shǒuyè>> wénxué>>shè huì xué
  běn shū shǒu xiān jiè shào liǎo guān guān de wéi de yán jiūzhè shì běn shū de xīnjiē xià lái xiáng tǎo lùn guān zhè zhǒng xiàn xiàng zài xīn xué shè huì xué zhōng shì bèi duì dài deshū zhōng chū liǎo wǎng de nán rén rén xíng luò denèi jiù de rén xíng xíng chéng duì zuò zhě zài suí hòu zhāng jié zhōng zhú jiè shào měi wéi měi zhāng zhěng liǎo xiē xiāng guān de yán jiū lùnbāo kuò zhè wéi zài rén men de shēng huó zhōng shì bèi biǎo chū lái dezài běn shū jié wěizuò zhě tàn suǒ liǎo nán zài jiàn guān jìng fāng miàn de chā bìng yòng guān 'ài de zhěng xìng zhāng jié lái jié shù quán shū
   zài běn shū zhōngzhū lín · qiáo sài 'ěr sēn shì jǐn jiù gǎi shàn hūn yīn guān huò làng màn liàn gěi chū liǎo yòu de jiàn hái chū liǎo zài qíng gǎn shàng duì rén jiàn jǐn lián fēi cháng zhòng yào de wéi guān xíng:、 bào chí liàn qíng yàntǎn chéng xiāng jiàn díquè rèn xiǎng huà rèn tónggòng tóng xìng gòng míngqiàn zhào liào
   běn shū
   fēi cháng zhòng shì rén zhī jiān xiāng de lián gòng shēng gòng cún
   duì xìng de xīn shì jiè jìn xíng liǎo fēi cháng de tàn suǒyán jiū fēn
   shū zhōng suǒ yòu de 'àn dōulái shí shēng huózuò zhě xué shēng duì 67 jīng tóngshēng huó de rén jìn xíng liǎo xiàn chǎng fǎng tán xiē shòu fǎng zhě zài shēn fǎng tán zhōng qīng chū hěn duō men cóng wèi duì rén jiǎng shù huò nán duì rén jiǎng shù de wǎng shì qíng gǎndàn què lìng rén nán zhì xìn hěn rán dōuduì zuò zhětǎn báiliǎo
xiǎo shì héng héng jué dìng wèi lái biàn de qián cáng liàng
· pèi 'ēn Mark - Payneyuèdòu
   quán xīn de shì jiǎo pōu dāng xià shēng huó de lìng rén zhèn hàn zhī zuò。《 niǔ yuē shí bàochēng: " duì jiē shì yǎn cáng zài zhè shí dài bèi hòu de shè huì zhēn xiāng 'ér yán,《 xiǎo shì shì wán měi de shèng jīng。 " tuō dewèi lái de chōng nài de shìxiāng ,《 xiǎo shìshì xīn shì shāng shè huì yán zhōng zuì dēng de huà
  sān huìhēi shǒu dǎng jiàogòng huì lóu huìguāng míng huìhuán shān yǐn xiū huìshèng diàn shì tuánguāng míng huìgòng huì jiàonuò jiàoméi guī shí huì cóng zhōng dōng zhì de dào liú làng 'ér láihòu dào jiā kuí běi xiāng cūn zuò shì jué de nóng shèzài dào měi guó bèi shān rén tóu cuán dòng de jīng pǐn xiǎo diànyuē hàn láo lún léi nuò shì wèi shàn jiǎng shì de shī zuò jiābìng duō huò guò jiǎng xiàng shěn shì liǎo shǐ shàng zuì wéi rén zhī de tuán tàn jiū men de lái lóng mài huó dòng guò chéngjiē shì liǎo bǎi nián lái zhí bèi rén men chuán chéng bìng jiě de
qúnméng zhī qún rèn tóng zhèng zhì biàn qiān
luó · luó shēng Harold R.Isaacsyuèdòu
