"Mandarin" is the earliest works on the history of a country. Lu Zhou royal family and the records, Qi, Jin, Zheng, Chu, Wu, Yue and other vassal state history. The years since King Mu of Zhou (formerly 990) expedition Quanrong (about 947 years ago), were destroyed down to the Zhi Bo (formerly 453).
【Title】
Evaluation】 【
Mandarin in a strong ethical content tend to carry forward the spirit of Germany, respected ritual norms, that "gift" is to govern. And very prominent loyalist thought.
Mandarin more progressive political outlook, oppose tyranny and corruption, public opinion and talent, with a heavy thought of the people.
Mandarin records the Spring and Autumn Period of the economic, financial, military, military science, diplomacy, education, law, marriage and other content, the study of the history of the Qin Dynasty is very important.
References】 【Research
• Xuean Qin, Lian-Sheng Wang, "Mandarin Annotation", Jilin Literature and History Press, 1991 ISBN 780626138
• Dong Li Zhang, "Analysis of Mandarin Annotation", Jinan University Press, 1993
2, the Chinese name of a voice system
Before the establishment of the PRC in 1949 introduced the Beijing dialect as the common language of the movement of Han nationality. It proposed "Genbunitchi" and the "national language unification," the two slogans. "Genbunitchi" is not written in ancient classical Chinese, use modern vernacular. "Mandarin reunification" is a modern vernacular to the Beijing dialect of Mandarin as the national general. The campaign for the modern Chinese nation to establish and implement a common language for writing style and spelling of the reform, there is some contribution.
After】 【generated
As a result of the impact of the Meiji Restoration in Japan, after decades in the late Qing Dynasty to the problem have been proposed unified national language. The earliest reference to "national language" of this name, was appointed as the Imperial instructors of the classical masters Tongcheng lun. In 1902 he went to Japan to study political science, see the implementation of Mandarin in Japan (Tokyo words) the results, deeply moved, after returning home wrote to the Minister Zhang Baixi management science, and holds teaching Mandarin king chorus according to the letter, the implementation of " If Beijing "(Beijing dialect) as the standard Mandarin. In 1909, the Qing government advisory council meeting, Mr Qian Jiang made the "official words" Name of "national language", a "Mandarin Code Review Committee", responsible for compiling the research matters. 1911 Division held a "meeting of the Central Education", through "the case of a unified national language approach", the resolution established national language survey in the capital Federation, the provinces _set_ up branches, the words, syntax, phonology investigation, validation "national language" standards, edit Mandarin textbooks Mandarin and other dialects table. After the founding of the Republic in 1912, held a "temporary educational conference", decided to start with the pronunciation of Chinese characters start with a unified, held a "unity of pronunciation will be." 1913, "the pronunciation of unity would" meet agreed national pronunciation of Chinese characters (ie the "National Music") and cut the country sounds of the letters spell "phonetic alphabet" (also known as the "National accented letters"). Agreed later, the Northern Government has been not published. Then in 1916, Beijing, the education sector organization "national language of the Republic of China will" (referred to as "Mandarin Research") _set_ off a press release phonetic alphabet and the Northern Government to change school "Chinese" subjects as the "national language" Section of movement.
Research tasks will require a 5: ① provincial dialect survey; ② standard language _select_ion; ③ Grammatical Dictionary of editorial standards; ④ national school with a standard language editing textbooks and reference books; ⑤ edit Mandarin publications. Made the school's "Chinese" textbook was renamed the "national language" textbook. Movement around the education sector received a response. Mandarin Research Council increased to 12,000 members in more than 4 years. Northern Government in 1918, the Ministry of Education held a "meeting of the National Teachers president," the decision attached at the National Higher Education Teachers "workshop Mandarin Branch", designed to teach phonetic alphabet and Mandarin, and in November announced the "phonetic alphabet." In the same year, the "New Youth" and other publications put forward the "Literary Revolution" slogan, starting with the vernacular writing. 1919 "May Fourth" movement broke out, under the impetus of this movement, the Northern Government's implementation of the Ministry of Education _set_ up a government agency "unified national language preparatory" and instructions to change the national schools across the country, "Chinese" subjects as the "national language" Section. At the same time, also issued an order to modify the original "National School Order", provides the first Professor of phonetic alphabet, reform the style of textbooks and teaching methods, so that National Language Movement in schools has been initially successful.
