火，一路上掉着燃烧的煤块；接着，一个庞然大物咆哮着、扩展着，以不可抗拒的气势压过来”。这个形象远远超脱了卡克命运的区区小事，而提出了更大的问题：机械的物质运动所释放出来的力量对于人类社会究竟意味着什么？在这里，狄更斯表现了一个真正大作家的气魄。他透过现象去捕捉本质，通过铁路的象征对资本主义物质文明的发展表示了深深的忧虑；这奔腾向前的力量将把人类社会带往何处？这怀疑与忧虑是跟作者通过董贝的形象所提出的问题完全一致的，它们都汇为一个总的对时代的疑问：资本主义的工业——铁路——改善了人们的生存条件，但它将引起什么样的社会变化？一个董贝先生是被女儿的泪水感化了，但以铁路为标志的英国资本主义的发展不是会产生更多的董贝吗？
《董贝父子》不是社会学论文。狄更斯的魔力就在于，他提出了当时社会最本质的问题，同时又写出了人物众多、情节复杂、情调多变的一部五光十色的小说巨著。在这里，以董贝渴望子嗣的故事为中心，演出了那么多扣人心弦的悲喜剧。社会地位有天壤之别的人物，命运却那么曲折地交织在一起：第二任董贝夫人伊迪丝跟被流放的娼妓爱丽丝不仅是同父异母的姐妹，而且也是被同一个男性——卡克经理——欺辱的女性。这种情节性的背后不正是微妙地暗示着伊迪丝与董贝的婚姻的实质？《董贝父子》还充满了阴谋和悬念。卡克经理像个蜘蛛一样坐在他编织的阴谋纲络的中心，为董贝先生、伊迪丝，为弗洛伦斯和沃尔特，甚至为老实巴结的卡特尔船长都设下了圈套，派了钉哨。
可是到头来，正是他这个心腹 ——不争气的少年罗伯——出卖了他，导致他粉身碎骨在车轮之下，可谓事件本身的嘲讽。在《董贝父子》中，与正剧的主线平行，总有喜剧闹剧的副线，甚至形成一环扣一环的命运的锁链。如在董贝先生物色第二位夫人的时候，溜须拍马但又可怜可笑的托克斯小姐觊觎董贝夫人的宝座，冷落了有意于她的白格斯托克少校，而老奸巨猾的白格斯托克为了挫败托克斯小姐的野心，把伊迪丝引见给董贝，导致了他的第二次灾难性的婚姻。
在《董贝父子》一书中，狄更斯还描写了许多小人物和他们的生活。破落小商人所罗门·吉尔斯、保罗的奶娘图德尔一家、弗洛伦斯的贴身女仆苏珊等在各方面都与董贝形成对比。我们在书中看到，一方面是董贝的华贵府邸，另一方面是图德尔一家住的破烂不堪的贫民窟。尽管如此，前者冷若冰窖，后者热气腾腾，充满友爱与欢乐。在那冷酷的资本主义社会，这些小人物身上体现了人情和人性中善良美好的本能。波利·图德尔那兴旺的家族——她那丰富的乳汁和众多的孩子都描写的十分夸张、富于象征意义，体现了生的欢乐和对未来的希望。有趣的是，在作者的巧妙安排之下，这些地位低贱的小人物又不断跟董贝“遭遇”。如所罗门·吉尔斯的好友、落魄的船长内德·卡特尔竟跑去与董贝先生称兄道弟，还以自己的糖侠子等可笑的“传家宝”来当抵押，要董贝借款给他。这在董贝看来简直是骇人听闻。他摆出最威风凛凛的架势，但最没有现实感的卡特尔船长对此毫无察觉，弄得董贝反而手足无措。后来，女仆苏珊又乘董贝卧病的当儿公然向他挑战，指着他的鼻子数落他的不是，气得董贝先生目瞪口呆。这些喜剧性场面烘托出了劳动人民生动活泼的形象；是他们戳破了董贝的傲慢，使他露出了底里的空虚与软弱。在四十年代描写劳动人民形象的作品中，这种喜剧化的处理是别具一格的。
总之，穿插于故事中的众多的陪衬人物都天真无邪，不是傻得可爱就是“狡猾”得可笑。他们不仅推动情节发展，而且为全书带来了欢乐气氛和幽默情趣，使《董贝父子》成为狄更斯小说中既有深度又饶有趣味的代表作。还在连载的时候，不识字的老百姓在一天的劳累之后就要聚在一起听人朗读《董贝父子》，直至今天，它还受到广大读者的喜爱。
Plot summary
The story concerns Paul Dombey, the wealthy owner of the shipping company of the book's title, whose dream is to have a son to continue his business. The book begins when his son is born, and Dombey's wife dies shortly after giving birth. Following the advice of Mrs Louisa Chick, his sister, Dombey employs a wet nurse named Mrs Richards (Toodle). Dombey already has a daughter, Florence, whom he neglects. One day, Mrs Richards, Florence and her maid, Susan Nipper, secretly pay a visit Mrs Richard's house in Stagg's Gardens in order that she can see her children. During this trip, Florence becomes separated and is kidnapped for a short time by Good Mrs Brown before being returned to the streets. She makes her way to Dombey and Son's offices in the City and is guided there by Walter Gay, an employee, who first introduces her to his uncle, the navigation instrument maker Solomon Gill, at his shop the Midshipman.
The child, also named Paul, is weak and often ill, and does not socialize normally with others; adults call him "old fashioned". He is intensely fond of his elder sister, Florence, who is deliberately neglected by her father as irrelevant and a distraction. He is sent away to Brighton, first for his health, where he and Florence lodge with the ancient and acidic Mrs Pipchin, and then for his education to Dr and Mrs Blimber's school, where he and the other boys undergo both an intense and arduous education under the tutelage of Mr Feeder, B.A. and Cornelia Blimber. It is here that Paul is befriended by a fellow pupil, the amiable Mr Toots.
Here, Paul's health declines even further in this 'great hothouse' and he finally dies, still only six years old. Dombey pushes his daughter away from him after the death of his son, while she futilely tries to earn his love. In the meantime, Walter, who works for Dombey and Son, is sent off to work in Barbados through the manipulations of the firm's manager, Mr James Carker, 'with his white teeth', who sees him as a potential rival through his association with Florence. His boat is reported lost and he is presumed drowned. Walter's uncle leaves to go in search of Walter, leaving his great friend Captain Edward Cuttle in charge of the Midshipman. Meanwhile, Florence is now left alone with few friends to keep her company.
Dombey goes to Leamington Spa with a new friend, Major Joseph B. Bagstock. The Major deliberately sets out to befriend Dombey in order to spite his neighbour in Princess's Place, Miss Tox, who has turned cold towards him owing to her hopes - through her close friendship with Mrs Chick - of marrying Mr Dombey. At the spa, Dombey is introduced via the Major to Mrs Skewton and her widowed daughter, Mrs Edith Granger. It is here that he develops an affection for Edith, encouraged by both the Major and the avaricious mother. After they return to London, Dombey remarries, effectively 'buying' the beautiful but haughty Edith as she and her mother are in a poor financial state. The marriage is loveless; his wife despises Dombey for his overbearing pride and herself for being shallow and worthless. Her love for Florence initially prevents her from leaving, but finally she conspires with Mr Carker to ruin Dombey's public image by running away together to Dijon. They do so after her last final argument with Dombey in which he once again attempts to subdue her to his will. When he discovers that she has left him, he blames Florence for siding with her step-mother, striking her on the breast in his anger, and she is forced to run away from home. Highly distraught, she finally makes her way to The Midshipman where she lodges with Captain Cuttle as he attempts to restore her back to health. They are visited frequently by Mr Toots and his boxing companion, the Chicken, since Mr Toots has been desperately in love with Florence since their time together in Brighton.
Dombey sets out to find his wife. He is helped in this by Mrs Brown and her daughter, Alice, who, it turns out, was a former lover of Mr Carker. After being transported as a convict after he involved her in some criminal activities, she is seeking her revenge against him now she is returned to England. Going to Mrs Brown's house, Dombey overhears the conversation between Rob the Grinder - who is in the employment of Mr Carker - and the old woman as to the couple's whereabouts and sets off in pursuit. In the meantime, in Dijon, Mrs Dombey informs Carker that she sees him in no better a light than she sees Dombey, that she will not stay with him and she flees their apartment. Distraught, with both his financial and personal hopes lost, Carker flees from his former employer's pursuit. He seeks refuge back in England but, being greatly overwrought, accidentally falls under a train and is killed.
After Carker's death, it is discovered that he had been running the firm far beyond its means. This information is gleaned by Carker's brother and sister, John and Harriet, from Mr Morfin, the assistant manager at Dombey and Son, who sets out to help John Carker. He often overheard the conversations between the two brothers in which James, the younger, often abused John, the older, who was just a lowly clerk and who is sacked by Dombey because of his filial relationship to the former manager. Meanwhile, back at the Midshipman, Walter reappears, having been saved by a passing ship after floating adrift with two other sailors on some wreckage. After some time, he and Florence are finally reunited - not as 'brother' and 'sister' but as lovers, and they marry prior to sailing for China on Walter's new ship. This is also the time when Sol Gills returns to the Midshipman. As he relates to his friends, he received news whilst in Barbados that a homeward-bound China trader had picked up Walter and so had returned to England immediately. He said he had sent letters whilst in the Caribbean to his friend Ned Cuttle c/o Mrs MacStinger at Cuttle's former lodgings, and the bemused Captain recounts how he fled the place, thus never receiving them.
Florence and Walter depart and Sol Gills is entrusted with a letter, written by Walter to her father, pleading for him to be reconciled towards them both. A year passes and Alice Brown has slowly been dying despite the tender care of Harriet Carker. One night Alice's mother reveals that Alice herself is the [illegitimate]] cousin of Edith Dombey (which accounts for their similarity in appearance when they both meet). In a chapter entitled 'Retribution', Dombey and Son goes bankrupt. Dombey retires to two rooms in his house and all its contents are put up for sale. Mrs Pipchin, for some time the housekeeper, dismisses all the servants and she herself returns to Brighton, to be replaced by Mrs Richards. Dombey spends his days sunk in gloom, seeing no-one and thinking only of his daughter:
“ He thought of her as she had been that night when he and his bride came home. He thought of her as she had been in all the home events of the abandoned house. He thought, now, that of all around him, she alone had never changed. His boy had faded into dust, his proud wife had sunk into a polluted creature, his flatterer and friend had been transformed into the worst of villains, his riches had melted away, the very walls that sheltered him looked on him as a stranger; she alone had turned the same, mild gentle look upon him always. Yes, to the latest and the last. She had never changed to him - nor had he ever changed to her - and she was lost. ”
However, one day Florence returns to the house with her son, Paul, and is lovingly reunited with her father.
Dombey accompanies his daughter to her and Walter's house where he slowly starts to decline, cared for by Florence and also Susan Nipper, now Mrs Toots. They receive a visit from Edth's Cousin Feenix who takes Florence to Edith for one final time - Feenix sought Edith out in France and she returned to England under his protection. Edith gives Florence a letter, asking Dombey to forgive her her crime before her departure to the South of Italy with her elderly relative. As she says to Florence, 'I will try, then to forgive him his share of the blame. Let him try to forgive me mine!'
The final chapter (LXII) sees Dombey now a white-haired old man, 'whose face bears heavy marks of care and suffering; but they are traces of a storm that has passed on for ever, and left a clear evening in its track'.. Sol Gills and Ned Cuttle are now partners at the Midshipman, a source of great pride to the latter, and Mr and Mrs Toots announce the birth of their third daughter. Walter is doing well in business, having been appointed to a position of great confidence and trust, and Dombey is the proud grandfather of both a grandson and grand-daughter of whom he dotes on, and the book ends with the highly moving lines:
“ 'Dear grandpapa, why do you cry when you kiss me?'
He only answers, 'Little Florence! Little Florence!' and smooths away the curls that shade her earnest eyes.
”
Source
Dombey and Son, Charles Dickens, Wordsworth Classics, 1995, ISBN 1 85326 257 9
Critical appreciation
Dombey and Son was conceived first and foremost as a continuous novel. A letter from Dickens to Forster on 26th July, 1846 shows the major details of the plot and theme already substantially worked out. According to the critic George Gissing, 'Dombey was begun at Lausanne, continued at Paris, completed in London, and at English seaside places; whilst the early parts were being written, a Christmas story, The Battle of Life, was also in hand, and Dickens found it troublesome to manage both together. That he overcame the difficulty -- that, soon after, we find him travelling about England as member of an amateur dramatic company -- that he undertook all sorts of public engagements and often devoted himself to private festivity -- Dombey going on the while, from month to month -- is matter enough for astonishment to those who know anything about artistic production. But such marvels become commonplaces in the life of Charles Dickens.'
As with most of Dickens' work, a number of socially significant themes are to be found in this book. In particular the book deals with the then-prevalent common practice of arranged marriages for financial gain. Other themes to be detected within this work include child cruelty (particularly in Dombey's treatment of Florence), familial relationships, and as ever in Dickens, betrayal and deceit and the consequences thereof. Another strong central theme, which the critic George Gissing elaborates on in detail in his 1925 work The Immortal Dickens, is that of pride and arrogance, of which Paul Dombey senior is the extreme exemplification in Dickens' work.
Gissing makes a number of points about certain key inadequacies in the novel, not the least that Dickens's central character is largely unsympathetic and an unsuitable vehicle and also that after the death of the young Paul Dombey the reader is somewhat estranged from the rest of what is to follow. He notes that 'the moral theme of this book was Pride -- pride of wealth, pride of place, personal arrogance. Dickens started with a clear conception of his central character and of the course of the story in so far as it depended upon that personage; he planned the action, the play of motive, with unusual definiteness, and adhered very closely in the working to this well-laid scheme'. However, he goes on to write that,'Dombey and Son is a novel which in its beginning promises more than its progress fulfils' and gives the following reasons why:
“ Impossible to avoid the reflection that the death of Dombey's son and heir marks the end of a complete story, that we feel a gap between Chapter XVI and what comes after (the author speaks of feeling it himself, of his striving to "transfer the interest to Florence") and that the narrative of the later part is ill-constructed, often wearisome, sometimes incredible. We miss Paul, we miss Walter Gay (shadowy young hero though he be); Florence is too colourless for deep interest, and the second Mrs. Dombey is rather forced upon us than accepted as a natural figure in the drama. Dickens's familiar shortcomings are abundantly exemplified. He is wholly incapable of devising a plausible intrigue, and shocks the reader with monstrous improbabilities such as all that portion of the denouement in which old Mrs. Brown and her daughter are concerned. A favourite device with him (often employed with picturesque effect) was to bring into contact persons representing widely severed social ranks; in this book the "effect" depends too often on "incidences of the boldest artificiality," as nearly always we end by neglecting the story as a story, and surrendering ourselves to the charm of certain parts, the fascination of certain characters.' ”
Characters in the novel
Karl Ashley Smith (the University of St Andrews) in his Introduction to Wordsworth Classics' Dombey and Son makes some reflections on the novel's characters. He believes that Dombey’s power to disturb comes from his belief that human relationships can be controlled by money, giving the following examples to support this viewpoint:
“ He tries to prevent Mrs Richards from developing an attachment to Paul by emphasising the wages he pays her. Mrs Pipchin’s small talk satisfies him as ‘the sort of think for which he paid her so much a quarter’ (p.132). Worst of all, he effectively buys his second wife and expects that his wealth and position in society will be enough to keep her in awed obedience to him. Paul’s questions about money are only the first indication of the naivety of his outlook'. ”
However, he also believes that the satire against this man is tempered with compassion.
Smith also draws attention to the fact that certain characters in the novel 'develop a pattern from Dickens's earlier novels, whilst pointing the way to future works'. One such character is Little Paul who is a direct descendant of Little Nell. Another is James Carker, the ever-smiling manager of Dombey and Son. Smith notes there are strong similarities between him and the likes of Jaggers in Great Expectations and, even more so, the evil barrister, Mr Tulkinghorn, in Bleak House:
“ From Fagin (Oliver Twist) onwards, the terrifying figure exerting power over others by an infallible knowledge of their secrets becomes one of the author’s trademarks ... His gentlemanly businesslike respectability marks him out as the ancestor of Tulkinghorn in Bleak House and even of Jaggers in Great Expectations. And his involvements in the secrets of others leads him to as sticky an end as Tulkinghorn’s. The fifty-fifth chapter, where he is forced to flee his outraged employer, magnificently continues the theme of the guilt-hunted man from Bill Sikes in Oliver Twist and Jonas’s restless sense of pursuit in Martin Chuzzlewit. There is always a strong sense in Dickens of the narrative drive of discovery catching up with those who deal in darkness...' ”
Gissing looks at some of the minor characters in the novel and is particularly struck by that of Edward (Ned) Cuttle.
“ Captain Cuttle has a larger humanity than his roaring friend [Captain Bunsby], he is the creation of humour. That the Captain suffered dire things at the hands of Mrs. MacStinger is as credible as it is amusing, but he stood in no danger of Bunsby's fate; at times he can play his part in a situation purely farcical, but the man himself moves on a higher level. He is one of the most familiar to us among Dickens's characters, an instance of the novelist's supreme power, which (I like to repeat) proves itself in the bodying forth of a human personality henceforth accepted by the world. His sentences have become proverbs; the mention of his name brings before the mind's eye an image of flesh and blood -- rude, tending to the grotesque, but altogether lovable. Captain Cuttle belongs to the world of Uncle Toby, with, to be sure, a subordinate position. Analyse him as you will, make the most of those extravagances which pedants of to-day cannot away with, and in the end you will still be face to face with something vital -- explicable only as the product of genius. ”
The growth of the railways
A strong theme is the destruction and degradation (of people and places) caused by industrialisation, illustrated in particular by the building of the new railway through Camden Town (assumed to represent the London and Birmingham Railway constructed between 1833 and 1837). This reflects Dickens's apparent antipathy towards railways[citation needed], later reinforced by his involvement in a train crash in 1865. Soon after this incident he wrote two short stories (Mugby Junction and The Signal-Man) which projected a morbid view of the railways.