  běn shū cóng luò 'ǒu xiàngshēn míng yánzōng jiàomín shǐ yuánxīn duō yuán zhù 8 zhǒng jiǎo tàn tǎo qún rèn tóng zài zhèng zhì biàn qiān xià de zàoduì mín zhù fāng xīng wèi 'àizhōng jiāng gǎi biàn shì jiè de zhèng zhì miàn màoshuài xiān chū jǐng xùnzuò zhě fǎn huí yuán tóucóng rén xìng de běn miànkǎo chá qún rèn tóng de zhǒng yīn tóng de fāng shìzài tóng de huán jìngjiū chán niǔ jié zhì men de xíng tài biàn chéng jīn tiān zhè yàng
quán shìguān zǎi zhé xué de liú
bǎi yáng Bai Yangyuèdòu
   xiàn dài huà de guó jiā shè huìjiàn zài rén mín duì zhì de xìn niàn shàngbào zhī zhǐ shìrén zhìshè huì cái yòu de chǎn yuàn hǎo xiàng yán ,( zhù shì guān xiàng yán jīng yòu jǐng chá xiān shēng dāng men xiǎo mín de diē guān xiān shēng zài chū lái dāng diēzěn me shòu liǎo ?) xiǎo mín nèi xīn yòu zhǒng xìn niàn jiù shìrén shì jiān yòu zuì gāo de tiān chèng zhū zhòushén xiān mìnghuì jiù dào gōng zhèng de cái pànxiǎng dāng nián huáng fěi liè zài tǎn gōng hòu miànxiū jiàn huā yuánjiù zài dōng nán jiǎo shàngyòu yòu làn de fáng zài yān guǒ chú diào dàn huā yuán chéng liǎo fāng fāng deér qiě jīn huī huáng de tíng tái lóu duì jiǎn zhí chéng tǒng
duì huàzhōng guó shè huì zhuǎn xíng zhōng de jiāo diǎn wèn
míng Yi Mingyuèdòu
  zuò zhě: CCTV《 duì huàlán
   liáoshè bǎojiào jiù xīn nóng cūn GDP, zhī shí chǎn quán hǎi wài juélìshénme shì rén mín qún zhòng zuì guān xīnzuì zhí jiēzuì xiàn shí de wèn zhè deduì huàjié wéi nín kāi liǎo zhè xiē wèn hào。《 duì huàjiān chí shí jìn chéng wéi duì shè huì rèn yòu suǒ chéng dānduì mín mìng yùn yòu suǒ dān dāng de jīng shén diàn táng men néng zhè xiē nán wàng de huí juān zài zhè běn shū yīn wéi men shǐ zhōng juéjiàng xiāng xìnduì huàduì biàn huà zhōng de zhōng guó lái shuō jiù shì xīn líng de shǐ shī
gǎi biàn qióng rén quē shénme
Gu Guyuèdòu
  bāng zhù qióng rén jǐn jǐn shì sòng diǎn kǒu liáng yuǎn yuǎn gòuyào shí xiàn chí zhǎngèng yào jīng shén shí liángbìng qiě shì men zhuǎn biàn guān niàn de jīng shén shí liángqióng rén tiān shēng hǎo wèi kǒucóng rèn xīn de shí yīn 'ér zhè běn zhí miàn xiàn shí zhēn jiàn xuèqiāo xǐng qióng rén de shūnéng dào guǎng fàn de 'ài bāo róngzhè shì shí dài de jìn ……
píng mín shì jiǎo guān zhùqióng rén quē shénme
Gu Guyuèdòu
  běn shū fēn liǎo shè huì cái de chuàng zào fēn pèi fāng shìzhǐ chū pín jūn shì zhǒng guān xiàn shíshì zhǒng rán de shè huì shǐ xiàn xiàngzài chǔ shàngcóng shè huì huán jìng rén zhì děng fāng miàn shǒuzhǐ chū liǎo qióng rén de jiān nán chǔjìngfēn liǎo qióng rén wèishénme qióng de yuán yīnràng qióng rén rèn qīng de xiàn zhuàngzhǎo dào bǎi tuō mìng yùn de jìngběn shū hái fēn liǎo qióng rén rén de yōu shì fán nǎoràng qióng rén kàn dào wàngwéi rén qiāo xiǎng jǐng zhōngkàn lái xiàng bái lǐng de zhōng chǎn jiē shí shì bìng shì zhēn zhèng shàng de rénqióng rén quē de shì qiánfángchēér shì quē rén de wéi