【"National language" of the implementation】
"May Fourth Movement" after the Language Movement into the implementation period. Main task is to amend the phonetic alphabet programs, development of French Mandarin Romanization, adjust the "national voice" standard, and expand the education and application of Mandarin, as well as publishing, publicity and so on.
Closely related to language and ethnic groups in Taiwan. The points system by popular people in Taiwan can be divided into 4 major groups, which account for about 74% of Taiwanese, Hakka, about 12%, and mainlanders, about 13%, indigenous 1% or so. Taiwanese people to the Minnan dialect is the mother tongue to Hakka-speaking Hakka, and mainlanders to the "national language" as the mother tongue. Divided into 11 indigenous ethnic groups were different aboriginal languages, and use them as a mother tongue.
Minnan dialect is authentic in the Central Plains as the old saying. From the late Han to Tang Military Rebellion, one after another along the Yellow River in the Central Plains of migration to the south, to the southeast coast of the Luo as the old saying; number of immigrants from the mainland through the Ming and Qing Dynasties Strait to Taiwan again this language, so Taiwanese then also known as "Hokkien." Later, Taiwan's Minnan dialect evolved, "Tainan cavity", "Taipei cavity" and "Ilan cavity", of which the "Tainan chamber" the most representative.
In addition to the above language, the language has a certain status in Taiwan. Who had secondary or higher education will speak some English. In the foreign academic, business and tourism areas, English is the lingua franca. Today the people of Taiwan over the age of 70 will generally say something in Japanese. A lot from the Philippines, Indonesia and Vietnam, use of foreign workers in their own language.
【Title】
Evaluation】 【
Mandarin in a strong ethical content tend to carry forward the spirit of Germany, respected ritual norms, that "gift" is to govern. And very prominent loyalist thought.
Mandarin more progressive political outlook, oppose tyranny and corruption, public opinion and talent, with a heavy thought of the people.
Mandarin records the Spring and Autumn Period of the economic, financial, military, military science, diplomacy, education, law, marriage and other content, the study of the history of the Qin Dynasty is very important.
References】 【Research
• Xuean Qin, Lian-Sheng Wang, "Mandarin Annotation", Jilin Literature and History Press, 1991 ISBN 780626138
• Dong Li Zhang, "Analysis of Mandarin Annotation", Jinan University Press, 1993
2, the Chinese name of a voice system
Before the establishment of the PRC in 1949 introduced the Beijing dialect as the common language of the movement of Han nationality. It proposed "Genbunitchi" and the "national language unification," the two slogans. "Genbunitchi" is not written in ancient classical Chinese, use modern vernacular. "Mandarin reunification" is a modern vernacular to the Beijing dialect of Mandarin as the national general. The campaign for the modern Chinese nation to establish and implement a common language for writing style and spelling of the reform, there is some contribution.
After】 【generated
As a result of the impact of the Meiji Restoration in Japan, after decades in the late Qing Dynasty to the problem have been proposed unified national language. The earliest reference to "national language" of this name, was appointed as the Imperial instructors of the classical masters Tongcheng lun. In 1902 he went to Japan to study political science, see the implementation of Mandarin in Japan (Tokyo words) the results, deeply moved, after returning home wrote to the Minister Zhang Baixi management science, and holds teaching Mandarin king chorus according to the letter, the implementation of " If Beijing "(Beijing dialect) as the standard Mandarin. In 1909, the Qing government advisory council meeting, Mr Qian Jiang made the "official words" Name of "national language", a "Mandarin Code Review Committee", responsible for compiling the research matters. 1911 Division held a "meeting of the Central Education", through "the case of a unified national language approach", the resolution established national language survey in the capital Federation, the provinces _set_ up branches, the words, syntax, phonology investigation, validation "national language" standards, edit Mandarin textbooks Mandarin and other dialects table. After the founding of the Republic in 1912, held a "temporary educational conference", decided to start with the pronunciation of Chinese characters start with a unified, held a "unity of pronunciation will be." 1913, "the pronunciation of unity would" meet agreed national pronunciation of Chinese characters (ie the "National Music") and cut the country sounds of the letters spell "phonetic alphabet" (also known as the "National accented letters"). Agreed later, the Northern Government has been not published. Then in 1916, Beijing, the education sector organization "national language of the Republic of China will" (referred to as "Mandarin Research") _set_ off a press release phonetic alphabet and the Northern Government to change school "Chinese" subjects as the "national language" Section of movement.