Final thoughts
Gissing refers to Dickens's instinctive genius for reflecting the thoughts and morals of the common man in his writing. He observes that the author was in constant communication with Forster,
“ ... as to the feeling of his readers about some proposed incident or episode; not that he feared, in any ignoble sense, to offend his public, but because his view of art involved compliance with ideals of ordinary simple folk. He held that view as a matter of course. Quite recently it has been put forth with prophetic fervour by Tolstoy, who cites Dickens among the few novelists whose work will bear this test. An instinctive sympathy with the moral (and therefore the artistic) prejudices of the everyday man guided Dickens throughout his career, teaching him when, and how far, he might strike at things he thought evil, yet never defeat his prime purpose of sending forth fiction acceptable to the multitude. Himself, in all but his genius, a representative Englishman of the middle-class, he was able to achieve this task with unfailing zeal and with entire sincerity. ”
Karl Smith, in his turn, gives his specific reasons for what makes Dombey and Son - and the works of Dickens as a whole - worth reading again and again. He observes that this is based in part on Dickens's 'recognition that solemn themes require humour and verbal vigour to accompany and complement them' and goes on to conclude:
“ Grim psychological realism, social commentary, comic absurdity and symbolic transcendence are here brought together more than in any previous novel with the possible exception of Oliver Twist. Dombey and Son not only prepares the ground for Dickens’s later masterpieces, but demands to be enjoyed for its own energy and richness. ”
Characters in "Dombey and Son"
The "Wooden Midshipman" of Uncle Sol's nautical instrument shop of the same name. Statue in the Charles Dickens Museum.
* Mr Paul Dombey – the wealthy owner of the shipping company
* Edith Granger – proud widowed daughter of Mrs Skewton, becomes second Mrs Dombey
* Mrs Fanny Dombey – Mr Dombey's first wife, mother of Florence and Paul, dies soon after Paul is born
* Master Paul Dombey (Little Dombey) – the son, is weak and often ill
* Miss Florence (Floy) Dombey – the elder daughter whom Mr Dombey neglects
* Mrs Louisa Chick – Mr Dombey's sister
* Mr Chick – husband of Mrs Chick
* Miss Lucretia Tox – friend of Mrs Chick, great admirer of Mr Dombey, and neighbour of Major Joseph Bagstock
* James Carker (Mr Carker the Manager) – devious manager in Mr Dombey's business
* John Carker (Mr Carker the Junior) – disgraced older brother of James, lower level employee in Dombey's business
* Miss Harriet Carker – sister of James and John
* Mr Morfin – assistant manager in Mr Dombey's business
* Mr Perch – messenger in Mr Dombey's business
* Solomon (Uncle Sol) Gills – ships' instrument maker and owner of the "Wooden Midshipman", a shop
* Walter Gay – nephew of Gills, friend to Florence, employee of Mr Dombey, sent away by Carker the Manager
* Captain Edward (Ned) Cuttle – retired sea captain, friend of Gills
* Major Joseph Bagstock (Josh, Joe, J.B., Old Joe) – conceited retired army major, admirer of Miss Tox, friend of Mr Dombey until his downfall
* Briggs – schoolmate of Paul's
* Tozer – schoolmate of Paul's
* Mr P. Toots – schoolmate of Paul's, later a dandy in love with Florence
* The Game Chicken – rowdy companion of Mr Toots
* Miss Susan Nipper – Florence's loyal nurse, later marries Mr. Toots
* Mrs Cleopatra Skewton – Edith Dombey's infirm mother and former lover of Bagstock
* Mr Toodle – a railway engineer
* Polly Toodle (Mrs Richards) – wife of Mr Toodle, engaged as nurse to Paul under the name Mrs Richards (by Mr Dombey's order)
* Robin Toodle (Rob the Grinder, Biler) – son of Mr Toodle and Polly, sent to Charitable Grinders school, later engaged in service to Captain Cuttle and Mr. Carker the Manager
* Good Mrs. Brown – an elderly rag dealer
* Alice – daughter of Brown, former lover of Carker's, recently returned from transportation
* Jack Bunsby – commander of a ship, and regarded as an oracle by Captain Cuttle. Eventually is wedded to Mrs MaacStinger.
* Mrs MacStinger – Captain Cuttle's landlady and nemesis
* Mrs Pipchin – stern widow who keeps an 'infantine Boarding-House of a very select description' in Brighton, where Paul is sent for his health
* Master Bitherstone – a fellow-boarder at Mrs. Pipchin's, much later a student at Doctor Blimber's
* Miss Pankey – a fellow-boarder at Mrs. Pipchin's
* Sir Barnet Skettles –
* Lady Skettles –
* Master Skettles – Brighton school pupil
* Doctor Blimber – runs a school in Brighton which Paul briefly attends
* Mrs Blimber – Doctor Blimber's wife
* Miss Cornelia Blimber – Doctor Blimber's daughter, teacher at the school
* Mr Feeder, B.A. – Doctor Blimber's assistant, teacher at the school
* Diogenes (Di) – A dog from the school, befriended by Paul and adopted by Florence after Paul's death
Film, TV or theatrical adaptations
The novel has been adapted for the screen at least three times:
* 1917 - a silent starring Norman McKinnel as Paul Dombey and Hayford Hobbs as Walter Gay
* 1969 - a television mini-series starring John Carson as Paul Dombey and Derek Seaton as Walter Gay
* 1983 - a television mini-series starring Julian Glover as Paul Dombey and Max Gold as Walter Gay
There have also been BBC radio adaptations.
In 2007, a two-part French miniseries, Dombais et Fils, was produced by France 3, directed by Laurent Jaoui and starring Christophe Malavoy as "Charles Dombais" (Paul Dombey).
It was announced in September 2009 that Andrew Davies would no longer be writing a proposed television adaptation for the BBC.
Original publication
Dombey and Son was originally published in 19 monthly instalments; each cost one shilling (except for the last, which cost two shillings, being a double issue) and contained 32 pages of text with two illustrations by Phiz:
* I - October 1846 (chapters 1-4);
* II - November 1846 (chapters 5-7);
* III - December 1846 (chapters 8-10);
* IV - January 1847 (chapters 11-13);
* V - February 1847 (chapters 14-16);
* VI - March 1847 (chapters 17-19);
* VII - April 1847 (chapters 20-22);
* VIII - May 1847 (chapters 23-25);
* IX - June 1847 (chapters 26-28);
* X - July 1847 (chapters 29-31);
* XI - August 1847 (chapters 32-34);
* XII - September 1847 (chapters 35-38);
* XIII - October 1847 (chapters 39-41);
* XIV - November 1847 (chapters 42-45);
* XV - December 1847 (chapters 46-48);
* XVI - January 1848 (chapters 49-51);
* XVII - February 1848 (chapters 52-54);
* XVIII - March 1848 (chapters 55-57);
* XIX-XX - April 1848 (chapters 58-62).
Trivia
* The motto of the publication Notes and Queries, "When found, make a note of", comes from the novel.
* In the illustrated plate, "Major Bagstock is delighted to have that opportunity," the lettering "HOTEL" on the central building in the background is written in mirror-writing. Phiz, the illustrator, evidently forgot to reverse the lettering so that it would read correctly when the plate was printed. (However, strangely, he got the other lettering in the same plate correct.)
* Sir Harry Johnston wrote a sequel to Dombey and Son in about 1920, titled The Gay-Dombeys.
* In the novel Velocity by Dean Koontz, the comatose wife of the main protagonist often makes incoherent references to the works of Dickens, the 'most mysterious' coming from Dombey and Son, "I want to know what it says, the sea. What it is that it keeps on saying."
英国19世纪小说专家凯瑟琳·蒂洛逊在她的学术名著《19世纪40年代的小说》一书中把《董贝父子》列为40年代的代表作不是偶然的。《董贝父子》具有鲜明的时代特色：作者在这里表现一个新时代——40年代工业发达的英国社会。小说中的伦敦是一个金融和商业中心、一个大港口，又是上流社会社交中心。董贝就是处在这样生活漩涡中的巨商。《董贝父子》用不少篇幅描写一个破落的航海仪器商所罗门·吉尔斯；他的小店铺里摆着些过时的仪器，从来没有人光顾，除非是进来问路或兑换零钱。吉尔斯悲叹道：“竞争、不停的竞争——新发明、层出不穷的新发明……世界把我抛在后边了”。时代的落伍者所罗门·吉尔斯和他的小店铺在小说中与董贝先生和他的大公司形成对比，愈加突出了《董贝父子》内容题材的时代特色。
狄更斯就是在这样一种背景上塑造了一个资产者的典型形象。关于《董贝父子》的创作意图，狄更斯曾说，在这里他要处理的是“傲慢”问题，正如前一部小说《马丁·柴则尔维持》里要着重描写“自私自利”。的确，在董贝形象的塑造上，作者是从傲慢入手的。小说一开始就写到，在董贝先生看来，“世界是为了董贝父子经商而创造的，太阳和月亮是为了给他们光亮而创造的。河川和海洋是为了让他们航船而构成的；虹霓使他们有逢到好天气的希望；风的顺逆影响他们实业的成败；星辰在他们的轨道内运行，保持以他们为中心的一种不能侵犯的系统”。董贝公司称霸四海，在当时的资本主义经济体系中居于中心地位，于是董贝先生就自认是世界的中心，他的傲慢由此而来。他的傲慢不是由于作为一个人有任何优越于他人的地方，而是由于他的公司的地位、他的资本力量。在董贝的形象中，狄更斯不把问题局限于一般的自私贪婪，事实上在私德方面，董贝基本上是恩格斯说的那种“具有各种私德的可敬人物”。正如西方马克思主义者A·T·杰克逊所指出的，“董贝的傲慢是他作为一家大公司的头目的地位带给他的品质”。因此，傲慢只是其表，而根本问题在于董贝作为人，与资本同一了。他失去了人的本质，只是资本的化身，亦如某些西方评论所说的，是“19世纪企业精神”的象征，“一种制度、竞争心理和冷酷无情”的典范。《董贝父子》以连载形式问世以后，当时便有评论指出： “描绘董贝这类的人物简直是当务之急——伦敦的世界里充满了冷漠的、装模作样的、僵硬的、炫耀金钱的人物，想法跟董贝一模一样……”可见董贝的形象在当时的英国社会是具有代表性的。
首先狄更斯强调了董贝作为一个资产者的非人性。他把感情完全排除在自己的视野之外：“董贝父子一向跟皮货打交道，而不跟感情打交道”。实际上《董贝父子》很少涉及具体的商业活动，它其实是一部以家庭生活为题材的小说，通过家庭关系，表现了作为丈夫、作为父亲的董贝，唯其如此，更加烘托了他的冷酷无情。
董贝父子-剧情
《董贝父子》有两处描写了董贝先生竟然流露了一种天然感情。第一次是在他太太生了男孩之后，他到卧室去看望，“对董贝太太居然也加上了一个亲密的称呼（虽然不是没有一些犹豫，因为他毕竟是一个不惯于叫出那种称呼的人），叫道：‘董贝太太，我的——我的亲爱的’。”在他们夫妻之间这一称呼是那样生疏，以至“那位生病的太太抬起眼睛朝他望去的时候，顿时间脸上涨满了微感惊讶的红晕”。其实即使这一次难得的感情流露，也不是与公司无关的。董贝先生想到自己得了儿子，从此以后“咱们的公司，不但名义上，而且事实上，又该叫做‘董贝父子’啦，董——贝父子！”他是在品尝这几个字的甜美滋味时情不自禁地叫了一声 “我的亲爱的”！从他的内心感情来说，我们无从判断这“亲爱的”是指他的太太还是更多指他的公司。同样，在《董贝父子》一书中我们始终无法判断这“董贝父子”是指公司还是指这爷儿俩的关系。这种有意无意的含混自然是意味深长的。
董贝先生第二次感情流露是在看着刚出生的儿子时，他想到“他得成就一番命中注定的事业哪。命中注定的事业，小家伙！”接着“把孩子的一只手举到自己的嘴唇上吻了一下，然后，好像深怕这种举动有损他的尊严似的，他非常不自然地走开了”。总之，就是这两次不可多得的感情流露，董贝先生也感到“犹豫”，“不习惯”，“有损尊严”，总之是“不自然”，即不合乎他那“资本化”了的本性。
在对董贝的描写中，作者把他比作“雕像”、“木头人”，“全身直挺挺的不会打弯”，或是“刮得光光、剪裁整齐的阔绅士，光溜利索，像刚印出来的钞票”。作者用一系列冰、霜、雪之类的形象来渲染董贝的特点，他的住宅阴冷，他的办公室凄凉。在保罗受洗礼的那一天，不仅教堂里寒气逼人，而且在董贝随后举行的宴会上摆着的食物都是冰冷的，与席上的整个气氛一致，作者还说，坐在首席上的董贝本人犹如一个“冰冻绅士”的标本。总之，作者通过夸张的细节描写，把董贝置于一层层冰霜的包裹之中，把他描写成一位十足的没有人性的冷血动物。
正如恩格斯所说的，资产阶级“除了快快发财以外，不知道世界上还有别的快乐”一样，继承人意味着资本的延续，也就是资产阶级理想中通向“永恒”与“不朽”的唯一道路，本质上还是发财的快乐。《董贝父子》一书的主线和总的设计都是围绕着董贝先生为自己，也是为公司，寻找继承人的故事。如果按19世纪小说专家史蒂芬·马科斯的划分，把作品划分成四个部分，那么可以看出，第一部分以继承人小保罗的诞生开始，以他的死亡告终；第二部分描写了董贝先生的悲痛以及他的第二次结婚，亦即再次要得到继承人；第三部分表现了董贝先生婚后夫妻不睦，终于导致他的夫人私奔；第四部分描写了董贝先生精神瓦解、企业倒闭，最后被他赶出家门的女儿弗洛伦斯用自己的爱给他以安慰和力量，使老年的董贝在失去资本、失去继承人之后恢复了自己的人性。而具有讽刺意味的是，“所谓董贝父子”，如书中一个人物说的“归根结蒂是董贝父女”！但开始时，董贝先生哪里能猜到等待他的命运！他把自己的感情全部倾注在公司的继承人、刚刚诞生的儿子身上，至于女儿，既然不是继承人，对董贝公司没有意义，对他本人也就没有意义，相当于“不能投资的一块劣币”。其实，就是对于他的儿子小保罗，董贝先生也只能以自己的方式去爱。这是一种异化了的感情。他只把保罗当作继承人来对待，当作“董贝父子公司”中的“子”而不是作为一个有独立生存权利的人、一个有权过快乐童年的儿童。董贝把保罗从降生到成人的时期都看作是难熬的过渡时期，“他急于进入未来，恨不得快点打发掉这中间的时光”。董贝对儿子的感情是那样的独占，他不信任奶娘波利·图德尔，生怕儿子会对她有感情，从而受到“下等人”的沾染，后来董贝还是因为她擅自把保罗带回家而把这个好心的女人打发掉，致使婴儿突然断奶，从此体弱多病。董贝先生“望子成龙”心切，他把幼小的保罗送往布林伯博士学院。这是一座以填塞死知识著称的住宿学校。在那里，孩子们白天被逼得背诵天书一样的古代典籍，晚上做梦都说希腊文！“那是一座大暖房，一架不停地移动的拔苗助长的机器，所有的孩子都提前‘开花’，但是不足三个礼拜就枯萎凋谢”。在那里，可怜的小保罗的头脑被塞满了一大堆希腊罗马的古董，他哭着说，“我要当儿童”，可那在董贝培养继承人的计划里是不允许的。保罗在这些催化剂的作用下精神备受摧残，不久以后便死去。具有讽刺意味的是，从解雇奶娘到提前送进学校的整个过程来看，不是别人，正是董贝先生自己一手促成了儿子的死亡。他完全按照自己性格的逻辑，按照他的“异化”了的感情行事，不可能有其他做法。这不能不说是董贝的悲剧。值得注意的还有，董贝不仅在儿子活着的时候对儿子的感情是“异化”的，而且在儿子死亡以后，他的反应也是“异化”的，那与其说是失去亲骨肉的切肤之痛，倒更像是他的“自我”受到打击、傲慢受到挫折而引起的痛苦。当老奶娘图德尔的丈夫向董贝表示哀悼时，董贝不仅不为之感动，反而因为不相干的人（与公司不相干）妄想分担他的痛苦而感到气愤，好像自己受了污辱。这不是被资本“异化”了的感情又是什么呢？
对董贝来说，更可悲的是，由于他的古板、冷漠、没有人情味，他的儿子与他感情疏远而衷心喜爱那些董贝所厌恶、鄙视的人——姐姐弗洛伦斯、奶娘波利·图德尔，还有公司里的小雇员沃尔特·盖伊，在自己幼小生命的最后时刻对他们恋恋不舍而把自己的父亲排除在外。在思想上父子二人更是格格不入；董贝是那样急切盼望儿子成长为精明的生意人，而幼小的保罗却问“钱能干什么？”，当父亲说钱可以办到一切，他并不信服，说“它不能救活我妈妈”。“它不是残酷的吗？”狄更斯通过儿童的眼光批判了董贝所代表的价值观。
保罗虽然年纪幼小，却总像是生活在一个彼岸世界，他“可以在糊墙纸上看出微型的老虎和狮子…… 看见一些人影冲着地板上的方块和棱形图案作怪脸，而别人却什么也看不见”。他像个老人似的长时间坐在海边上，面对着一片天水茫茫沉思不语。他纳闷“它没结没完地说些什么呀？”——“我知道他们一直是在说些什么的。说的总是同样的事情。那儿是什么地方呀？”他热切地凝望那天水之际，在大海的喧腾中，听到了时间老人的召唤，感到了死亡的预兆，最后在海涛声中他安然与世长辞……。可以说，小保罗在任何意义上也不是董贝的继承人。《董贝父子》的第一部分，也是最精采部分，便以董贝在培育继承人方面的彻底失败而告终。《董贝父子》最初连载发表时，保罗·罗贝夭亡的一章在当时读者中引起强烈反响，“举国上下，共同哀悼”，仅次于“自己家里办丧事”。当时许多人，包括政界文化界著名人物都毫不隐讳自己为小保罗的死而痛哭流涕。这当然与当时盛行的感伤主义阅读趣味分不开。小保罗的死，与《老古玩店》中小耐儿的死一样，都是19世纪小说中公认的感伤主义的典范。但是，不可否认，保罗之死的著名篇章充满了晶莹的诗意—— “小船在波上的飘荡已经引得他要去安眠了。河岸多么葱翠，长在河岸上的花草多么明艳，那芦苇又是多么婷婷袅袅！这时小船已经驶到海里，可是还在平静地向前滑去”。小保罗去了，好像得到了他的天然归宿。他不属于公司，更远离“货币、通货、钞票、外汇率”所构成的那个他命中要成就的“事业”。在那个孜孜名利的浮华世界上，保罗的死显出了超尘拔俗的光彩，在默默无言之中对以“董贝父子公司”为代表的金钱利欲做出了最有力的批判。
经过第一个打击，董贝并没有总结教训、达到自我认识。不久以后，他又处心积虑地为得到继承人而设法。他跟年轻美貌的寡妇伊迪丝·格兰杰结婚了。这纯粹是一笔交易，董贝就像在骡马市上相马似地观察伊迪丝的才华与教养，最后决定买下。伊迪丝愤然对她母亲说“十年以来，奴隶市场上的奴隶和集市上的马都没有像我这样被展览出售，炫耀给看客。”在这第二次婚姻中，董贝又失败了。在伊迪丝身上，他碰到了对手，跟他一样傲慢，跟他一样强硬。两下里冲突的结果，伊迪丝为报复丈夫而与公司的经理卡克私奔，造成了伦敦上流社会的头号丑闻。此外，董贝刚愎自用，在卡克的纵恿下投资不当，在家庭危机的同时，他的商船“子嗣”号在海上遇难，他的公司倒闭，他本人宣告破产。昔日富丽堂皇的宅第被债仅人剥得一干二净，连老鼠都不愿逗留，只剩下一个董贝像个幽灵似地在空楼中游荡。在他举刀自杀的那一刹那，女儿弗洛伦斯赶到他跟前，用自己的爱感化了他，使董贝终于认识到，自己是有罪的，“需要得到宽恕”。董贝那违背天理人性的傲慢被弗洛伦斯的爱克服了。在老年，他终于开始过上一种合乎人性的生活。董贝的命运，并不取决于外部事态的发展；是董贝自己性格的内在逻辑导致他的全面崩溃。他是在自己惩罚自己，并在一重一重的惩罚中一层一层地暴露出资产阶级本性中那些违反天理人情的因素。