  èr shí shì zhōng guó zuì yòu yǐng xiǎng de chǔshì xuéhòu hēi xué
   běn shū tái běi shū guǎnde zhèn guǎn jīng pǐnhòu hēi xuéwéi běnshǒu jiāng zōng de wán zhěng shǒu gǎo zhěng chū bǎncóng xíng jiān zhēn zhèng gǎn zōng yuán bǎnhòu hēi xuéde jīng suǐběn shū zēng jiā liǎo lín tángbǎi yángnán huái jǐn suǒ xiě de yánchá yuè liǎo liàng sān shí nián dài de bào kānshōu liǎo zōng xiān shēng yòu guānhòu hēi xuéde quán jīng diǎn wén zhāngshǐ rén men dàn liǎo jiěhòu hēi xuéde jīng suǐhái kàn dào zōng xiān shēng yùn yòng suǒ chuàng de xué shuō duì shè huìzhèng zhì wèn suǒ jìn xíng de shēn jīng de lùn shùběn shū jiāng fēn wén yán wén chéng liǎo xiàn dài wénbìng duì xiē diǎn jiā zhù shìràng zhě zài yuè zhōng gèng jiā shēn quán miàn jiě zhè zài hǎi nèi wài yǐng xiǎng shēn yuǎn de xué shuō
xiàng xiū liàn : yòng yōu de fāng lái jiào shòu zhì xué de lùn
wèi · chè David Hutchensyuèdòu
   yòng yōu de fāng lái jiào shòu zhì xué de lùn wèi · chè zhōng yán jiū zhì zhōng zhǒng xīn de néng xìng zhì zhōng de rén de zhù zuò yǎn jiǎng nèi róng zhù yào zài zhì xué zhì biàn děng lǐng
gōu chén hào hàn shǐ quán shì dāng guān juédāng guān róng
gēng zhāi Geng Zhaiyuèdòu
  běn shū tōng guò yuè shǐdiǎn píng shǐ liào chǎn wéi guān zhī dào bān guān chǎng lèi shū cóng hēi hòu zhī xué kàn dài guān chǎngzǒng jié chū zhòng duō duì qián guī gěi wéi guān zhě jiàndàn shì běn shū fǎn dào 'ér xíng zhīrèn wéi zuò guān zhī rén dìng yào gāo de xiū yǎng shēng lǐng dǎo de jìng jiècái néng chéng wéi hǎo guāndāng rányào xiǎng chéng wéi hǎo guān bìng róng zài guān chǎng zhōng hùn fēi shìběn shū cóngzhī shū zhī ”、“ yǎng shēng yǎng xìng”、“ wèi zūn wèi bēi”、“ shí rén shí shì”、“ jiè shē jiè tān”、“ guān zhēn guān fāng miàn zhǎn kāizuò zhě shēn hòu de shǐ gōng zài diǎn píng zhōng biǎo xiàn lín jìn zhì
gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán
'ěr · Karl Marxyuèdòu
  1847 nián 6 yuègòng chǎn zhù zhě tóng méng 1 dài biǎo huì shàngtǎo lùn liǎo 'ēn cǎo de zhǔn bèi zuò wéi tóng méng gāng lǐng degòng chǎn zhù xìn tiáo cǎo 'àn》, jué dìng jìn tǎo lùn xiū gǎitóng nián 9 yuètóng méng lǐng dǎo rén K. shā pèi 'ěr、 H. bào wēi 'ěr J. 'ěr chū de wéigòng chǎn zhù wèn de cǎo 'àndài yòu kōng xiǎng shè huì zhù de cǎishāo hòu,“ zhēn zhèng de shè huì zhù zhě” M. zài chū xiū zhèng qián zhě de cǎo 'ànzài wěi yuán huì huì shàngēn duì zhè cǎo 'àn zuò liǎo jiān ruì pínghuì wěi tuō 'ēn chū xīn cǎo 'ànēn xiě liǎo zuò wéi gāng lǐng chū gǎo degòng chǎn zhù yuán 》。 