Research tasks will require a 5: ① provincial dialect survey; ② standard language _select_ion; ③ Grammatical Dictionary of editorial standards; ④ national school with a standard language editing textbooks and reference books; ⑤ edit Mandarin publications. Made the school's "Chinese" textbook was renamed the "national language" textbook. Movement around the education sector received a response. Mandarin Research Council increased to 12,000 members in more than 4 years. Northern Government in 1918, the Ministry of Education held a "meeting of the National Teachers president," the decision attached at the National Higher Education Teachers "workshop Mandarin Branch", designed to teach phonetic alphabet and Mandarin, and in November announced the "phonetic alphabet." In the same year, the "New Youth" and other publications put forward the "Literary Revolution" slogan, starting with the vernacular writing. 1919 "May Fourth" movement broke out, under the impetus of this movement, the Northern Government's implementation of the Ministry of Education _set_ up a government agency "unified national language preparatory" and instructions to change the national schools across the country, "Chinese" subjects as the "national language" Section. At the same time, also issued an order to modify the original "National School Order", provides the first Professor of phonetic alphabet, reform the style of textbooks and teaching methods, so that National Language Movement in schools has been initially successful.
【"National language" of the implementation】
"May Fourth Movement" after the Language Movement into the implementation period. Main task is to amend the phonetic alphabet programs, development of French Mandarin Romanization, adjust the "national voice" standard, and expand the education and application of Mandarin, as well as publishing, publicity and so on.
Closely related to language and ethnic groups in Taiwan. The points system by popular people in Taiwan can be divided into 4 major groups, which account for about 74% of Taiwanese, Hakka, about 12%, and mainlanders, about 13%, indigenous 1% or so. Taiwanese people to the Minnan dialect is the mother tongue to Hakka-speaking Hakka, and mainlanders to the "national language" as the mother tongue. Divided into 11 indigenous ethnic groups were different aboriginal languages, and use them as a mother tongue.
Minnan dialect is authentic in the Central Plains as the old saying. From the late Han to Tang Military Rebellion, one after another along the Yellow River in the Central Plains of migration to the south, to the southeast coast of the Luo as the old saying; number of immigrants from the mainland through the Ming and Qing Dynasties Strait to Taiwan again this language, so Taiwanese then also known as "Hokkien." Later, Taiwan's Minnan dialect evolved, "Tainan cavity", "Taipei cavity" and "Ilan cavity", of which the "Tainan chamber" the most representative.
In addition to the above language, the language has a certain status in Taiwan. Who had secondary or higher education will speak some English. In the foreign academic, business and tourism areas, English is the lingua franca. Today the people of Taiwan over the age of 70 will generally say something in Japanese. A lot from the Philippines, Indonesia and Vietnam, use of foreign workers in their own language.