若只看故事情节，我们也不能否认《董贝父子》的结局是浅薄无力的。法国著名批评家泰纳说董贝的“转变”毁了一本出色的小说。一位当代评论家用不屑的口气问道：难道要把董贝父子公司的世界贸易交给眼泪汪汪的弗洛伦斯去经营吗？在这里，我们又回到小说的时代特色问题。像弗洛伦斯那类的“安琪儿”是按照当时盛行的公式描写的，本来就不现实，而董贝先生在铁路四通八达国际贸易发达的时代是个真实的形象、一个阶级的代表。弗洛伦斯怎么可能用自己的眼泪去感化董贝的铁石心肠呢？《董贝父子》一书的价值不在于作者虚构出怎么样的方案去解决矛盾，而在于他在四十年代资本主义经济发达的历史时期塑造了一个资产阶级的典型形象，从而深刻地揭示了关于那个阶级的真理。
也是在《董贝父子》一书中，狄更斯第一次采用了一个象征来贯穿全书，以传达出一个总的世界图景、一种对时代、对社会的理解。他曾用过雾、浊流、垃圾等形象作为这种象征，而在这里是铁路。铁路——火车、铁轨——的形象在书中出现多次，往往在关键时刻渲染气氛，烘托主题。用铁路的形象来概括四十年代工业化的英国，当然是最恰当不过的，在19世纪上半叶，铁路的发展速度是惊人的。据统计，1825年还只有25英里的铁路线，到了1845年就发展成2200多公里，即在不到二十年的时间里便增加了一百倍。处在火车、电报时代的董贝比起乘驿车的匹克威克先生简直属于两个完全不同的世界。铁路的发展改变了人们的生活方式，改变了人们对空间和时间的概念，还产生了一支新的劳动队伍：铁路工人。铁路意味着力量、运动和速度，意味着更快的生活节奏。这时，铁路是社会变革的象征，它给破烂不堪的旧址带来了新的生命。书中写到，由于铁路的建设，波利·图德尔一家原来住的贫民区“斯塔格斯花园”已不复存在——“它从地面上消失了，原来一些朽烂的凉亭残存的地方，现在耸立着高大的宫殿；大理石的圆柱两边开道，通向铁路的新世界”。书中还写到，原先堆放垃圾的空地已被吞没，代之而起的是“一层层库房，里面装满了丰富的物资和贵重的商品”。而原是荒无人烟的地方现在修起了花园、别墅、教堂和令人心旷神怡的林荫大道。过去以掘煤为生的图德尔，现在也在新建设起来的铁路上当上了一名司炉工。从这个角度可以说，狄更斯是站在赞赏的立场去看以铁路为象征的工业化对社会物质发展的积极意义。
但是，另一方面，铁路、火车在狄更斯笔下又充满了威胁，它力大无穷而又难以控制，它在急驰中似有自己的目的而把人的意愿置于不顾。当保罗将要死去时，书中描写了火车的运动：“日日夜夜，往返不停，翻腾的热浪犹如生命的血流”。保罗在父亲的培养下正在悄悄死去，而车声隆隆正以雷霆万钧之势驶来，显得那样冷酷无情。保罗死后，董贝乘火车旅行，火车的机械运动与董贝的沉重心情互相衬托，后来，董贝去追赶拐骗他妻子私奔的卡克，他们一个在逃，一个紧追，这时火车像个可怕的怪兽，“混身冒火的魔鬼”，愤怒地奔腾咆哮，活像个复仇神，终于非常戏剧性地把卡克碾死。
这里，问题并不在于死在火车轮下的卡克是罪有应得。重要的是，在这里，火车的形象狰狞可怕；它的来临“伴随着大地的震响，在耳边颤抖的声浪，以及遥远的尖叫声；一片暗光由远而近，刹那间变成两支火红的眼睛和一团烈火，一路上掉着燃烧的煤块；接着，一个庞然大物咆哮着、扩展着，以不可抗拒的气势压过来”。这个形象远远超脱了卡克命运的区区小事，而提出了更大的问题：机械的物质运动所释放出来的力量对于人类社会究竟意味着什么？在这里，狄更斯表现了一个真正大作家的气魄。他透过现象去捕捉本质，通过铁路的象征对资本主义物质文明的发展表示了深深的忧虑；这奔腾向前的力量将把人类社会带往何处？这怀疑与忧虑是跟作者通过董贝的形象所提出的问题完全一致的，它们都汇为一个总的对时代的疑问：资本主义的工业——铁路——改善了人们的生存条件，但它将引起什么样的社会变化？一个董贝先生是被女儿的泪水感化了，但以铁路为标志的英国资本主义的发展不是会产生更多的董贝吗？
《董贝父子》不是社会学论文。狄更斯的魔力就在于，他提出了当时社会最本质的问题，同时又写出了人物众多、情节复杂、情调多变的一部五光十色的小说巨著。在这里，以董贝渴望子嗣的故事为中心，演出了那么多扣人心弦的悲喜剧。社会地位有天壤之别的人物，命运却那么曲折地交织在一起：第二任董贝夫人伊迪丝跟被流放的娼妓爱丽丝不仅是同父异母的姐妹，而且也是被同一个男性——卡克经理——欺辱的女性。这种情节性的背后不正是微妙地暗示着伊迪丝与董贝的婚姻的实质？《董贝父子》还充满了阴谋和悬念。卡克经理像个蜘蛛一样坐在他编织的阴谋纲络的中心，为董贝先生、伊迪丝，为弗洛伦斯和沃尔特，甚至为老实巴结的卡特尔船长都设下了圈套，派了钉哨。
可是到头来，正是他这个心腹 ——不争气的少年罗伯——出卖了他，导致他粉身碎骨在车轮之下，可谓事件本身的嘲讽。在《董贝父子》中，与正剧的主线平行，总有喜剧闹剧的副线，甚至形成一环扣一环的命运的锁链。如在董贝先生物色第二位夫人的时候，溜须拍马但又可怜可笑的托克斯小姐觊觎董贝夫人的宝座，冷落了有意于她的白格斯托克少校，而老奸巨猾的白格斯托克为了挫败托克斯小姐的野心，把伊迪丝引见给董贝，导致了他的第二次灾难性的婚姻。
在《董贝父子》一书中，狄更斯还描写了许多小人物和他们的生活。破落小商人所罗门·吉尔斯、保罗的奶娘图德尔一家、弗洛伦斯的贴身女仆苏珊等在各方面都与董贝形成对比。我们在书中看到，一方面是董贝的华贵府邸，另一方面是图德尔一家住的破烂不堪的贫民窟。尽管如此，前者冷若冰窖，后者热气腾腾，充满友爱与欢乐。在那冷酷的资本主义社会，这些小人物身上体现了人情和人性中善良美好的本能。波利·图德尔那兴旺的家族——她那丰富的乳汁和众多的孩子都描写的十分夸张、富于象征意义，体现了生的欢乐和对未来的希望。有趣的是，在作者的巧妙安排之下，这些地位低贱的小人物又不断跟董贝“遭遇”。如所罗门·吉尔斯的好友、落魄的船长内德·卡特尔竟跑去与董贝先生称兄道弟，还以自己的糖侠子等可笑的“传家宝”来当抵押，要董贝借款给他。这在董贝看来简直是骇人听闻。他摆出最威风凛凛的架势，但最没有现实感的卡特尔船长对此毫无察觉，弄得董贝反而手足无措。后来，女仆苏珊又乘董贝卧病的当儿公然向他挑战，指着他的鼻子数落他的不是，气得董贝先生目瞪口呆。这些喜剧性场面烘托出了劳动人民生动活泼的形象；是他们戳破了董贝的傲慢，使他露出了底里的空虚与软弱。在四十年代描写劳动人民形象的作品中，这种喜剧化的处理是别具一格的。
总之，穿插于故事中的众多的陪衬人物都天真无邪，不是傻得可爱就是“狡猾”得可笑。他们不仅推动情节发展，而且为全书带来了欢乐气氛和幽默情趣，使《董贝父子》成为狄更斯小说中既有深度又饶有趣味的代表作。还在连载的时候，不识字的老百姓在一天的劳累之后就要聚在一起听人朗读《董贝父子》，直至今天，它还受到广大读者的喜爱。
Plot summary
The story concerns Paul Dombey, the wealthy owner of the shipping company of the book's title, whose dream is to have a son to continue his business. The book begins when his son is born, and Dombey's wife dies shortly after giving birth. Following the advice of Mrs Louisa Chick, his sister, Dombey employs a wet nurse named Mrs Richards (Toodle). Dombey already has a daughter, Florence, whom he neglects. One day, Mrs Richards, Florence and her maid, Susan Nipper, secretly pay a visit Mrs Richard's house in Stagg's Gardens in order that she can see her children. During this trip, Florence becomes separated and is kidnapped for a short time by Good Mrs Brown before being returned to the streets. She makes her way to Dombey and Son's offices in the City and is guided there by Walter Gay, an employee, who first introduces her to his uncle, the navigation instrument maker Solomon Gill, at his shop the Midshipman.
The child, also named Paul, is weak and often ill, and does not socialize normally with others; adults call him "old fashioned". He is intensely fond of his elder sister, Florence, who is deliberately neglected by her father as irrelevant and a distraction. He is sent away to Brighton, first for his health, where he and Florence lodge with the ancient and acidic Mrs Pipchin, and then for his education to Dr and Mrs Blimber's school, where he and the other boys undergo both an intense and arduous education under the tutelage of Mr Feeder, B.A. and Cornelia Blimber. It is here that Paul is befriended by a fellow pupil, the amiable Mr Toots.
Here, Paul's health declines even further in this 'great hothouse' and he finally dies, still only six years old. Dombey pushes his daughter away from him after the death of his son, while she futilely tries to earn his love. In the meantime, Walter, who works for Dombey and Son, is sent off to work in Barbados through the manipulations of the firm's manager, Mr James Carker, 'with his white teeth', who sees him as a potential rival through his association with Florence. His boat is reported lost and he is presumed drowned. Walter's uncle leaves to go in search of Walter, leaving his great friend Captain Edward Cuttle in charge of the Midshipman. Meanwhile, Florence is now left alone with few friends to keep her company.
Dombey goes to Leamington Spa with a new friend, Major Joseph B. Bagstock. The Major deliberately sets out to befriend Dombey in order to spite his neighbour in Princess's Place, Miss Tox, who has turned cold towards him owing to her hopes - through her close friendship with Mrs Chick - of marrying Mr Dombey. At the spa, Dombey is introduced via the Major to Mrs Skewton and her widowed daughter, Mrs Edith Granger. It is here that he develops an affection for Edith, encouraged by both the Major and the avaricious mother. After they return to London, Dombey remarries, effectively 'buying' the beautiful but haughty Edith as she and her mother are in a poor financial state. The marriage is loveless; his wife despises Dombey for his overbearing pride and herself for being shallow and worthless. Her love for Florence initially prevents her from leaving, but finally she conspires with Mr Carker to ruin Dombey's public image by running away together to Dijon. They do so after her last final argument with Dombey in which he once again attempts to subdue her to his will. When he discovers that she has left him, he blames Florence for siding with her step-mother, striking her on the breast in his anger, and she is forced to run away from home. Highly distraught, she finally makes her way to The Midshipman where she lodges with Captain Cuttle as he attempts to restore her back to health. They are visited frequently by Mr Toots and his boxing companion, the Chicken, since Mr Toots has been desperately in love with Florence since their time together in Brighton.
Dombey sets out to find his wife. He is helped in this by Mrs Brown and her daughter, Alice, who, it turns out, was a former lover of Mr Carker. After being transported as a convict after he involved her in some criminal activities, she is seeking her revenge against him now she is returned to England. Going to Mrs Brown's house, Dombey overhears the conversation between Rob the Grinder - who is in the employment of Mr Carker - and the old woman as to the couple's whereabouts and sets off in pursuit. In the meantime, in Dijon, Mrs Dombey informs Carker that she sees him in no better a light than she sees Dombey, that she will not stay with him and she flees their apartment. Distraught, with both his financial and personal hopes lost, Carker flees from his former employer's pursuit. He seeks refuge back in England but, being greatly overwrought, accidentally falls under a train and is killed.
After Carker's death, it is discovered that he had been running the firm far beyond its means. This information is gleaned by Carker's brother and sister, John and Harriet, from Mr Morfin, the assistant manager at Dombey and Son, who sets out to help John Carker. He often overheard the conversations between the two brothers in which James, the younger, often abused John, the older, who was just a lowly clerk and who is sacked by Dombey because of his filial relationship to the former manager. Meanwhile, back at the Midshipman, Walter reappears, having been saved by a passing ship after floating adrift with two other sailors on some wreckage. After some time, he and Florence are finally reunited - not as 'brother' and 'sister' but as lovers, and they marry prior to sailing for China on Walter's new ship. This is also the time when Sol Gills returns to the Midshipman. As he relates to his friends, he received news whilst in Barbados that a homeward-bound China trader had picked up Walter and so had returned to England immediately. He said he had sent letters whilst in the Caribbean to his friend Ned Cuttle c/o Mrs MacStinger at Cuttle's former lodgings, and the bemused Captain recounts how he fled the place, thus never receiving them.
Florence and Walter depart and Sol Gills is entrusted with a letter, written by Walter to her father, pleading for him to be reconciled towards them both. A year passes and Alice Brown has slowly been dying despite the tender care of Harriet Carker. One night Alice's mother reveals that Alice herself is the [illegitimate]] cousin of Edith Dombey (which accounts for their similarity in appearance when they both meet). In a chapter entitled 'Retribution', Dombey and Son goes bankrupt. Dombey retires to two rooms in his house and all its contents are put up for sale. Mrs Pipchin, for some time the housekeeper, dismisses all the servants and she herself returns to Brighton, to be replaced by Mrs Richards. Dombey spends his days sunk in gloom, seeing no-one and thinking only of his daughter:
“ He thought of her as she had been that night when he and his bride came home. He thought of her as she had been in all the home events of the abandoned house. He thought, now, that of all around him, she alone had never changed. His boy had faded into dust, his proud wife had sunk into a polluted creature, his flatterer and friend had been transformed into the worst of villains, his riches had melted away, the very walls that sheltered him looked on him as a stranger; she alone had turned the same, mild gentle look upon him always. Yes, to the latest and the last. She had never changed to him - nor had he ever changed to her - and she was lost. ”
However, one day Florence returns to the house with her son, Paul, and is lovingly reunited with her father.
Dombey accompanies his daughter to her and Walter's house where he slowly starts to decline, cared for by Florence and also Susan Nipper, now Mrs Toots. They receive a visit from Edth's Cousin Feenix who takes Florence to Edith for one final time - Feenix sought Edith out in France and she returned to England under his protection. Edith gives Florence a letter, asking Dombey to forgive her her crime before her departure to the South of Italy with her elderly relative. As she says to Florence, 'I will try, then to forgive him his share of the blame. Let him try to forgive me mine!'
The final chapter (LXII) sees Dombey now a white-haired old man, 'whose face bears heavy marks of care and suffering; but they are traces of a storm that has passed on for ever, and left a clear evening in its track'.. Sol Gills and Ned Cuttle are now partners at the Midshipman, a source of great pride to the latter, and Mr and Mrs Toots announce the birth of their third daughter. Walter is doing well in business, having been appointed to a position of great confidence and trust, and Dombey is the proud grandfather of both a grandson and grand-daughter of whom he dotes on, and the book ends with the highly moving lines:
“ 'Dear grandpapa, why do you cry when you kiss me?'
He only answers, 'Little Florence! Little Florence!' and smooths away the curls that shade her earnest eyes.