Translated by Google
《左传》后人将它配合《春秋》作为解经之书，称《春秋左氏传》，简称《左传》。
它与《春秋公羊传》、《春秋谷梁传》合称“春秋三传”。《左传》实质上是一部独立撰写的史书。《左传》的作者，司马迁和班固都说是左丘明，现在一般人认为是战国初年之人所作。
《左传》原名《左氏春秋传》，又称《春秋左氏传》,或者称《左氏春秋》，是一部史学名著和文学名著，是我国现存第一部叙事详细的编年体史书（最早的编年体史书为《春秋》，最大的编年体史书为《资治通鉴》，所以《左传》只能说是最早的详细的编年体史书）。旧时相传是春秋末年左丘明为解释孔子的《春秋》而作。它起自鲁隐公元年（前722年），迄于鲁悼公四年（前464年），以《春秋》为本，通过记述春秋时期的具体史实来说明《春秋》的纲目，是儒家重要经典之一。西汉时称之为《左氏春秋》，东汉以后改称《春秋左氏传》，简称《左传》。它与《公羊传》、《谷梁传》合称“春秋三传”。
《左传》作者
无名氏的作品。其记事年代大体与《春秋》相当，只是后面多十七年。与《春秋》的大纲形式不同，《左传》
相当系统而具体地记述了这一时期各国的政治、军事、外交等方面的重大事件。
《左传》的作者，至今都是未解之谜。西汉史学家司马迁、班固等人都认为《左传》是左丘明所写。司马迁《史记•十二诸侯年表》说：“鲁君子左丘明惧弟子人人异端，各安其意，失其真，故因孔子史记具论其语，成左氏春秋。”唐朝的赵匡首先怀疑《左传》不是左丘明所作。此后，有许多学者也持怀疑态度。叶梦得认为作者为战国时人；郑樵《六经奥论》认为是战国时的楚人；朱熹认为是楚左史倚相之后；项安世认为是魏人所作；程端学认为是伪书。清朝的纪昀在《四库全书总目》中却仍然认为是左丘明所著。清末康有为断言它是西汉末刘歆伪造。但在刘歆以前《左传》已被许多人抄撮或征引过，故康氏之说也难成立。今人童书业则认为是吴起所作，赵光贤认为是战国时鲁国人左氏所作。当代学者多认为是战国初年人所作。据杨伯峻考证，大约作于公元前403～前386年之间。
《左传》的思想
《左传》有鲜明的政治与道德倾向。其观念较接近于儒家，强调等级秩序与宗法伦理，重视长幼尊卑之别，同时也表现出“民本”思想。可以看出这是春秋战国时代一种重要的思想进步。作者要求担负有领导国家责任的统治者，不可逞一己之私欲，而要从整个统治集团和他们所拥有的国家的长远利益考虑问题，这些地方都反映出儒家的政治理想左传》虽不是文学著作，但从广义上看，仍可说是中国第一部大规模的叙事性作品。比较以前任何一种著作，它的叙事能力表现出惊人的发展。许多头绪纷杂、变化多端的历史大事件，都能处理得有条不紊，繁而不乱。其中关于战争的描写，尤其写得出色。作者善于将每一战役都放在大国争霸的背景下展开，对于战争的远因近因，各国关系的组合变化，战前策划，交锋过程，战争影响，以简练而不乏文采的文笔，且行文精炼、严密而有力。这种叙事能力，无论对后来的历史著作还是文学著作，都是具有极重要意义的。且注重故事的生动有趣，常常以较为细致生动的情节，表现人物的形象。《左传》对后世的《战国策》《史记》的写作风格产生很大影响，形成文史结合的传统。
《左传》的内容
《左传》是记录春秋时期社会状况的重要典籍。取材范围包括了王室档案，鲁史策书，诸侯国史等。记事基本以《春秋》鲁十二公为次序，内容包括诸侯国之间的聘问、会盟、征伐、婚丧、篡弑等，对后世史学文学都有重要影响。主要记录了周王室的衰微，诸侯争霸的历史，对各类礼仪规范、典章制度、社会风俗、民族关系、道德观念、天文地理、历法时令、古代文献、神话传说、歌谣言语均有记述和评论。晋范宁评"春秋三传"的特色说：“《左氏》艳而富，其失也巫（指多叙鬼神之事）。《谷梁》清而婉，其失也短。《公羊》辩而裁，其失也俗。”
《左传》是研究先秦历史和春秋时期历史的重要文献，它代表了先秦史学的最高成就，对后世的史学产生了很大影响，特别是对确立编年体史书的地位起了很大作用。它补充并丰富了《春秋》的内容，不但记鲁国一国的史实，而且还兼记各国历史；不但记政治大事，还广泛涉及社会各个领域的“小事”；一改《春秋》流水账式的记史方法，代之以有系统、有组织的史书编纂方法；不但记春秋时史实，而且引征了许多古代史实。这就大大提高了《左传》的史料价值。