”
Source
Dombey and Son, Charles Dickens, Wordsworth Classics, 1995, ISBN 1 85326 257 9
Critical appreciation
Dombey and Son was conceived first and foremost as a continuous novel. A letter from Dickens to Forster on 26th July, 1846 shows the major details of the plot and theme already substantially worked out. According to the critic George Gissing, 'Dombey was begun at Lausanne, continued at Paris, completed in London, and at English seaside places; whilst the early parts were being written, a Christmas story, The Battle of Life, was also in hand, and Dickens found it troublesome to manage both together. That he overcame the difficulty -- that, soon after, we find him travelling about England as member of an amateur dramatic company -- that he undertook all sorts of public engagements and often devoted himself to private festivity -- Dombey going on the while, from month to month -- is matter enough for astonishment to those who know anything about artistic production. But such marvels become commonplaces in the life of Charles Dickens.'
As with most of Dickens' work, a number of socially significant themes are to be found in this book. In particular the book deals with the then-prevalent common practice of arranged marriages for financial gain. Other themes to be detected within this work include child cruelty (particularly in Dombey's treatment of Florence), familial relationships, and as ever in Dickens, betrayal and deceit and the consequences thereof. Another strong central theme, which the critic George Gissing elaborates on in detail in his 1925 work The Immortal Dickens, is that of pride and arrogance, of which Paul Dombey senior is the extreme exemplification in Dickens' work.
Gissing makes a number of points about certain key inadequacies in the novel, not the least that Dickens's central character is largely unsympathetic and an unsuitable vehicle and also that after the death of the young Paul Dombey the reader is somewhat estranged from the rest of what is to follow. He notes that 'the moral theme of this book was Pride -- pride of wealth, pride of place, personal arrogance. Dickens started with a clear conception of his central character and of the course of the story in so far as it depended upon that personage; he planned the action, the play of motive, with unusual definiteness, and adhered very closely in the working to this well-laid scheme'. However, he goes on to write that,'Dombey and Son is a novel which in its beginning promises more than its progress fulfils' and gives the following reasons why:
“ Impossible to avoid the reflection that the death of Dombey's son and heir marks the end of a complete story, that we feel a gap between Chapter XVI and what comes after (the author speaks of feeling it himself, of his striving to "transfer the interest to Florence") and that the narrative of the later part is ill-constructed, often wearisome, sometimes incredible. We miss Paul, we miss Walter Gay (shadowy young hero though he be); Florence is too colourless for deep interest, and the second Mrs. Dombey is rather forced upon us than accepted as a natural figure in the drama. Dickens's familiar shortcomings are abundantly exemplified. He is wholly incapable of devising a plausible intrigue, and shocks the reader with monstrous improbabilities such as all that portion of the denouement in which old Mrs. Brown and her daughter are concerned. A favourite device with him (often employed with picturesque effect) was to bring into contact persons representing widely severed social ranks; in this book the "effect" depends too often on "incidences of the boldest artificiality," as nearly always we end by neglecting the story as a story, and surrendering ourselves to the charm of certain parts, the fascination of certain characters.' ”
Characters in the novel
Karl Ashley Smith (the University of St Andrews) in his Introduction to Wordsworth Classics' Dombey and Son makes some reflections on the novel's characters. He believes that Dombey’s power to disturb comes from his belief that human relationships can be controlled by money, giving the following examples to support this viewpoint:
“ He tries to prevent Mrs Richards from developing an attachment to Paul by emphasising the wages he pays her. Mrs Pipchin’s small talk satisfies him as ‘the sort of think for which he paid her so much a quarter’ (p.132). Worst of all, he effectively buys his second wife and expects that his wealth and position in society will be enough to keep her in awed obedience to him. Paul’s questions about money are only the first indication of the naivety of his outlook'. ”
However, he also believes that the satire against this man is tempered with compassion.
Smith also draws attention to the fact that certain characters in the novel 'develop a pattern from Dickens's earlier novels, whilst pointing the way to future works'. One such character is Little Paul who is a direct descendant of Little Nell. Another is James Carker, the ever-smiling manager of Dombey and Son. Smith notes there are strong similarities between him and the likes of Jaggers in Great Expectations and, even more so, the evil barrister, Mr Tulkinghorn, in Bleak House:
“ From Fagin (Oliver Twist) onwards, the terrifying figure exerting power over others by an infallible knowledge of their secrets becomes one of the author’s trademarks ... His gentlemanly businesslike respectability marks him out as the ancestor of Tulkinghorn in Bleak House and even of Jaggers in Great Expectations. And his involvements in the secrets of others leads him to as sticky an end as Tulkinghorn’s. The fifty-fifth chapter, where he is forced to flee his outraged employer, magnificently continues the theme of the guilt-hunted man from Bill Sikes in Oliver Twist and Jonas’s restless sense of pursuit in Martin Chuzzlewit. There is always a strong sense in Dickens of the narrative drive of discovery catching up with those who deal in darkness...' ”
Gissing looks at some of the minor characters in the novel and is particularly struck by that of Edward (Ned) Cuttle.
“ Captain Cuttle has a larger humanity than his roaring friend [Captain Bunsby], he is the creation of humour. That the Captain suffered dire things at the hands of Mrs. MacStinger is as credible as it is amusing, but he stood in no danger of Bunsby's fate; at times he can play his part in a situation purely farcical, but the man himself moves on a higher level. He is one of the most familiar to us among Dickens's characters, an instance of the novelist's supreme power, which (I like to repeat) proves itself in the bodying forth of a human personality henceforth accepted by the world. His sentences have become proverbs; the mention of his name brings before the mind's eye an image of flesh and blood -- rude, tending to the grotesque, but altogether lovable. Captain Cuttle belongs to the world of Uncle Toby, with, to be sure, a subordinate position. Analyse him as you will, make the most of those extravagances which pedants of to-day cannot away with, and in the end you will still be face to face with something vital -- explicable only as the product of genius. ”
The growth of the railways
A strong theme is the destruction and degradation (of people and places) caused by industrialisation, illustrated in particular by the building of the new railway through Camden Town (assumed to represent the London and Birmingham Railway constructed between 1833 and 1837). This reflects Dickens's apparent antipathy towards railways[citation needed], later reinforced by his involvement in a train crash in 1865. Soon after this incident he wrote two short stories (Mugby Junction and The Signal-Man) which projected a morbid view of the railways.
Final thoughts
Gissing refers to Dickens's instinctive genius for reflecting the thoughts and morals of the common man in his writing. He observes that the author was in constant communication with Forster,
“ ... as to the feeling of his readers about some proposed incident or episode; not that he feared, in any ignoble sense, to offend his public, but because his view of art involved compliance with ideals of ordinary simple folk. He held that view as a matter of course. Quite recently it has been put forth with prophetic fervour by Tolstoy, who cites Dickens among the few novelists whose work will bear this test. An instinctive sympathy with the moral (and therefore the artistic) prejudices of the everyday man guided Dickens throughout his career, teaching him when, and how far, he might strike at things he thought evil, yet never defeat his prime purpose of sending forth fiction acceptable to the multitude. Himself, in all but his genius, a representative Englishman of the middle-class, he was able to achieve this task with unfailing zeal and with entire sincerity. ”
Karl Smith, in his turn, gives his specific reasons for what makes Dombey and Son - and the works of Dickens as a whole - worth reading again and again. He observes that this is based in part on Dickens's 'recognition that solemn themes require humour and verbal vigour to accompany and complement them' and goes on to conclude:
“ Grim psychological realism, social commentary, comic absurdity and symbolic transcendence are here brought together more than in any previous novel with the possible exception of Oliver Twist. Dombey and Son not only prepares the ground for Dickens’s later masterpieces, but demands to be enjoyed for its own energy and richness. ”
Characters in "Dombey and Son"
The "Wooden Midshipman" of Uncle Sol's nautical instrument shop of the same name. Statue in the Charles Dickens Museum.
* Mr Paul Dombey – the wealthy owner of the shipping company
* Edith Granger – proud widowed daughter of Mrs Skewton, becomes second Mrs Dombey
* Mrs Fanny Dombey – Mr Dombey's first wife, mother of Florence and Paul, dies soon after Paul is born
* Master Paul Dombey (Little Dombey) – the son, is weak and often ill
* Miss Florence (Floy) Dombey – the elder daughter whom Mr Dombey neglects
* Mrs Louisa Chick – Mr Dombey's sister
* Mr Chick – husband of Mrs Chick
* Miss Lucretia Tox – friend of Mrs Chick, great admirer of Mr Dombey, and neighbour of Major Joseph Bagstock
* James Carker (Mr Carker the Manager) – devious manager in Mr Dombey's business
* John Carker (Mr Carker the Junior) – disgraced older brother of James, lower level employee in Dombey's business
* Miss Harriet Carker – sister of James and John
* Mr Morfin – assistant manager in Mr Dombey's business
* Mr Perch – messenger in Mr Dombey's business
* Solomon (Uncle Sol) Gills – ships' instrument maker and owner of the "Wooden Midshipman", a shop
* Walter Gay – nephew of Gills, friend to Florence, employee of Mr Dombey, sent away by Carker the Manager
* Captain Edward (Ned) Cuttle – retired sea captain, friend of Gills
* Major Joseph Bagstock (Josh, Joe, J.B., Old Joe) – conceited retired army major, admirer of Miss Tox, friend of Mr Dombey until his downfall
* Briggs – schoolmate of Paul's
* Tozer – schoolmate of Paul's
* Mr P. Toots – schoolmate of Paul's, later a dandy in love with Florence
* The Game Chicken – rowdy companion of Mr Toots
* Miss Susan Nipper – Florence's loyal nurse, later marries Mr. Toots
* Mrs Cleopatra Skewton – Edith Dombey's infirm mother and former lover of Bagstock
* Mr Toodle – a railway engineer
* Polly Toodle (Mrs Richards) – wife of Mr Toodle, engaged as nurse to Paul under the name Mrs Richards (by Mr Dombey's order)
* Robin Toodle (Rob the Grinder, Biler) – son of Mr Toodle and Polly, sent to Charitable Grinders school, later engaged in service to Captain Cuttle and Mr. Carker the Manager
* Good Mrs. Brown – an elderly rag dealer
* Alice – daughter of Brown, former lover of Carker's, recently returned from transportation
* Jack Bunsby – commander of a ship, and regarded as an oracle by Captain Cuttle. Eventually is wedded to Mrs MaacStinger.
* Mrs MacStinger – Captain Cuttle's landlady and nemesis
* Mrs Pipchin – stern widow who keeps an 'infantine Boarding-House of a very select description' in Brighton, where Paul is sent for his health
* Master Bitherstone – a fellow-boarder at Mrs. Pipchin's, much later a student at Doctor Blimber's
* Miss Pankey – a fellow-boarder at Mrs. Pipchin's
* Sir Barnet Skettles –
* Lady Skettles –
* Master Skettles – Brighton school pupil
* Doctor Blimber – runs a school in Brighton which Paul briefly attends
* Mrs Blimber – Doctor Blimber's wife
* Miss Cornelia Blimber – Doctor Blimber's daughter, teacher at the school
* Mr Feeder, B.A. – Doctor Blimber's assistant, teacher at the school
* Diogenes (Di) – A dog from the school, befriended by Paul and adopted by Florence after Paul's death
Film, TV or theatrical adaptations
The novel has been adapted for the screen at least three times:
* 1917 - a silent starring Norman McKinnel as Paul Dombey and Hayford Hobbs as Walter Gay
* 1969 - a television mini-series starring John Carson as Paul Dombey and Derek Seaton as Walter Gay
* 1983 - a television mini-series starring Julian Glover as Paul Dombey and Max Gold as Walter Gay
There have also been BBC radio adaptations.
In 2007, a two-part French miniseries, Dombais et Fils, was produced by France 3, directed by Laurent Jaoui and starring Christophe Malavoy as "Charles Dombais" (Paul Dombey).
It was announced in September 2009 that Andrew Davies would no longer be writing a proposed television adaptation for the BBC.
Original publication
Dombey and Son was originally published in 19 monthly instalments; each cost one shilling (except for the last, which cost two shillings, being a double issue) and contained 32 pages of text with two illustrations by Phiz:
* I - October 1846 (chapters 1-4);
* II - November 1846 (chapters 5-7);
* III - December 1846 (chapters 8-10);
* IV - January 1847 (chapters 11-13);
* V - February 1847 (chapters 14-16);
* VI - March 1847 (chapters 17-19);
* VII - April 1847 (chapters 20-22);
* VIII - May 1847 (chapters 23-25);
* IX - June 1847 (chapters 26-28);
* X - July 1847 (chapters 29-31);
* XI - August 1847 (chapters 32-34);
* XII - September 1847 (chapters 35-38);
* XIII - October 1847 (chapters 39-41);
* XIV - November 1847 (chapters 42-45);
* XV - December 1847 (chapters 46-48);
* XVI - January 1848 (chapters 49-51);
* XVII - February 1848 (chapters 52-54);
* XVIII - March 1848 (chapters 55-57);
* XIX-XX - April 1848 (chapters 58-62).
Trivia
* The motto of the publication Notes and Queries, "When found, make a note of", comes from the novel.
* In the illustrated plate, "Major Bagstock is delighted to have that opportunity," the lettering "HOTEL" on the central building in the background is written in mirror-writing. Phiz, the illustrator, evidently forgot to reverse the lettering so that it would read correctly when the plate was printed. (However, strangely, he got the other lettering in the same plate correct.)
* Sir Harry Johnston wrote a sequel to Dombey and Son in about 1920, titled The Gay-Dombeys.
* In the novel Velocity by Dean Koontz, the comatose wife of the main protagonist often makes incoherent references to the works of Dickens, the 'most mysterious' coming from Dombey and Son, "I want to know what it says, the sea. What it is that it keeps on saying."
《孤星血泪》（又名《远大前程》）是狄更斯最成熟的代表作品之一。小说叙述了一个青年幻想破灭的故事。金钱使皮普从一个穷学徒变成阔少爷，也使他染上了上流社会的恶习，而背离了他原有的劳动人民的纯朴天性。没有了金钱，皮普两手空空地回到家乡，则恢复了自己的人性。狄更斯以他独特的方式，处理19世纪文学中具有普遍意义的青年人的生活道路的主题，突出了对金钱腐蚀作用的揭露。
英国著名作家查理·狄更斯的长篇小说《孤星血泪》曾先后几十次被搬上银幕，但由大卫·里恩导演，约翰·米尔斯、珍·西蒙丝、阿历克·金纳斯等优秀演员主演的这部影片,一直被认为是最成功的一部。影片叙述19世纪初，年轻的英国乡村铁匠皮普(约翰·米尔斯饰)，由于年幼时无意中帮助过一位含冤被陷入狱的逃犯，而得到一个不知姓名的恩人慷慨大方的帮助。后来，他终于跻身于伦敦上流社会，并与美丽的少女埃丝苔娜(珍·西蒙丝饰)结下了深厚的情谊。大卫·里恩导演的这部影片，不仅真实地再现了19世纪英国社会的风貌，而且成功地运用了一系列电影技巧，在电影化方面取得了杰出的成就。特别是影片开头，小男孩皮普与逃犯在荒郊野外相遇的场面，在电影史上一直被奉为经典。
《孤星血泪》-幕后英雄
在奥斯卡奖的历史上，这部影片是相当重要的，是与《黑水仙花》最早获得奥斯卡摄影奖和美工奖的两部英国影片。英国摄影师盖伊·格林在摄制了《孤星血泪》、《雾都孤儿》等影片之后，改行从事导演工作，先后导演了《标志》、《愤怒的沉默》、《一次不够》等二十八部影片。约翰·布雷恩(1911－1969)不仅是英国一位出色的美工师，也是一位制片人和导演。除本片外，他还担任过《西班牙园丁》、《马嘴》等影片的美工。
《孤星血泪》-内容简介
故事讲述一个小孤儿皮普，从小依靠姐姐与姐夫过活，却在无意中帮助了一位含冤被陷的逃犯，后来受到一位不愿透露身份的人士资助，使他能在上流社会求学生活，成为一名绅士。约瑟夫·哈迪执导的此片是狄更斯名著《孤星血泪》的重拍电视版。原本打算拍成歌舞片，后来音乐撤消，因此本片拍来较为平淡。迈克尔·约克、詹姆斯·梅森等在此片的表现一般，但故事本身内容丰富，仍具有一定的吸引力。
Great Expectations is written in the style of bildungsroman, which follows the story of a man or woman in their quest for maturity, usually starting from childhood and ending in the main character's eventual adulthood. Great Expectations is the story of the orphan Pip, writing about his life and attempting to become a gentleman along the way. The novel can also be considered semi-autobiographical of Dickens, like much of his work, drawing on his experiences of life and people.
The main plot of Great Expectations takes place between Christmas Eve 1812, when the protagonist is about seven years old (and which happens to be the year of Dickens' birth), and the winter of 1840.
英国著名作家查理·狄更斯的长篇小说《孤星血泪》曾先后几十次被搬上银幕，但由大卫·里恩导演，约翰·米尔斯、珍·西蒙丝、阿历克·金纳斯等优秀演员主演的这部影片,一直被认为是最成功的一部。影片叙述19世纪初，年轻的英国乡村铁匠皮普(约翰·米尔斯饰)，由于年幼时无意中帮助过一位含冤被陷入狱的逃犯，而得到一个不知姓名的恩人慷慨大方的帮助。后来，他终于跻身于伦敦上流社会，并与美丽的少女埃丝苔娜(珍·西蒙丝饰)结下了深厚的情谊。大卫·里恩导演的这部影片，不仅真实地再现了19世纪英国社会的风貌，而且成功地运用了一系列电影技巧，在电影化方面取得了杰出的成就。特别是影片开头，小男孩皮普与逃犯在荒郊野外相遇的场面，在电影史上一直被奉为经典。
《孤星血泪》-幕后英雄
在奥斯卡奖的历史上，这部影片是相当重要的，是与《黑水仙花》最早获得奥斯卡摄影奖和美工奖的两部英国影片。英国摄影师盖伊·格林在摄制了《孤星血泪》、《雾都孤儿》等影片之后，改行从事导演工作，先后导演了《标志》、《愤怒的沉默》、《一次不够》等二十八部影片。约翰·布雷恩(1911－1969)不仅是英国一位出色的美工师，也是一位制片人和导演。除本片外，他还担任过《西班牙园丁》、《马嘴》等影片的美工。
《孤星血泪》-内容简介
故事讲述一个小孤儿皮普，从小依靠姐姐与姐夫过活，却在无意中帮助了一位含冤被陷的逃犯，后来受到一位不愿透露身份的人士资助，使他能在上流社会求学生活，成为一名绅士。约瑟夫·哈迪执导的此片是狄更斯名著《孤星血泪》的重拍电视版。原本打算拍成歌舞片，后来音乐撤消，因此本片拍来较为平淡。迈克尔·约克、詹姆斯·梅森等在此片的表现一般，但故事本身内容丰富，仍具有一定的吸引力。
Great Expectations is written in the style of bildungsroman, which follows the story of a man or woman in their quest for maturity, usually starting from childhood and ending in the main character's eventual adulthood. Great Expectations is the story of the orphan Pip, writing about his life and attempting to become a gentleman along the way. The novel can also be considered semi-autobiographical of Dickens, like much of his work, drawing on his experiences of life and people.
The main plot of Great Expectations takes place between Christmas Eve 1812, when the protagonist is about seven years old (and which happens to be the year of Dickens' birth), and the winter of 1840.
故事发生在十九世纪的英国。在一个寒冷的深夜，英国伦敦的平民区里，一个婴儿刚刚出世，他母亲便离开了人世。谁也不知道那产妇是谁，她遗下的儿子便成了无名的孤儿。孤儿被本地教会收留，由女管事抚养，给他起了一个名字叫奥利弗。
奥利弗九岁的时候，不能像有钱人家孩子那样进学校念书，女管事还把他送进工厂，和其他童工一起，日夜干力不胜任的苦活，并且不让他吃饱。性格倔强的奥利弗被大家推为代表，提出增加粮食的要求。工厂的职员大惊失色，便不愿继续收留奥利弗，怕他影响其他童工。
当时，殡仪馆的老伴森亚比利正需要学徒，便花了五个金镑把他领了出去。奥利弗换了个新环境，生活过得稍好了一些。他参加出殡行列，行动规矩，合乎礼仪。老伴很满意，但遭到年长学徒的忌妒，故意讥笑、侮辱他人格。奥利弗忍无可忍，拔拳搏斗。老板夫妇将他毒打，他悲愤填胸，星夜出走。一连步行了七天，才到达伦敦。
举目无亲，饥寒交迫，在绝望中他遇到了少年亚狄。亚狄带他到一栋破败的屋子里，这里原来是窝藏匪盗的窟。贼首弗根见奥利弗聪明伶俐，很是喜欢，便要他和亚狄一起上街去偷窃。不料亚狄失手被发现，奥利弗心虚，拔腿逃跑，结果被人抓进了警局。贼首弗根听说奥利弗被抓，痛责亚狄无用，又担心奥利弗在警局招认，便和另一贼首皮利商议，决定由皮利的妻子南珊出面，冒充奥利弗姐姐，具保将他领回。
但是，警局审批时，书店老板证明，他看到当时扒窃的小贼并非奥利弗。被窃的主人是伦敦富翁罗勃特，因自己冤枉奥利弗很感歉疚，又见他可爱又可怜，便将他领回家去。奥利弗到罗勃特家后，受到老人的宠爱，既不愁吃穿，还能上学读书。不料，罗勃特有个名叫孟斯的亲戚，追究奥利弗的身世，发现原来他是罗勃特的外孙，那罗勃特的全部家产便要由他承受。孟斯企图某夺谋夺这笔财产，便将此事严守秘密，还和贼首皮利勾结，企图谋害奥利弗。
某日，皮利和他妻子南珊在街上寻访，遇见奥利弗，立即把他绑回贼窟。弗根将他毒打，几乎丧命。南珊从孟斯处探听到奥利弗的身世后，十分同情，为了救他出险，让他祖孙团员，便暗暗去把消息告诉了罗勃特，答应下次带奥利弗同来。不料事情被皮利发现，和弗根一起，将南珊活活打死。罗勃特在家等候南珊，到了约定之期，不见南珊到来。忽然听到街上传说南珊惨死，便报告警局，随同警察直捣贼窟。市民们也纷纷参加捉贼，声势浩大。弗根和皮利最终难逃法网。奥利弗死里逃生，被罗勃特领回，祖孙团聚。
Background
Oliver Twist is notable for Dickens' unromantic portrayal of criminals and their sordid lives. The book also exposed the cruel treatment of many a waif-child in London, which increased international concern in what is sometimes known as "The Great London Waif Crisis". This was the astounding number of orphans in London in the Dickens era. The book's subtitle, The Parish Boy's Progress alludes to Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress and also to a pair of popular 18th-century caricature series by William Hogarth, "A Rake's Progress" and "A Harlot's Progress".
An early example of the social novel, the book calls the public's attention to various contemporary evils, including the Poor Law, child labour and the recruitment of children as criminals. Dickens mocks the hypocrisies of his time by surrounding the novel's serious themes with sarcasm and dark humour. The novel may have been inspired by the story of Robert Blincoe, an orphan whose account of hardships as a child labourer in a cotton mill was widely read in the 1830s. It is likely that Dickens's own early youth as a child labourer contributed to the story's development.
Oliver Twist has been the subject of numerous film and television adaptations, and is the basis for a highly successful musical play and the multiple Academy Award winning motion picture Oliver!.
Publications
Cover, first edition of serial, entitled "The Adventures of Oliver Twist" January 1846
Design by George Cruikshank
The book was originally published in Bentley's Miscellany as a serial, in monthly instalments that began appearing in the month of February 1837 and continued through April 1839. It was originally intended to form part of Dickens's serial The Mudfog Papers. It did not appear as its own monthly serial until 1846. George Cruikshank provided one steel etching per month to illustrate each installment. The first novelization appeared six months before the serialization was completed. It was published in three volumes by Richard Bentley, the owner of Bentley's Miscellany, under the author's pseudonym, "Boz" and included 24 steel-engraved plates by Cruikshank.
Plot summary
Workhouse and first jobs
Oliver Twist is born into a life of poverty and misfortune in a workhouse in an unnamed town (although when originally published in Bentley's Miscellany in 1837 the town was called Mudfog and said to be within 75 miles north of London). Orphaned almost from his first breath by his mother’s death in childbirth and his father’s unexplained absence, Oliver is meagerly provided for under the terms of the Poor Law, and spends the first eight years of his life at a baby farm in the 'care' of a woman named Mrs. Mann. Along with other juvenile offenders against the poor laws, Oliver is brought up with little food and few comforts. Around the time of the orphan’s ninth birthday, Mr. Bumble, a parish beadle, removes Oliver from the baby farm and puts him to work picking oakum at the main workhouse (the same one where his mother worked before she died). Oliver, who toils with very little food, remains in the workhouse for six months, until the desperately hungry boys decide to draw lots; the loser must ask for another portion of gruel. The task falls to Oliver, who at the next meal tremblingly comes forward, bowl in hand, and makes his famous request: "Please, sir, I want some more."
Oliver; "Please, sir, I want some more."
A great uproar ensues. The board of well-fed gentlemen who administer the workhouse, while eating a meal fit for a mighty king, offer five pounds to any person wishing to take on the boy as an apprentice. A brutal chimney sweep almost claims Oliver, but, when he begs despairingly not to be sent away with "that dreadful man" a kindly old magistrate refuses to sign the indentures. Later, Mr. Sowerberry, an undertaker employed by the parish, takes Oliver into his service. He treats Oliver better, and, because of the boy's sorrowful countenance, uses him as a mourner, at children's funerals. However, Mr. Sowerberry is in an unhappy marriage, and his wife takes an immediate dislike to Oliver—primarily because her husband seems to like him—and loses few opportunities to underfeed and mistreat him. He also suffers torment at the hands of Noah Claypole, an oafish but bullying fellow apprentice who is jealous of Oliver's promotion to mute, and Charlotte, the Sowerberry's maidservant, who is in love with Noah.
One day, in an attempt to bait Oliver, Noah insults the orphan’s late mother, calling her "a regular right-down bad 'un". Oliver flies into an unexpected passion, attacking and even beating the much bigger boy. Mrs. Sowerberry takes Noah's side, helps him subdue Oliver, punches and beats Oliver, and later compels her husband and Mr. Bumble, who has been sent for in the aftermath of the fight, into beating Oliver again. Once Oliver is sent to his room for the night, he does something that he hadn't done since babyhood—breaks down and weeps. Alone that night, Oliver finally decides to run away. He wanders aimlessly for a time, until a well-placed milestone sets his wandering feet towards London.
The Artful Dodger and Fagin
George Cruikshank original engraving of the Artful Dodger (centre), here introducing Oliver (right) to Fagin (left)
During his journey to London, Oliver encounters Jack Dawkins, more commonly known by the nickname the "Artful Dodger", although Oliver's innocent nature prevents him from recognising this hint that the boy may be dishonest. Dodger provides Oliver with a free meal and tells him of a gentleman in London who will "give him lodgings for nothing, and never ask for change". Grateful for the unexpected assistance, Oliver follows Dodger to the "old gentleman"'s residence. In this way, Oliver unwittingly falls in with an infamous Jewish criminal known as Fagin, the so-called gentleman of whom the Artful Dodger spoke. Ensnared, Oliver lives with Fagin and his gang of juvenile pickpockets in their lair at Saffron Hill for some time, naively unaware of their criminal occupations. He believes they make wallets and handkerchiefs.
Later, Oliver innocently goes out to "make handkerchiefs" because of no income coming in, with two of Fagin’s underlings: The Artful Dodger and a boy of a humorous nature named Charley Bates. Oliver realises too late that their real mission is to pick pockets. Dodger and Charley steal the handkerchief of an old gentleman named Mr. Brownlow, and promptly flee. When he finds his handkerchief missing, Mr. Brownlow turns round, sees Oliver, and pursues him. Others join the chase and Oliver is caught and taken before the magistrate. Curiously, Mr. Brownlow has second thoughts about the boy—he seems reluctant to believe he is a pickpocket. To the judge's evident disappointment, a bookstall holder who saw Dodger commit the crime clears Oliver, who, by now actually ill, faints in the courtroom. Mr. Brownlow takes Oliver home and, along with his housekeeper Mrs. Bedwin, cares for him.
Bill Sikes
Oliver stays with Mr. Brownlow, recovers rapidly, and blossoms from the unaccustomed kindness. His bliss, however, is interrupted when Fagin, fearing Oliver might "peach" on his criminal gang, decides that Oliver must be brought back to his hideout. When Mr. Brownlow sends Oliver out to pay for some books, one of the gang, a young girl named Nancy, whom Oliver had previously met at Fagin's, accosts him with help from her abusive lover, a brutal robber named Bill Sikes, and Oliver is quickly bundled back to Fagin's lair. The thieves take the five pound note Mr. Brownlow had entrusted to him, and strip him of his fine new clothes. Oliver, dismayed, flees and attempts to call for police assistance, but is ruthlessly dragged back by the Dodger, Charley and Fagin. Nancy, however, is sympathetic towards Oliver and saves him from beatings by Fagin and Sikes.
In a renewed attempt to draw Oliver into a life of crime, Fagin forces him to participate in a burglary. Nancy reluctantly assists in recruiting him, all the while assuring the boy that she will help him if she can. Sikes, after threatening to kill him if he does not cooperate, sends Oliver through a small window and orders him to unlock the front door. The robbery goes wrong, however, and Oliver is shot. After being abandoned by Sikes, the wounded Oliver ends up under the care of the people he was supposed to rob: Rose Maylie, her guardian Mrs. Maylie (unrelated to Rose and raising her as her own niece), and Harry Maylie (Mrs. Maylie's son who loves Rose). Convinced of Oliver’s innocence, Rose takes the boy in and nurses him back to health.
Mystery
Meanwhile, a mysterious man named Monks has found Fagin and is plotting with him to destroy Oliver's reputation. Monks denounces Fagin's failure to turn Oliver into a criminal and the two of them agree on a plan to make sure he does not find out about his past. Monks is apparently related to Oliver in some manner, although it's not mentioned until later.
Back In Oliver's hometown, Mr Bumble has married Ms Corney, the wealthy matron of the workhouse, only to find himself constantly arguing with his unhappy wife. After one such argument, Mr Bumble walks over to a pub, where he meets Monks, who informs him about a boy named Oliver Twist. Later the two of them arrange to take a locket and ring which had once belonged to Oliver's mother and toss it into a nearby river. Monks relates this to Fagin as part of the plot to destroy Oliver, unaware that Nancy has eavesdropped on their conversation and gone ahead to inform Oliver's benefactors.
Nancy, by this time ashamed of her role in Oliver's kidnapping, and fearful for the boy's safety, goes to Rose Maylie and Mr. Brownlow to warn them. She knows that Monks and Fagin are plotting to get their hands on the boy again and holds some secret meetings on the subject with Oliver's benefactors. One night Nancy tries to leave for one of the meetings but Sikes refuses permission when she doesn't state exactly where she's going. Fagin realizes that Nancy is up to something and resolves to find out what her secret is.
Meanwhile Noah Claypole has fallen out with the undertaker Mr. Sowerberry, stolen money from him and moved to London. Charlotte has accompanied him—they are now in a relationship. Using the name "Morris Bolter", he joins Fagin's gang for protection. During Noah's stay with Fagin, the Artful Dodger is caught with a stolen silver snuff box, convicted (in a very humorous courtroom scene) and transported to Australia. Later, Noah is sent by Fagin to "dodge" (spy on) Nancy, and discovers her secret: she has been meeting secretly with Rose and Mr. Brownlow to discuss how to save Oliver from Fagin and Monks. Fagin angrily passes the information on to Sikes, twisting the story just enough to make it sound as if Nancy had informed on him (in reality, she had shielded Sikes, whom she loves despite his brutal character). Believing her to be a traitor, Sikes beats Nancy to death in a fit of rage, and is himself killed when he accidentally hangs himself while fleeing across a rooftop from an angry mob.
Resolution
Fagin in his cell.
Monks is forced by Mr. Brownlow (an old friend of Oliver's father) to divulge his secrets: his real name is Edward Leeford, and he is Oliver's paternal half-brother and, although he is legitimate, he was born of a loveless marriage. Oliver's mother, Agnes, was their father's true love. Mr. Brownlow has a picture of her, and began making inquiries when he noticed a marked resemblance between her face, and the face of Oliver. Monks has spent many years searching for his father's child—not to befriend him, but to destroy him (see Henry Fielding's Tom Jones for similar circumstances). Brownlow asks Oliver to give half his inheritance (which proves to be meagre) to Monks because he wants to give him a second chance; and Oliver, being prone to giving second chances, is more than happy to comply. Monks then moves to America, where he squanders his money, reverts to crime, and ultimately dies in prison. Fagin is arrested and condemned to the gallows; in an emotional scene, Oliver goes to Newgate Gaol to visit the old reprobate on the eve of his hanging, (where Fagin's terror at being hanged has caused him to come down with fever).
On a happier note, Rose Maylie turns out to be the long-lost sister of Oliver's mother Agnes; she is therefore Oliver's aunt. She marries her long-time sweetheart Harry, and Oliver lives happily with his saviour, Mr. Brownlow. Noah becomes a paid, semi-professional informer to the police (a "stoolie", or "stoolpigeon" in American terminology). The Bumbles lose their jobs (under circumstances that cause him to utter the well-known line "The law is a ass") and are reduced to great poverty, eventually ending up in the same workhouse where they once lorded it over Oliver and the other boys; and Charley Bates, horrified by Sikes's murder of Nancy, becomes an honest citizen, moves to the country, and works his way up to prosperity.
Major themes and symbols
Introduction
In Oliver Twist, Dickens mixes grim realism, and merciless satire as a way to describe the effects of industrialism on 19th-century England and to criticise the harsh new Poor Laws. Oliver, an innocent child, is trapped in a world where his only options seem to be the workhouse, Fagin's thieves, a prison or an early grave. From this unpromising industrial/institutional setting, however, a fairy tale also emerges: In the midst of corruption and degradation, the essentially passive Oliver remains pure-hearted; he steers away from evil when those around him give in to it; and, in proper fairy-tale fashion, he eventually receives his reward—leaving for a peaceful life in the country, surrounded by kind friends. On the way to this happy ending, Dickens explores the kind of life an orphan, outcast boy could expect to lead in 1830s London.
Poverty and social class
Poverty is a prominent concern in Oliver Twist. Throughout the novel, Dickens enlarges on this theme, describing slums so decrepit that whole rows of houses are on the point of ruin. In an early chapter, Oliver attends a pauper's funeral with Mr. Sowerberry and sees a whole family crowded together in one miserable room.
This ubiquitous misery makes Oliver's few encounters with charity and love more poignant. Oliver owes his life several times over to kindness both large and small. The apparent plague of poverty that Dickens describes also conveyed to his middle-class readers how much of the London population was stricken with poverty and disease. Nonetheless, in Oliver Twist he delivers a somewhat mixed message about social caste and social injustice. Oliver's illegitimate workhouse origins place him at the nadir of society; as an orphan without friends, he is routinely despised. His "sturdy spirit" keeps him alive despite the torment he must endure. Most of his associates, however, deserve their place among society's dregs and seem very much at home in the depths. Noah Claypole, a charity boy like Oliver, is idle, stupid, and cowardly; Sikes is a thug; Fagin lives by corrupting children; and the Artful Dodger seems born for a life of crime. Many of the middle-class people Oliver encounters—Mrs. Sowerberry, Mr. Bumble, and the savagely hypocritical "gentlemen" of the workhouse board, for example; are, if anything, worse.
Oliver, on the other hand, who has an air of refinement remarkable for a workhouse boy, proves to be of gentle birth. Although he has been abused and neglected all his life, he recoils, aghast, at the idea of victimizing anyone else. This apparently hereditary gentlemanliness makes Oliver Twist something of a changeling tale, not just an indictment of social injustice. Oliver, born for better things, struggles to survive in the savage world of the underclass before finally being rescued by his family and returned to his proper place—a commodious country house.
In a recent film adaptation of the novel, Roman Polanski dispenses with the problem of Oliver's genteel origins by making him an anonymous orphan, like the rest of Fagin's gang.
Oliver is wounded in a burglary.