由于《左传》具有强烈的儒家思想倾向，强调等级秩序与宗法伦理，重视长幼尊卑之别，同时也表现出“民本”思想，因此也是研究先秦儒家思想的重要历史资料。《左传》本不是儒家经典，但自从它立于学官，后来又附在《春秋》之后，就逐渐被儒者当成经典。《左传》受到学界重视是在魏晋时期，先后有郑玄、杜预为其作注解，以后成为研究《春秋》的重要典籍。《左传》在史学中的地位被评论为继《尚书》、《春秋》之后，开《史记》、《汉书》之先河的重要典籍。
《左传》不仅是历史著作，也是一部非常优秀的文学著作。它表现在：长于记述战争，故有人称之为“相砍书”；又善于刻画人物，重视记录辞令。
《左传》的体例
按照鲁国十二公的顺序，记录了当事各方面的历史，共18万字。
1.隐公11年（公元前722年——前712年）
2.桓公18年（公元前711年——前694年）
3.庄公32年（公元前693年——前662年）
4.闵公2年（公元前661年——前660年）
5.僖公33年（公元前659年——前627年）
6.文公18年（公元前626年——前609年）
7.宣公18年（公元前608年——前591年）
8.成公18年（公元前590年——前573年）
9.襄公31年（公元前572年——前542年）
10.昭公32年（公元前541年——前510年）
11.定公15年（公元前509年——前495年）
12.哀公27年（公元前494年——前468年）
13.书末附悼公4年及智伯灭亡
《左传》的文学色彩
《左传》虽是历史著作，但与《尚书》《春秋》的有所不同，它“情韵并美，文彩照耀”，是先秦时期最具文学色彩的历史散文。
第一，文学性的剪裁和历史时间的故事情节化。
第二，刻画人物性格神形毕现，有立体感。
第三，生动的场面描写和传神的细节描写。
第四，擅长叙写外交辞令，理富文美。
《左传》的后人注释
《春秋左传正义》，晋杜预注，唐孔颖达正义。
《春秋左传诂》，清洪亮吉撰。
《春秋左氏传旧注疏证》，清刘文淇等撰。
《春秋左传注》，杨伯峻撰。
它与《春秋公羊传》、《春秋谷梁传》合称“春秋三传”。《左传》实质上是一部独立撰写的史书。《左传》的作者，司马迁和班固都说是左丘明，现在一般人认为是战国初年之人所作。
《左传》原名《左氏春秋传》，又称《春秋左氏传》,或者称《左氏春秋》，是一部史学名著和文学名著，是我国现存第一部叙事详细的编年体史书（最早的编年体史书为《春秋》，最大的编年体史书为《资治通鉴》，所以《左传》只能说是最早的详细的编年体史书）。旧时相传是春秋末年左丘明为解释孔子的《春秋》而作。它起自鲁隐公元年（前722年），迄于鲁悼公四年（前464年），以《春秋》为本，通过记述春秋时期的具体史实来说明《春秋》的纲目，是儒家重要经典之一。西汉时称之为《左氏春秋》，东汉以后改称《春秋左氏传》，简称《左传》。它与《公羊传》、《谷梁传》合称“春秋三传”。
《左传》作者
无名氏的作品。其记事年代大体与《春秋》相当，只是后面多十七年。与《春秋》的大纲形式不同，《左传》
相当系统而具体地记述了这一时期各国的政治、军事、外交等方面的重大事件。
《左传》的作者，至今都是未解之谜。西汉史学家司马迁、班固等人都认为《左传》是左丘明所写。司马迁《史记•十二诸侯年表》说：“鲁君子左丘明惧弟子人人异端，各安其意，失其真，故因孔子史记具论其语，成左氏春秋。”唐朝的赵匡首先怀疑《左传》不是左丘明所作。此后，有许多学者也持怀疑态度。叶梦得认为作者为战国时人；郑樵《六经奥论》认为是战国时的楚人；朱熹认为是楚左史倚相之后；项安世认为是魏人所作；程端学认为是伪书。清朝的纪昀在《四库全书总目》中却仍然认为是左丘明所著。清末康有为断言它是西汉末刘歆伪造。但在刘歆以前《左传》已被许多人抄撮或征引过，故康氏之说也难成立。今人童书业则认为是吴起所作，赵光贤认为是战国时鲁国人左氏所作。当代学者多认为是战国初年人所作。据杨伯峻考证，大约作于公元前403～前386年之间。
《左传》的思想