Symbolism
Dickens makes considerable use of symbolism. The many symbols Oliver faces are primarily good versus evil, with evil continually trying to corrupt and exploit good, but good winning out in the end. The "merry old gentleman" Fagin, for example, has satanic characteristics: he is a veteran corrupter of young boys who presides over his own corner of the criminal world; he makes his first appearance standing over a fire holding a toasting-fork; and he refuses to pray on the night before his execution. The London slums, too, have a suffocating, infernal aspect; the dark deeds and dark passions are concretely characterised by dim rooms, and pitch-black nights, while the governing mood of terror and brutality may be identified with uncommonly cold weather. In contrast, the countryside where the Maylies take Oliver is a pastoral heaven.
Food is another important symbol; Oliver's odyssey begins with a simple request for more gruel, and Mr. Bumble's shocked exclamation, represents he may be after more than just gruel. Chapter 8—which contains the last mention of food in the form of Fagin's dinner—marks the first time Oliver eats his share and represents the transformation in his life that occurs after he joins Fagin's gang.
The novel is also shot through with a related motif, obesity, which calls attention to the stark injustice of Oliver's world. When the half-starved child dares to ask for more, the men who punish him are fat. It is interesting to observe the large number of characters who are overweight.
Toward the end of the novel, the gaze of knowing eyes becomes a potent symbol. For years, Fagin avoids daylight, crowds, and open spaces, concealing himself in a dark lair most of the time: when his luck runs out at last, he squirms in the "living light" of too many eyes as he stands in the dock, awaiting sentence. After Sikes kills Nancy, he flees into the countryside but is unable to escape the memory of her dead eyes. Charley Bates turns his back on crime when he sees the murderous cruelty of the man who has been held up to him as a model.
Nancy’s decision to meet Brownlow and Rose on London Bridge reveals the symbolic aspect of this bridge in Oliver Twist. Bridges exist to link two places that would otherwise be separated by an uncrossable void. The meeting on London Bridge represents the collision of two worlds unlikely ever to come into contact—the idyllic world of Brownlow and Rose, and the atmosphere of degradation in which Nancy lives. On the bridge, Nancy is given the chance to cross over to the better way of life that the others represent, but she rejects that opportunity, and by the time the three have all left the bridge, that possibility has vanished forever.
When Rose gives Nancy her handkerchief, and when Nancy holds it up as she dies, Nancy has gone over to the "good" side against the thieves. Her position on the ground is as if she is in prayer, this showing her godly or good position.
Characters
The Last Chance.
In the tradition of Restoration Comedy and Henry Fielding, Dickens fits his characters with appropriate names. Oliver himself, though "badged and ticketed" as a lowly orphan and named according to an alphabetical system, is, in fact, "all of a twist." Mr. Grimwig is so called because his seemingly "grim", pessimistic outlook is actually a protective cover for his kind, sentimental soul. Other character names mark their bearers as semi-monstrous caricatures. Mrs. Mann, who has charge of the infant Oliver, is not the most motherly of women; Mr. Bumble, despite his impressive sense of his own dignity, continually mangles the king's English he tries to use; and the Sowerberries are, of course, "sour berries", a reference to Mrs. Sowerberry's perpetual scowl, to Mr. Sowerberry's profession as an undertaker, and to the poor provender Oliver receives from them. Rose Maylie’s name echoes her association with flowers and springtime, youth and beauty, while Toby Crackit’s is a reference to his chosen profession–housebreaking.
Bill Sikes’s dog, Bull’s-eye, has “faults of temper in common with his owner” and is an emblem of his owner’s character. The dog’s viciousness represents Sikes’s animal-like brutality, while Sikes's self-destructiveness is evident in the dog's many scars. The dog, with its willingness to harm anyone on Sikes's whim, shows the mindless brutality of the master. Sikes himself senses that the dog is a reflection of himself and that is why he tries to drown the dog. He is really trying to run away from who he is.[citation needed] This is also illustrated when Sikes dies and the dog does immediately also. After Sikes murders Nancy, Bull’s-eye also comes to represent Sikes’s guilt. The dog leaves bloody footprints on the floor of the room where the murder is committed. Not long after, Sikes becomes desperate to get rid of the dog, convinced that the dog’s presence will give him away. Yet, just as Sikes cannot shake off his guilt, he cannot shake off Bull’s-eye, who arrives at the house of Sikes’s demise before Sikes himself does. Bull’s-eye’s name also conjures up the image of Nancy’s eyes, which haunts Sikes until the bitter end and eventually causes him to hang himself accidentally.
Dickens employs polarised sets of characters to explore various dual themes throughout the novel;[citation needed] Mr. Brownlow and Fagin, for example, personify 'Good vs. Evil'. Dickens also juxtaposes honest, law-abiding characters such as Oliver himself with those who, like the Artful Dodger, seem more comfortable on the wrong side of the law. 'Crime and Punishment' is another important pair of themes, as is 'Sin and Redemption': Dickens describes criminal acts ranging from picking pockets to murder (suggesting that this sort of thing went on continually in 1830's London) only to hand out punishments with a liberal hand at the end. Most obviously, he shows Bill Sikes hounded to death by a mob for his brutal acts, and sends Fagin to cower in the condemned cell, sentenced to death by due process. Neither character achieves redemption; Sikes dies trying to run away from his guilt, and on his last night alive, the terrified Fagin refuses to see a rabbi or to pray, instead asking Oliver to help him escape. Nancy, by contrast, redeems herself at the cost of her own life, and dies in a prayerful pose.
Nancy is also one of the few characters in Oliver Twist to display much ambivalence. Although she is a full-fledged criminal, indoctrinated and trained by Fagin since childhood, she retains enough empathy to repent her role in Oliver's kidnapping, and to take steps to try to atone. As one of Fagin's victims, corrupted but not yet morally dead, she gives eloquent voice to the horrors of the old man's little criminal empire. She wants to save Oliver from a similar fate; at the same time, she recoils from the idea of turning traitor, especially to Bill Sikes, whom she loves. When he was later criticised for giving a "thieving, whoring slut of the streets" such an unaccountable reversal of character, Dickens ascribed her change of heart to "the last fair drop of water at the bottom of a dried-up, weed-choked well".
奥利弗九岁的时候，不能像有钱人家孩子那样进学校念书，女管事还把他送进工厂，和其他童工一起，日夜干力不胜任的苦活，并且不让他吃饱。性格倔强的奥利弗被大家推为代表，提出增加粮食的要求。工厂的职员大惊失色，便不愿继续收留奥利弗，怕他影响其他童工。
当时，殡仪馆的老伴森亚比利正需要学徒，便花了五个金镑把他领了出去。奥利弗换了个新环境，生活过得稍好了一些。他参加出殡行列，行动规矩，合乎礼仪。老伴很满意，但遭到年长学徒的忌妒，故意讥笑、侮辱他人格。奥利弗忍无可忍，拔拳搏斗。老板夫妇将他毒打，他悲愤填胸，星夜出走。一连步行了七天，才到达伦敦。
举目无亲，饥寒交迫，在绝望中他遇到了少年亚狄。亚狄带他到一栋破败的屋子里，这里原来是窝藏匪盗的窟。贼首弗根见奥利弗聪明伶俐，很是喜欢，便要他和亚狄一起上街去偷窃。不料亚狄失手被发现，奥利弗心虚，拔腿逃跑，结果被人抓进了警局。贼首弗根听说奥利弗被抓，痛责亚狄无用，又担心奥利弗在警局招认，便和另一贼首皮利商议，决定由皮利的妻子南珊出面，冒充奥利弗姐姐，具保将他领回。
但是，警局审批时，书店老板证明，他看到当时扒窃的小贼并非奥利弗。被窃的主人是伦敦富翁罗勃特，因自己冤枉奥利弗很感歉疚，又见他可爱又可怜，便将他领回家去。奥利弗到罗勃特家后，受到老人的宠爱，既不愁吃穿，还能上学读书。不料，罗勃特有个名叫孟斯的亲戚，追究奥利弗的身世，发现原来他是罗勃特的外孙，那罗勃特的全部家产便要由他承受。孟斯企图某夺谋夺这笔财产，便将此事严守秘密，还和贼首皮利勾结，企图谋害奥利弗。
某日，皮利和他妻子南珊在街上寻访，遇见奥利弗，立即把他绑回贼窟。弗根将他毒打，几乎丧命。南珊从孟斯处探听到奥利弗的身世后，十分同情，为了救他出险，让他祖孙团员，便暗暗去把消息告诉了罗勃特，答应下次带奥利弗同来。不料事情被皮利发现，和弗根一起，将南珊活活打死。罗勃特在家等候南珊，到了约定之期，不见南珊到来。忽然听到街上传说南珊惨死，便报告警局，随同警察直捣贼窟。市民们也纷纷参加捉贼，声势浩大。弗根和皮利最终难逃法网。奥利弗死里逃生，被罗勃特领回，祖孙团聚。
Background
Oliver Twist is notable for Dickens' unromantic portrayal of criminals and their sordid lives. The book also exposed the cruel treatment of many a waif-child in London, which increased international concern in what is sometimes known as "The Great London Waif Crisis". This was the astounding number of orphans in London in the Dickens era. The book's subtitle, The Parish Boy's Progress alludes to Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress and also to a pair of popular 18th-century caricature series by William Hogarth, "A Rake's Progress" and "A Harlot's Progress".
An early example of the social novel, the book calls the public's attention to various contemporary evils, including the Poor Law, child labour and the recruitment of children as criminals. Dickens mocks the hypocrisies of his time by surrounding the novel's serious themes with sarcasm and dark humour. The novel may have been inspired by the story of Robert Blincoe, an orphan whose account of hardships as a child labourer in a cotton mill was widely read in the 1830s. It is likely that Dickens's own early youth as a child labourer contributed to the story's development.
Oliver Twist has been the subject of numerous film and television adaptations, and is the basis for a highly successful musical play and the multiple Academy Award winning motion picture Oliver!.
Publications
Cover, first edition of serial, entitled "The Adventures of Oliver Twist" January 1846
Design by George Cruikshank
The book was originally published in Bentley's Miscellany as a serial, in monthly instalments that began appearing in the month of February 1837 and continued through April 1839. It was originally intended to form part of Dickens's serial The Mudfog Papers. It did not appear as its own monthly serial until 1846. George Cruikshank provided one steel etching per month to illustrate each installment. The first novelization appeared six months before the serialization was completed. It was published in three volumes by Richard Bentley, the owner of Bentley's Miscellany, under the author's pseudonym, "Boz" and included 24 steel-engraved plates by Cruikshank.
Plot summary
Workhouse and first jobs
Oliver Twist is born into a life of poverty and misfortune in a workhouse in an unnamed town (although when originally published in Bentley's Miscellany in 1837 the town was called Mudfog and said to be within 75 miles north of London). Orphaned almost from his first breath by his mother’s death in childbirth and his father’s unexplained absence, Oliver is meagerly provided for under the terms of the Poor Law, and spends the first eight years of his life at a baby farm in the 'care' of a woman named Mrs. Mann. Along with other juvenile offenders against the poor laws, Oliver is brought up with little food and few comforts. Around the time of the orphan’s ninth birthday, Mr. Bumble, a parish beadle, removes Oliver from the baby farm and puts him to work picking oakum at the main workhouse (the same one where his mother worked before she died). Oliver, who toils with very little food, remains in the workhouse for six months, until the desperately hungry boys decide to draw lots; the loser must ask for another portion of gruel. The task falls to Oliver, who at the next meal tremblingly comes forward, bowl in hand, and makes his famous request: "Please, sir, I want some more."
Oliver; "Please, sir, I want some more."
A great uproar ensues. The board of well-fed gentlemen who administer the workhouse, while eating a meal fit for a mighty king, offer five pounds to any person wishing to take on the boy as an apprentice. A brutal chimney sweep almost claims Oliver, but, when he begs despairingly not to be sent away with "that dreadful man" a kindly old magistrate refuses to sign the indentures. Later, Mr. Sowerberry, an undertaker employed by the parish, takes Oliver into his service. He treats Oliver better, and, because of the boy's sorrowful countenance, uses him as a mourner, at children's funerals. However, Mr. Sowerberry is in an unhappy marriage, and his wife takes an immediate dislike to Oliver—primarily because her husband seems to like him—and loses few opportunities to underfeed and mistreat him. He also suffers torment at the hands of Noah Claypole, an oafish but bullying fellow apprentice who is jealous of Oliver's promotion to mute, and Charlotte, the Sowerberry's maidservant, who is in love with Noah.
One day, in an attempt to bait Oliver, Noah insults the orphan’s late mother, calling her "a regular right-down bad 'un". Oliver flies into an unexpected passion, attacking and even beating the much bigger boy. Mrs. Sowerberry takes Noah's side, helps him subdue Oliver, punches and beats Oliver, and later compels her husband and Mr. Bumble, who has been sent for in the aftermath of the fight, into beating Oliver again. Once Oliver is sent to his room for the night, he does something that he hadn't done since babyhood—breaks down and weeps. Alone that night, Oliver finally decides to run away. He wanders aimlessly for a time, until a well-placed milestone sets his wandering feet towards London.
The Artful Dodger and Fagin
George Cruikshank original engraving of the Artful Dodger (centre), here introducing Oliver (right) to Fagin (left)
During his journey to London, Oliver encounters Jack Dawkins, more commonly known by the nickname the "Artful Dodger", although Oliver's innocent nature prevents him from recognising this hint that the boy may be dishonest. Dodger provides Oliver with a free meal and tells him of a gentleman in London who will "give him lodgings for nothing, and never ask for change". Grateful for the unexpected assistance, Oliver follows Dodger to the "old gentleman"'s residence. In this way, Oliver unwittingly falls in with an infamous Jewish criminal known as Fagin, the so-called gentleman of whom the Artful Dodger spoke. Ensnared, Oliver lives with Fagin and his gang of juvenile pickpockets in their lair at Saffron Hill for some time, naively unaware of their criminal occupations. He believes they make wallets and handkerchiefs.
Later, Oliver innocently goes out to "make handkerchiefs" because of no income coming in, with two of Fagin’s underlings: The Artful Dodger and a boy of a humorous nature named Charley Bates. Oliver realises too late that their real mission is to pick pockets. Dodger and Charley steal the handkerchief of an old gentleman named Mr. Brownlow, and promptly flee. When he finds his handkerchief missing, Mr. Brownlow turns round, sees Oliver, and pursues him. Others join the chase and Oliver is caught and taken before the magistrate. Curiously, Mr. Brownlow has second thoughts about the boy—he seems reluctant to believe he is a pickpocket. To the judge's evident disappointment, a bookstall holder who saw Dodger commit the crime clears Oliver, who, by now actually ill, faints in the courtroom. Mr. Brownlow takes Oliver home and, along with his housekeeper Mrs. Bedwin, cares for him.
Bill Sikes
Oliver stays with Mr. Brownlow, recovers rapidly, and blossoms from the unaccustomed kindness. His bliss, however, is interrupted when Fagin, fearing Oliver might "peach" on his criminal gang, decides that Oliver must be brought back to his hideout. When Mr. Brownlow sends Oliver out to pay for some books, one of the gang, a young girl named Nancy, whom Oliver had previously met at Fagin's, accosts him with help from her abusive lover, a brutal robber named Bill Sikes, and Oliver is quickly bundled back to Fagin's lair. The thieves take the five pound note Mr. Brownlow had entrusted to him, and strip him of his fine new clothes. Oliver, dismayed, flees and attempts to call for police assistance, but is ruthlessly dragged back by the Dodger, Charley and Fagin. Nancy, however, is sympathetic towards Oliver and saves him from beatings by Fagin and Sikes.
In a renewed attempt to draw Oliver into a life of crime, Fagin forces him to participate in a burglary. Nancy reluctantly assists in recruiting him, all the while assuring the boy that she will help him if she can. Sikes, after threatening to kill him if he does not cooperate, sends Oliver through a small window and orders him to unlock the front door. The robbery goes wrong, however, and Oliver is shot. After being abandoned by Sikes, the wounded Oliver ends up under the care of the people he was supposed to rob: Rose Maylie, her guardian Mrs. Maylie (unrelated to Rose and raising her as her own niece), and Harry Maylie (Mrs. Maylie's son who loves Rose). Convinced of Oliver’s innocence, Rose takes the boy in and nurses him back to health.
Mystery
Meanwhile, a mysterious man named Monks has found Fagin and is plotting with him to destroy Oliver's reputation. Monks denounces Fagin's failure to turn Oliver into a criminal and the two of them agree on a plan to make sure he does not find out about his past. Monks is apparently related to Oliver in some manner, although it's not mentioned until later.
Back In Oliver's hometown, Mr Bumble has married Ms Corney, the wealthy matron of the workhouse, only to find himself constantly arguing with his unhappy wife. After one such argument, Mr Bumble walks over to a pub, where he meets Monks, who informs him about a boy named Oliver Twist. Later the two of them arrange to take a locket and ring which had once belonged to Oliver's mother and toss it into a nearby river. Monks relates this to Fagin as part of the plot to destroy Oliver, unaware that Nancy has eavesdropped on their conversation and gone ahead to inform Oliver's benefactors.
Nancy, by this time ashamed of her role in Oliver's kidnapping, and fearful for the boy's safety, goes to Rose Maylie and Mr. Brownlow to warn them. She knows that Monks and Fagin are plotting to get their hands on the boy again and holds some secret meetings on the subject with Oliver's benefactors. One night Nancy tries to leave for one of the meetings but Sikes refuses permission when she doesn't state exactly where she's going. Fagin realizes that Nancy is up to something and resolves to find out what her secret is.
Meanwhile Noah Claypole has fallen out with the undertaker Mr. Sowerberry, stolen money from him and moved to London. Charlotte has accompanied him—they are now in a relationship. Using the name "Morris Bolter", he joins Fagin's gang for protection. During Noah's stay with Fagin, the Artful Dodger is caught with a stolen silver snuff box, convicted (in a very humorous courtroom scene) and transported to Australia. Later, Noah is sent by Fagin to "dodge" (spy on) Nancy, and discovers her secret: she has been meeting secretly with Rose and Mr. Brownlow to discuss how to save Oliver from Fagin and Monks. Fagin angrily passes the information on to Sikes, twisting the story just enough to make it sound as if Nancy had informed on him (in reality, she had shielded Sikes, whom she loves despite his brutal character). Believing her to be a traitor, Sikes beats Nancy to death in a fit of rage, and is himself killed when he accidentally hangs himself while fleeing across a rooftop from an angry mob.
Resolution
Fagin in his cell.
Monks is forced by Mr. Brownlow (an old friend of Oliver's father) to divulge his secrets: his real name is Edward Leeford, and he is Oliver's paternal half-brother and, although he is legitimate, he was born of a loveless marriage. Oliver's mother, Agnes, was their father's true love. Mr. Brownlow has a picture of her, and began making inquiries when he noticed a marked resemblance between her face, and the face of Oliver. Monks has spent many years searching for his father's child—not to befriend him, but to destroy him (see Henry Fielding's Tom Jones for similar circumstances). Brownlow asks Oliver to give half his inheritance (which proves to be meagre) to Monks because he wants to give him a second chance; and Oliver, being prone to giving second chances, is more than happy to comply. Monks then moves to America, where he squanders his money, reverts to crime, and ultimately dies in prison. Fagin is arrested and condemned to the gallows; in an emotional scene, Oliver goes to Newgate Gaol to visit the old reprobate on the eve of his hanging, (where Fagin's terror at being hanged has caused him to come down with fever).
On a happier note, Rose Maylie turns out to be the long-lost sister of Oliver's mother Agnes; she is therefore Oliver's aunt. She marries her long-time sweetheart Harry, and Oliver lives happily with his saviour, Mr. Brownlow. Noah becomes a paid, semi-professional informer to the police (a "stoolie", or "stoolpigeon" in American terminology). The Bumbles lose their jobs (under circumstances that cause him to utter the well-known line "The law is a ass") and are reduced to great poverty, eventually ending up in the same workhouse where they once lorded it over Oliver and the other boys; and Charley Bates, horrified by Sikes's murder of Nancy, becomes an honest citizen, moves to the country, and works his way up to prosperity.
Major themes and symbols
Introduction
In Oliver Twist, Dickens mixes grim realism, and merciless satire as a way to describe the effects of industrialism on 19th-century England and to criticise the harsh new Poor Laws. Oliver, an innocent child, is trapped in a world where his only options seem to be the workhouse, Fagin's thieves, a prison or an early grave. From this unpromising industrial/institutional setting, however, a fairy tale also emerges: In the midst of corruption and degradation, the essentially passive Oliver remains pure-hearted; he steers away from evil when those around him give in to it; and, in proper fairy-tale fashion, he eventually receives his reward—leaving for a peaceful life in the country, surrounded by kind friends. On the way to this happy ending, Dickens explores the kind of life an orphan, outcast boy could expect to lead in 1830s London.
Poverty and social class
Poverty is a prominent concern in Oliver Twist. Throughout the novel, Dickens enlarges on this theme, describing slums so decrepit that whole rows of houses are on the point of ruin. In an early chapter, Oliver attends a pauper's funeral with Mr. Sowerberry and sees a whole family crowded together in one miserable room.
This ubiquitous misery makes Oliver's few encounters with charity and love more poignant. Oliver owes his life several times over to kindness both large and small. The apparent plague of poverty that Dickens describes also conveyed to his middle-class readers how much of the London population was stricken with poverty and disease. Nonetheless, in Oliver Twist he delivers a somewhat mixed message about social caste and social injustice. Oliver's illegitimate workhouse origins place him at the nadir of society; as an orphan without friends, he is routinely despised. His "sturdy spirit" keeps him alive despite the torment he must endure. Most of his associates, however, deserve their place among society's dregs and seem very much at home in the depths. Noah Claypole, a charity boy like Oliver, is idle, stupid, and cowardly; Sikes is a thug; Fagin lives by corrupting children; and the Artful Dodger seems born for a life of crime. Many of the middle-class people Oliver encounters—Mrs. Sowerberry, Mr. Bumble, and the savagely hypocritical "gentlemen" of the workhouse board, for example; are, if anything, worse.
Oliver, on the other hand, who has an air of refinement remarkable for a workhouse boy, proves to be of gentle birth. Although he has been abused and neglected all his life, he recoils, aghast, at the idea of victimizing anyone else. This apparently hereditary gentlemanliness makes Oliver Twist something of a changeling tale, not just an indictment of social injustice. Oliver, born for better things, struggles to survive in the savage world of the underclass before finally being rescued by his family and returned to his proper place—a commodious country house.
In a recent film adaptation of the novel, Roman Polanski dispenses with the problem of Oliver's genteel origins by making him an anonymous orphan, like the rest of Fagin's gang.
Oliver is wounded in a burglary.
Symbolism
Dickens makes considerable use of symbolism. The many symbols Oliver faces are primarily good versus evil, with evil continually trying to corrupt and exploit good, but good winning out in the end. The "merry old gentleman" Fagin, for example, has satanic characteristics: he is a veteran corrupter of young boys who presides over his own corner of the criminal world; he makes his first appearance standing over a fire holding a toasting-fork; and he refuses to pray on the night before his execution. The London slums, too, have a suffocating, infernal aspect; the dark deeds and dark passions are concretely characterised by dim rooms, and pitch-black nights, while the governing mood of terror and brutality may be identified with uncommonly cold weather. In contrast, the countryside where the Maylies take Oliver is a pastoral heaven.
Food is another important symbol; Oliver's odyssey begins with a simple request for more gruel, and Mr. Bumble's shocked exclamation, represents he may be after more than just gruel. Chapter 8—which contains the last mention of food in the form of Fagin's dinner—marks the first time Oliver eats his share and represents the transformation in his life that occurs after he joins Fagin's gang.
The novel is also shot through with a related motif, obesity, which calls attention to the stark injustice of Oliver's world. When the half-starved child dares to ask for more, the men who punish him are fat. It is interesting to observe the large number of characters who are overweight.
Toward the end of the novel, the gaze of knowing eyes becomes a potent symbol. For years, Fagin avoids daylight, crowds, and open spaces, concealing himself in a dark lair most of the time: when his luck runs out at last, he squirms in the "living light" of too many eyes as he stands in the dock, awaiting sentence. After Sikes kills Nancy, he flees into the countryside but is unable to escape the memory of her dead eyes. Charley Bates turns his back on crime when he sees the murderous cruelty of the man who has been held up to him as a model.
Nancy’s decision to meet Brownlow and Rose on London Bridge reveals the symbolic aspect of this bridge in Oliver Twist. Bridges exist to link two places that would otherwise be separated by an uncrossable void. The meeting on London Bridge represents the collision of two worlds unlikely ever to come into contact—the idyllic world of Brownlow and Rose, and the atmosphere of degradation in which Nancy lives. On the bridge, Nancy is given the chance to cross over to the better way of life that the others represent, but she rejects that opportunity, and by the time the three have all left the bridge, that possibility has vanished forever.
When Rose gives Nancy her handkerchief, and when Nancy holds it up as she dies, Nancy has gone over to the "good" side against the thieves. Her position on the ground is as if she is in prayer, this showing her godly or good position.
Characters
The Last Chance.
In the tradition of Restoration Comedy and Henry Fielding, Dickens fits his characters with appropriate names. Oliver himself, though "badged and ticketed" as a lowly orphan and named according to an alphabetical system, is, in fact, "all of a twist." Mr. Grimwig is so called because his seemingly "grim", pessimistic outlook is actually a protective cover for his kind, sentimental soul. Other character names mark their bearers as semi-monstrous caricatures. Mrs. Mann, who has charge of the infant Oliver, is not the most motherly of women; Mr. Bumble, despite his impressive sense of his own dignity, continually mangles the king's English he tries to use; and the Sowerberries are, of course, "sour berries", a reference to Mrs. Sowerberry's perpetual scowl, to Mr. Sowerberry's profession as an undertaker, and to the poor provender Oliver receives from them. Rose Maylie’s name echoes her association with flowers and springtime, youth and beauty, while Toby Crackit’s is a reference to his chosen profession–housebreaking.
Bill Sikes’s dog, Bull’s-eye, has “faults of temper in common with his owner” and is an emblem of his owner’s character. The dog’s viciousness represents Sikes’s animal-like brutality, while Sikes's self-destructiveness is evident in the dog's many scars. The dog, with its willingness to harm anyone on Sikes's whim, shows the mindless brutality of the master. Sikes himself senses that the dog is a reflection of himself and that is why he tries to drown the dog. He is really trying to run away from who he is.[citation needed] This is also illustrated when Sikes dies and the dog does immediately also. After Sikes murders Nancy, Bull’s-eye also comes to represent Sikes’s guilt. The dog leaves bloody footprints on the floor of the room where the murder is committed. Not long after, Sikes becomes desperate to get rid of the dog, convinced that the dog’s presence will give him away. Yet, just as Sikes cannot shake off his guilt, he cannot shake off Bull’s-eye, who arrives at the house of Sikes’s demise before Sikes himself does. Bull’s-eye’s name also conjures up the image of Nancy’s eyes, which haunts Sikes until the bitter end and eventually causes him to hang himself accidentally.