《左传》有鲜明的政治与道德倾向。其观念较接近于儒家，强调等级秩序与宗法伦理，重视长幼尊卑之别，同时也表现出“民本”思想。可以看出这是春秋战国时代一种重要的思想进步。作者要求担负有领导国家责任的统治者，不可逞一己之私欲，而要从整个统治集团和他们所拥有的国家的长远利益考虑问题，这些地方都反映出儒家的政治理想左传》虽不是文学著作，但从广义上看，仍可说是中国第一部大规模的叙事性作品。比较以前任何一种著作，它的叙事能力表现出惊人的发展。许多头绪纷杂、变化多端的历史大事件，都能处理得有条不紊，繁而不乱。其中关于战争的描写，尤其写得出色。作者善于将每一战役都放在大国争霸的背景下展开，对于战争的远因近因，各国关系的组合变化，战前策划，交锋过程，战争影响，以简练而不乏文采的文笔，且行文精炼、严密而有力。这种叙事能力，无论对后来的历史著作还是文学著作，都是具有极重要意义的。且注重故事的生动有趣，常常以较为细致生动的情节，表现人物的形象。《左传》对后世的《战国策》《史记》的写作风格产生很大影响，形成文史结合的传统。
《左传》的内容
《左传》是记录春秋时期社会状况的重要典籍。取材范围包括了王室档案，鲁史策书，诸侯国史等。记事基本以《春秋》鲁十二公为次序，内容包括诸侯国之间的聘问、会盟、征伐、婚丧、篡弑等，对后世史学文学都有重要影响。主要记录了周王室的衰微，诸侯争霸的历史，对各类礼仪规范、典章制度、社会风俗、民族关系、道德观念、天文地理、历法时令、古代文献、神话传说、歌谣言语均有记述和评论。晋范宁评"春秋三传"的特色说：“《左氏》艳而富，其失也巫（指多叙鬼神之事）。《谷梁》清而婉，其失也短。《公羊》辩而裁，其失也俗。”
《左传》是研究先秦历史和春秋时期历史的重要文献，它代表了先秦史学的最高成就，对后世的史学产生了很大影响，特别是对确立编年体史书的地位起了很大作用。它补充并丰富了《春秋》的内容，不但记鲁国一国的史实，而且还兼记各国历史；不但记政治大事，还广泛涉及社会各个领域的“小事”；一改《春秋》流水账式的记史方法，代之以有系统、有组织的史书编纂方法；不但记春秋时史实，而且引征了许多古代史实。这就大大提高了《左传》的史料价值。
由于《左传》具有强烈的儒家思想倾向，强调等级秩序与宗法伦理，重视长幼尊卑之别，同时也表现出“民本”思想，因此也是研究先秦儒家思想的重要历史资料。《左传》本不是儒家经典，但自从它立于学官，后来又附在《春秋》之后，就逐渐被儒者当成经典。《左传》受到学界重视是在魏晋时期，先后有郑玄、杜预为其作注解，以后成为研究《春秋》的重要典籍。《左传》在史学中的地位被评论为继《尚书》、《春秋》之后，开《史记》、《汉书》之先河的重要典籍。
《左传》不仅是历史著作，也是一部非常优秀的文学著作。它表现在：长于记述战争，故有人称之为“相砍书”；又善于刻画人物，重视记录辞令。
《左传》的体例
按照鲁国十二公的顺序，记录了当事各方面的历史，共18万字。
1.隐公11年（公元前722年——前712年）
2.桓公18年（公元前711年——前694年）
3.庄公32年（公元前693年——前662年）
4.闵公2年（公元前661年——前660年）
5.僖公33年（公元前659年——前627年）
6.文公18年（公元前626年——前609年）
7.宣公18年（公元前608年——前591年）
8.成公18年（公元前590年——前573年）
9.襄公31年（公元前572年——前542年）
10.昭公32年（公元前541年——前510年）
11.定公15年（公元前509年——前495年）
12.哀公27年（公元前494年——前468年）
13.书末附悼公4年及智伯灭亡
《左传》的文学色彩
《左传》虽是历史著作，但与《尚书》《春秋》的有所不同，它“情韵并美，文彩照耀”，是先秦时期最具文学色彩的历史散文。
第一，文学性的剪裁和历史时间的故事情节化。
第二，刻画人物性格神形毕现，有立体感。
第三，生动的场面描写和传神的细节描写。
第四，擅长叙写外交辞令，理富文美。
《左传》的后人注释
《春秋左传正义》，晋杜预注，唐孔颖达正义。
《春秋左传诂》，清洪亮吉撰。
《春秋左氏传旧注疏证》，清刘文淇等撰。
《春秋左传注》，杨伯峻撰。