Dickens employs polarised sets of characters to explore various dual themes throughout the novel;[citation needed] Mr. Brownlow and Fagin, for example, personify 'Good vs. Evil'. Dickens also juxtaposes honest, law-abiding characters such as Oliver himself with those who, like the Artful Dodger, seem more comfortable on the wrong side of the law. 'Crime and Punishment' is another important pair of themes, as is 'Sin and Redemption': Dickens describes criminal acts ranging from picking pockets to murder (suggesting that this sort of thing went on continually in 1830's London) only to hand out punishments with a liberal hand at the end. Most obviously, he shows Bill Sikes hounded to death by a mob for his brutal acts, and sends Fagin to cower in the condemned cell, sentenced to death by due process. Neither character achieves redemption; Sikes dies trying to run away from his guilt, and on his last night alive, the terrified Fagin refuses to see a rabbi or to pray, instead asking Oliver to help him escape. Nancy, by contrast, redeems herself at the cost of her own life, and dies in a prayerful pose.
Nancy is also one of the few characters in Oliver Twist to display much ambivalence. Although she is a full-fledged criminal, indoctrinated and trained by Fagin since childhood, she retains enough empathy to repent her role in Oliver's kidnapping, and to take steps to try to atone. As one of Fagin's victims, corrupted but not yet morally dead, she gives eloquent voice to the horrors of the old man's little criminal empire. She wants to save Oliver from a similar fate; at the same time, she recoils from the idea of turning traitor, especially to Bill Sikes, whom she loves. When he was later criticised for giving a "thieving, whoring slut of the streets" such an unaccountable reversal of character, Dickens ascribed her change of heart to "the last fair drop of water at the bottom of a dried-up, weed-choked well".
1677和1678两年，我在皇家军队任中尉，参加了几场海外战役；后来我就退
役回国了，住在伦敦东郊几公里外的一座小庄园里，那地方是我依仗妻子的名义
弄到的。
今天是我活命的最后一个夜晚，我要把真实情况毫不隐瞒地和盘托出。我压
根儿就不是个勇敢的男子汉，自幼生性乖僻多疑。我眼下在谈论自己，仿佛已经
离开人世似的，因为我在写这些的时候，别人正在给我挖坟坑，我的名字将会遗
臭万年。
我回到英国不久，我那惟一的亲兄长就患了不治之症。这事倒没给我带来多
少悲伤，因为我们俩长大后就很少来往。他心地善良，慷慨大度，相貌长得比我
好，也比我更有才华，深受人们的爱戴。我在国内外结交的朋友，一旦跟他相识
就疏远我了。一经初次交谈，他们就都会惊讶地发现我们兄弟俩在容貌和举止方
面竟会那么不同。我惯于引导他们做出这样公开的承认，因为我早就明白他们必
定会对我们兄弟俩做出什么样的评比；我心里很嫉妒，想方设法为自己做些辩解。
我们哥儿俩娶了一对姐妹。这种关系对别人来说肯定会使两家更加亲密，它
却使我们兄弟俩越发疏远了。我的嫂子对我的处世为人十分了解。当着她的面，
我从不敢露出自己暗中的嫉妒或不满情绪。在那种时刻，她总是瞪起两眼盯着我，
使我从不敢正视她一眼。我并没低头瞧着地或者掉过头去，可我觉得她总是在监
视我。后来我们两家闹翻了，从此断绝了来往，这倒使我松了口气。我在国外又
听说她去世的消息，心情更加舒畅了。可是现在我仍然觉得当初两家不和的阴影
好象还在古怪而可怕地笼罩着我们。我怕她；她就像鬼魂那样困扰着我，她那盯
视的目光眼下又出现了；我一回想起她，就像做噩梦一样，浑身的血都凝结起来。
她生下一个小男孩之后不久就死了。我哥哥后来也患了重病，自知不久于人
世，便把我妻子叫到床边，把那四岁的孩子托付给她照应。他把财产全都遗留给
孩子，并立下一份遗嘱，声明万一孩子先去世，那份遗产就转归我妻子所有，以
此作为对她抚养侄儿那份情意的报答。他对我也说了几句表示手足情意的话，然
后就睡着了，再也没醒过来。
我们夫妻俩膝下无儿无女。我妻子由于姐妹情谊深笃，几乎把一个做母亲的
爱心都给了那个孩子。孩子也爱她，就像是她的亲儿子似的，跟她有深挚的感情，
可他长得酷似他的母亲，也总不信任我。
闹不清从什么时候起，那孩子一出现在我面前就叫我感到不自在。我发现他
注视着我，眼神不仅带着稚气的困惑，还蕴含着他母亲当年对我的那种猜疑。这
并非是由于面貌表情的相似而使我产生的幻觉。他怕我，仿佛出自某种直觉似的。
我们俩单独在一起时，我一望着他，他就会倒退到门口去，与此同时又用他那双
亮晶晶的眼睛紧盯着我。
最初我也许自欺地隐瞒了真实的想法，可我并没想要伤害他。兴许想到他继
承的那份遗产要是属于我们，那该多好哇；兴许巴望他要是死掉，那该多好哇。
但是我自信决没想到要把他置于死地。这种邪念并非一下子就来到的，而是慢慢
形成的，随后我就对干坏事的畏惧淡化了。我每天都在琢磨那个念头，最终就只
想怎样干才最为保险，不再回避那种恶行了。
这档子事总在我脑子里盘旋。孩子发现我老是盯牢他而露出的那种纳闷神情
真叫我受不了，可我又是着了迷地把那事当作一件正经事来考虑。我心想把他这
么一个脆弱的小不点儿干掉该会是件多么轻而易举的事。我有时会上楼偷看他的
睡相，平时常躲在花园里靠近窗户的一棵树后面观望他坐在我妻子身旁的矮凳上
埋头学习知识。我就像个心怀鬼胎的贼那样一连几小时地偷觑，一片树叶的瑟瑟
声都会叫我心惊肉跳，可我还是忍不住要在那儿张望。
离我们那座小屋不远的地方有个不大为人所知的小池塘，不刮风的时候，谁
也听不到那边的水声。我花费好几天工夫用小刀刻了一只小木船，把它放在孩子
可以见到的地方。随后我便躲藏在一处等待；孩子要是想独自去池塘漂浮那个玩
艺儿，必定会打那里经过。可是那一天也好，次日也好，他都没去，我却从清晨
一直等待到日落。我坚信他早晚会落入我的罗网，因为我听见他在玩耍那个玩艺
儿，也看到他欢愉地把它放在枕边。我既不厌烦，也不疲累，只是耐心等待。第
三天，他果然兴高采烈地从我面前跑过去，那头金丝黄发飘荡着，嘴里哼着——
上帝饶恕我！——一首欢快的民歌，而他几乎还咬不准字眼呐！
我暗自跟随在他身后，在那些矮树丛后面匍匐而行，一个魁梧的大汉怀着天
晓得什么样邪恶的心情跟踪那个小不点儿，一直来到那个池塘边上。我靠近他，
弯下身子，正要伸起两臂把他推下水，他从水面上见到了我的身影，连忙转过头
来。他那目光显露出他去世的母亲那种猜疑的神情。阳光蓦地从云层后面冒出来，
照亮天空，照亮大地，照亮那一潭清水和树叶上的露珠。处处都有眼睛，整个宇
宙都在目睹这一谋杀的全过程。我闹不清孩子起先说了什么；他是个具有男子汉
血统的后裔，他虽是个小孩，却没有畏缩或乞求。他只喊叫着说他会尽量想法爱
我——可他过去并没做到这一点——接着我就看见他往家里跑。随后，我呆视着
自己手中那把剑，而他已经倒在我的脚前。除了身上有斑班血迹外，他几乎跟我
以前看到他睡熟了的时候一样——连姿势都相同，脑袋枕在他那小胳臂上。
我用双手把他抱起来——他已经咽气了——轻轻把他的尸体藏在草丛里。我
妻子那天不在家，要在次日才返回。我们卧室的那扇窗户离地面仅几英尺高，而
且房舍这一面只有那扇窗户。我决定深夜从窗户爬出来，把孩子埋在花园里。我
没想到我的计谋会失败，心想一切都不会被人发现。暂且不去动那笔钱，因为我
要尽量让人相信孩子要么是走丢了，要么是让人拐走了。我整个儿想法都集中在
怎样妥善地隐瞒自己的罪行这一点上。
仆人来告诉我孩子不见了，我就吩咐他们四下里去寻找；一有人挨近我，我
就浑身发抖，喘不过气来，那种心惊胆战的滋味儿真叫人没法儿形容。那天夜里，
我去埋葬孩子；我拨开树枝，朝草丛望去，只见那个孩子的尸体上有个闪亮的蠕
虫，就像个小精灵伏在那个被谋杀了的孩子身上闪闪发光。我把他放进坑里时，
还见到那个虫子在他胸前闪亮；那是一只仰望苍天的眼睛，在祈求星斗注意我所
干的坏事。
我得面对我的妻子，跟她说孩子失踪了，让她抱有很快就会找到孩子的希望。
我装出一副十分诚恳的样子这样做了，因为没人怀疑我。此后，我就整天坐在卧
室窗户前，呆望着那个可怕的秘密地点。
那是一块新近翻过、重铺草皮的土地，我挑选那里埋葬尸体，是因为这样就
使我的铁铲留下的痕迹不大可能被人发现。那些铺草皮的工人想必认为我疯了，
我一直不断催促他们加快干活儿，还跑出来跟他们一块儿干，用脚踩实那块地。
傍晚前，他们铺完了那片草地，我才觉得自己比较安全了。
我躺下睡觉，可睡醒后并不像一般人那样精神振作，心情愉快；不过我也睡
了，总是在做噩梦，梦见那块墓地当中一会儿冒出一只手，一会儿冒出一只脚，
一会儿又冒出一个脑袋。我被惊醒，从床上爬起来，偷偷走到窗前望一望，弄清
并无此事才放心。然后我又躺下，就这样通宵忽睡忽醒，起来躺下足有20多次，
没完没了地做那个同样的梦。这真比睁着两眼躺在床上还要糟糕，因为噩梦把我
折磨得彻夜不能眼。有一次我竟以为那个孩子又活了，我压根儿就没想杀害他。
从那个梦境醒过来，真叫人痛苦不堪，难以忍受。
次日，我坐在窗前，目光从不离开那个地点，尽管上面已经覆盖了草皮，可
对我来说，那个坑的大小深度好像还敞着，暴露在光天化日之下似的。有时一个
佣人从那里走过，我真担心他会陷进那个坑里。等他走过去之后，我就会看看他
有没有把那个坑的边缘踩坏。一只小鸟落在那上面栖息，也吓得我胆战心惊，惟
恐它会啄来啄去，把下面的秘密暴露出来。一阵微风从那边吹来，我耳中便似乎
听见风声喃喃道出“谋杀”这个字眼。一点儿声响都叫我惊恐不安。我就这样看
守，苦苦熬过了3 天。
第四天，一个当年跟我一起在海外服役的朋友来看望我，还带来一位我从未
见过面的军官。可我的目光一直没法离开那个地点。那是一个初夏的傍晚，我就
叫佣人在花园里摆张桌子，拿瓶酒来款待他俩。我把自己那把椅子安置在那个墓
坑上面，然后坐下来，心里才觉得踏实多了，确信不会有人搅扰那里。我们一边
闲聊，一边喝酒。
他们问候我太太，希望这样冒昧来访没有惊扰她，没有把她吓跑。我只好支
支吾吾地把孩子丢失的事跟他俩讲了。那位我从未谋面的军官是个喜爱两眼盯视
地面的家伙，他的目光一直没抬起来。这一神态真把我吓坏了。我没法认为他没
看出什么破绽，没起什么疑心。我连忙问他是否认为——可又住口了。他温和地
望着我说：“您的意思是说那个孩子给害死了吗？哦，不会的！一个人杀死一个
可怜的小孩儿，又会得到什么好处呢？”我其实可以告诉他那人能获得再好不过
的好处哩，可我没吭声，吓得浑身直打哆嗦。
他俩误解了我那阵激动，安慰我那个孩子迟早会给找到的。可这是什么抚慰
啊！这当儿，我们忽然听到一阵犬吠声，两条大猎狗闯进了花园，一声接一声地
狂吠不止。
“大猎狗！”两位来客异口同声惊呼道。
这无须乎告诉我！我尽管一辈子没见过如此凶猛的猎狗，心里却一下子就明
白它们是干什么来的。我紧紧按着椅子扶手，既说不出话来。也动弹不了啦。
“是纯种猎狗咧，”我原来那位同事又添说道，“大概是给带出来训练的，
挣脱了主人！”
他俩转身望着那两条狗，它们朝地面嗅来嗅去，烦躁不安，窜前窜后，疯狂
地打转转，丝毫不理会我们，可一次又一次地吠叫，然后又朝地面嗅个不停，一
心在寻找什么。只见它们比刚才更仔细地嗅闻起来，尽管还很烦躁，却不再乱窜
乱转了，而是越来越近集中在我坐的那块地方闻来闻去。最后那两条猎狗终于闻
到我坐着的那把椅子的地点，抬起头来嚎叫。力图扯碎那把挡住它们嗅闻下面地
面的椅子。我从两位来客的神态中觉出自己暴露了惊慌失措的表情。
“它们嗅到了要找的猎物。”两人同时说。
“它们什么也没嗅到！”我喊道。
“看在上帝份上，快让开！”我那位朋友挺认真地说，“否则你就会让它们
撕扯成碎片啦！”
“那就让它们把我扯裂吧。我决不离开这块地方！”我喊道，“难道让狗把
人轰赶到丢脸的死亡那条路上去吗？轰开它们，打死它们！”
“这下面必定隐藏着什么不可告人的秘密！”那位陌生的军官一边说，一边
抽出宝剑。“以查理王的名义，帮我把这人拿下！”
尽管我像个疯子那样挣扎，又啃又咬，他们俩还是很快就把我制服了。接着，
我的老天！我看到那两条猎犬像淘水那样把那块土地刨开。
我还能再说什么呢？我跪倒在地，浑身发颤，忏悔地交代了我的全部罪行，
乞求饶恕。我曾经试图抵赖，现在终于低头认罪。我为此受到审判，并被处以极
刑。我失魂落魄，没有勇气像个男子汉那样面对我的末日，面对我的灭亡。我得
不到任何人的怜惜安慰，我既无赦免的希望，也无朋友。我妻子幸亏暂时失去了
知觉，并不知晓我的悲惨结局。我现在独自一人连带我的罪恶，给关在这个地牢
里，明天就要呜呼哀哉下地狱啦。
役回国了，住在伦敦东郊几公里外的一座小庄园里，那地方是我依仗妻子的名义
弄到的。
今天是我活命的最后一个夜晚，我要把真实情况毫不隐瞒地和盘托出。我压
根儿就不是个勇敢的男子汉，自幼生性乖僻多疑。我眼下在谈论自己，仿佛已经
离开人世似的，因为我在写这些的时候，别人正在给我挖坟坑，我的名字将会遗
臭万年。
我回到英国不久，我那惟一的亲兄长就患了不治之症。这事倒没给我带来多
少悲伤，因为我们俩长大后就很少来往。他心地善良，慷慨大度，相貌长得比我
好，也比我更有才华，深受人们的爱戴。我在国内外结交的朋友，一旦跟他相识
就疏远我了。一经初次交谈，他们就都会惊讶地发现我们兄弟俩在容貌和举止方
面竟会那么不同。我惯于引导他们做出这样公开的承认，因为我早就明白他们必
定会对我们兄弟俩做出什么样的评比；我心里很嫉妒，想方设法为自己做些辩解。
我们哥儿俩娶了一对姐妹。这种关系对别人来说肯定会使两家更加亲密，它
却使我们兄弟俩越发疏远了。我的嫂子对我的处世为人十分了解。当着她的面，
我从不敢露出自己暗中的嫉妒或不满情绪。在那种时刻，她总是瞪起两眼盯着我，
使我从不敢正视她一眼。我并没低头瞧着地或者掉过头去，可我觉得她总是在监
视我。后来我们两家闹翻了，从此断绝了来往，这倒使我松了口气。我在国外又
听说她去世的消息，心情更加舒畅了。可是现在我仍然觉得当初两家不和的阴影
好象还在古怪而可怕地笼罩着我们。我怕她；她就像鬼魂那样困扰着我，她那盯
视的目光眼下又出现了；我一回想起她，就像做噩梦一样，浑身的血都凝结起来。
她生下一个小男孩之后不久就死了。我哥哥后来也患了重病，自知不久于人
世，便把我妻子叫到床边，把那四岁的孩子托付给她照应。他把财产全都遗留给
孩子，并立下一份遗嘱，声明万一孩子先去世，那份遗产就转归我妻子所有，以
此作为对她抚养侄儿那份情意的报答。他对我也说了几句表示手足情意的话，然
后就睡着了，再也没醒过来。
我们夫妻俩膝下无儿无女。我妻子由于姐妹情谊深笃，几乎把一个做母亲的
爱心都给了那个孩子。孩子也爱她，就像是她的亲儿子似的，跟她有深挚的感情，
可他长得酷似他的母亲，也总不信任我。
闹不清从什么时候起，那孩子一出现在我面前就叫我感到不自在。我发现他
注视着我，眼神不仅带着稚气的困惑，还蕴含着他母亲当年对我的那种猜疑。这
并非是由于面貌表情的相似而使我产生的幻觉。他怕我，仿佛出自某种直觉似的。
我们俩单独在一起时，我一望着他，他就会倒退到门口去，与此同时又用他那双
亮晶晶的眼睛紧盯着我。
最初我也许自欺地隐瞒了真实的想法，可我并没想要伤害他。兴许想到他继
承的那份遗产要是属于我们，那该多好哇；兴许巴望他要是死掉，那该多好哇。
但是我自信决没想到要把他置于死地。这种邪念并非一下子就来到的，而是慢慢
形成的，随后我就对干坏事的畏惧淡化了。我每天都在琢磨那个念头，最终就只
想怎样干才最为保险，不再回避那种恶行了。
这档子事总在我脑子里盘旋。孩子发现我老是盯牢他而露出的那种纳闷神情
真叫我受不了，可我又是着了迷地把那事当作一件正经事来考虑。我心想把他这
么一个脆弱的小不点儿干掉该会是件多么轻而易举的事。我有时会上楼偷看他的
睡相，平时常躲在花园里靠近窗户的一棵树后面观望他坐在我妻子身旁的矮凳上
埋头学习知识。我就像个心怀鬼胎的贼那样一连几小时地偷觑，一片树叶的瑟瑟
声都会叫我心惊肉跳，可我还是忍不住要在那儿张望。
离我们那座小屋不远的地方有个不大为人所知的小池塘，不刮风的时候，谁
也听不到那边的水声。我花费好几天工夫用小刀刻了一只小木船，把它放在孩子
可以见到的地方。随后我便躲藏在一处等待；孩子要是想独自去池塘漂浮那个玩
艺儿，必定会打那里经过。可是那一天也好，次日也好，他都没去，我却从清晨
一直等待到日落。我坚信他早晚会落入我的罗网，因为我听见他在玩耍那个玩艺
儿，也看到他欢愉地把它放在枕边。我既不厌烦，也不疲累，只是耐心等待。第
三天，他果然兴高采烈地从我面前跑过去，那头金丝黄发飘荡着，嘴里哼着——
上帝饶恕我！——一首欢快的民歌，而他几乎还咬不准字眼呐！
我暗自跟随在他身后，在那些矮树丛后面匍匐而行，一个魁梧的大汉怀着天
晓得什么样邪恶的心情跟踪那个小不点儿，一直来到那个池塘边上。我靠近他，
弯下身子，正要伸起两臂把他推下水，他从水面上见到了我的身影，连忙转过头
来。他那目光显露出他去世的母亲那种猜疑的神情。阳光蓦地从云层后面冒出来，
照亮天空，照亮大地，照亮那一潭清水和树叶上的露珠。处处都有眼睛，整个宇
宙都在目睹这一谋杀的全过程。我闹不清孩子起先说了什么；他是个具有男子汉
血统的后裔，他虽是个小孩，却没有畏缩或乞求。他只喊叫着说他会尽量想法爱
我——可他过去并没做到这一点——接着我就看见他往家里跑。随后，我呆视着
自己手中那把剑，而他已经倒在我的脚前。除了身上有斑班血迹外，他几乎跟我
以前看到他睡熟了的时候一样——连姿势都相同，脑袋枕在他那小胳臂上。
我用双手把他抱起来——他已经咽气了——轻轻把他的尸体藏在草丛里。我
妻子那天不在家，要在次日才返回。我们卧室的那扇窗户离地面仅几英尺高，而
且房舍这一面只有那扇窗户。我决定深夜从窗户爬出来，把孩子埋在花园里。我
没想到我的计谋会失败，心想一切都不会被人发现。暂且不去动那笔钱，因为我
要尽量让人相信孩子要么是走丢了，要么是让人拐走了。我整个儿想法都集中在
怎样妥善地隐瞒自己的罪行这一点上。
仆人来告诉我孩子不见了，我就吩咐他们四下里去寻找；一有人挨近我，我
就浑身发抖，喘不过气来，那种心惊胆战的滋味儿真叫人没法儿形容。那天夜里，
我去埋葬孩子；我拨开树枝，朝草丛望去，只见那个孩子的尸体上有个闪亮的蠕
虫，就像个小精灵伏在那个被谋杀了的孩子身上闪闪发光。我把他放进坑里时，
还见到那个虫子在他胸前闪亮；那是一只仰望苍天的眼睛，在祈求星斗注意我所
干的坏事。
我得面对我的妻子，跟她说孩子失踪了，让她抱有很快就会找到孩子的希望。
我装出一副十分诚恳的样子这样做了，因为没人怀疑我。此后，我就整天坐在卧
室窗户前，呆望着那个可怕的秘密地点。
那是一块新近翻过、重铺草皮的土地，我挑选那里埋葬尸体，是因为这样就
使我的铁铲留下的痕迹不大可能被人发现。那些铺草皮的工人想必认为我疯了，
我一直不断催促他们加快干活儿，还跑出来跟他们一块儿干，用脚踩实那块地。
傍晚前，他们铺完了那片草地，我才觉得自己比较安全了。
我躺下睡觉，可睡醒后并不像一般人那样精神振作，心情愉快；不过我也睡
了，总是在做噩梦，梦见那块墓地当中一会儿冒出一只手，一会儿冒出一只脚，
一会儿又冒出一个脑袋。我被惊醒，从床上爬起来，偷偷走到窗前望一望，弄清
并无此事才放心。然后我又躺下，就这样通宵忽睡忽醒，起来躺下足有20多次，
没完没了地做那个同样的梦。这真比睁着两眼躺在床上还要糟糕，因为噩梦把我
折磨得彻夜不能眼。有一次我竟以为那个孩子又活了，我压根儿就没想杀害他。
从那个梦境醒过来，真叫人痛苦不堪，难以忍受。
次日，我坐在窗前，目光从不离开那个地点，尽管上面已经覆盖了草皮，可
对我来说，那个坑的大小深度好像还敞着，暴露在光天化日之下似的。有时一个
佣人从那里走过，我真担心他会陷进那个坑里。等他走过去之后，我就会看看他
有没有把那个坑的边缘踩坏。一只小鸟落在那上面栖息，也吓得我胆战心惊，惟
恐它会啄来啄去，把下面的秘密暴露出来。一阵微风从那边吹来，我耳中便似乎
听见风声喃喃道出“谋杀”这个字眼。一点儿声响都叫我惊恐不安。我就这样看
守，苦苦熬过了3 天。
第四天，一个当年跟我一起在海外服役的朋友来看望我，还带来一位我从未
见过面的军官。可我的目光一直没法离开那个地点。那是一个初夏的傍晚，我就
叫佣人在花园里摆张桌子，拿瓶酒来款待他俩。我把自己那把椅子安置在那个墓
坑上面，然后坐下来，心里才觉得踏实多了，确信不会有人搅扰那里。我们一边
闲聊，一边喝酒。
他们问候我太太，希望这样冒昧来访没有惊扰她，没有把她吓跑。我只好支
支吾吾地把孩子丢失的事跟他俩讲了。那位我从未谋面的军官是个喜爱两眼盯视
地面的家伙，他的目光一直没抬起来。这一神态真把我吓坏了。我没法认为他没
看出什么破绽，没起什么疑心。我连忙问他是否认为——可又住口了。他温和地
望着我说：“您的意思是说那个孩子给害死了吗？哦，不会的！一个人杀死一个
可怜的小孩儿，又会得到什么好处呢？”我其实可以告诉他那人能获得再好不过
的好处哩，可我没吭声，吓得浑身直打哆嗦。
他俩误解了我那阵激动，安慰我那个孩子迟早会给找到的。可这是什么抚慰
啊！这当儿，我们忽然听到一阵犬吠声，两条大猎狗闯进了花园，一声接一声地
狂吠不止。
“大猎狗！”两位来客异口同声惊呼道。
这无须乎告诉我！我尽管一辈子没见过如此凶猛的猎狗，心里却一下子就明
白它们是干什么来的。我紧紧按着椅子扶手，既说不出话来。也动弹不了啦。
“是纯种猎狗咧，”我原来那位同事又添说道，“大概是给带出来训练的，
挣脱了主人！”
他俩转身望着那两条狗，它们朝地面嗅来嗅去，烦躁不安，窜前窜后，疯狂
地打转转，丝毫不理会我们，可一次又一次地吠叫，然后又朝地面嗅个不停，一
心在寻找什么。只见它们比刚才更仔细地嗅闻起来，尽管还很烦躁，却不再乱窜
乱转了，而是越来越近集中在我坐的那块地方闻来闻去。最后那两条猎狗终于闻
到我坐着的那把椅子的地点，抬起头来嚎叫。力图扯碎那把挡住它们嗅闻下面地
面的椅子。我从两位来客的神态中觉出自己暴露了惊慌失措的表情。
“它们嗅到了要找的猎物。”两人同时说。
“它们什么也没嗅到！”我喊道。
“看在上帝份上，快让开！”我那位朋友挺认真地说，“否则你就会让它们
撕扯成碎片啦！”
“那就让它们把我扯裂吧。我决不离开这块地方！”我喊道，“难道让狗把
人轰赶到丢脸的死亡那条路上去吗？轰开它们，打死它们！”
“这下面必定隐藏着什么不可告人的秘密！”那位陌生的军官一边说，一边
抽出宝剑。“以查理王的名义，帮我把这人拿下！”
尽管我像个疯子那样挣扎，又啃又咬，他们俩还是很快就把我制服了。接着，
我的老天！我看到那两条猎犬像淘水那样把那块土地刨开。
我还能再说什么呢？我跪倒在地，浑身发颤，忏悔地交代了我的全部罪行，
乞求饶恕。我曾经试图抵赖，现在终于低头认罪。我为此受到审判，并被处以极
刑。我失魂落魄，没有勇气像个男子汉那样面对我的末日，面对我的灭亡。我得
不到任何人的怜惜安慰，我既无赦免的希望，也无朋友。我妻子幸亏暂时失去了
知觉，并不知晓我的悲惨结局。我现在独自一人连带我的罪恶，给关在这个地牢
里，明天就要呜呼哀哉下地狱啦。