1847 nián 11 yuè xíng de gòng chǎn zhù zhě tóng méng 2 dài biǎo huìjīng guò liè biàn lùn jiē shòu 'ēn de guān diǎnwěi tuō men cǎo zhōu xiáng de lùn shí jiàn de dǎng gāng ēn zài lún dūn sài 'ěr jiù cǎo xuān yán jiāo huàn jiàn zhì rèn shíbìng yán jiū liǎo xuān yán de zhěng nèi róng jié gòuyóu zhí xiě chéngzhōng yāng wěi yuán huì jiē dàoxuān yánshǒu gǎo hòu yìn chū bǎn。 1848 nián 2 yuè ,《 xuān yánzài lún dūn 1 dān xíng běn wèn shìzhōng guó zuì zǎo degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánzhōng běn xiàn shān dōng shěng guǎng ráo xiàn wáng zhènxiàn cún dōng yíng shì shǐ guǎnguǎng ráo xiàn)。
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - xīn nèi róng
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》( yòu bèi wéigòng chǎn zhù xuān yán》) shì 'ěr · · ēn wéi gòng chǎn zhù zhě tóng méng cǎo de gāng lǐngguó gòng chǎn zhù yùn dòng gāng lǐng xìng wén xiàn zhù dàn shēng de zhòng yào biāo zhì。 1847 nián 11 yuè gòng chǎn zhù zhě tóng méng 'èr dài biǎo huì wěi tuō 'ēn cǎo zhōu xiáng de lùn shí jiàn de dǎng gāng ēn zhì rèn shíbìng yán jiū liǎo xuān yán de zhěng nèi róng jié gòuyóu zhí xiě chéng。 1848 nián 2 yuè,《 xuān yánzài lún dūn dān xíng běn wèn shì
  
  《 xuān yán quán miàn tǒng chǎn shù liǎo xué shè huì zhù lùnzhǐ chū gòng chǎn zhù yùn dòng chéng wéi kàng de shǐ cháo liúquán wén bāo kuò jiǎn duǎn de yǐn lùn chǎn zhě chǎn zhě chǎn zhě gòng chǎn dǎng rénshè huì zhù de gòng chǎn zhù de wén xiàngòng chǎn dǎng rén duì zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài děng fēngòu chéngxuān yán xīn de běn yuán shìměi shǐ shí dài zhù yào de shēng chǎn fāng shì jiāo huàn fāng shì rán yóu chǎn shēng de shè huì jié gòushì gāi shí dài zhèng zhì de jīng shén de shǐ suǒ lài què de chǔbìng qiě zhǐ yòu cóng zhè chǔ chū shǐ cái néng dào shuō míngcóng yuán shǐ shè huì jiě lái rén lèi shè huì de quán shǐ dōushì jiē dǒu zhēng de shǐzhè shǐ bāo kuò liè zhǎn jiē duànxiàn zài jīng dào zhè yàng jiē duàn chǎn jiē guǒ tóng shí shǐ zhěng shè huì bǎi tuō rèn xuē jiē huàfēn jiē dǒu zhēngjiù néng shǐ cóng chǎn jiē de xuē tǒng zhì xià jiě fàng chū lái
  
  《 xuān yányùn yòng biàn zhèng wéi zhù shǐ wéi zhù fēn shēng chǎn shēng chǎn guān chǔ shàng céng jiàn zhù de máo dùnfēn jiē jiē dǒu zhēng bié shì běn zhù shè huì jiē dǒu zhēng de chǎn shēng zhǎn guò chénglùn zhèng běn zhù rán miè wáng shè huì zhù rán shèng de guān guī zuò wéi běn zhù jué rén de chǎn jiē jiān de shì jiè shǐ shǐ mìng。《 xuān yángōng kāi xuān yòng mìng de bào tuī fān chǎn jiē de tǒng zhìjiàn chǎn jiē dezhèng zhì tǒng zhì”, biǎo shù liǎo chǎn jiē zhuān zhèng dài chǎn jiē zhuān zhèng de xiǎng。《 xuān yánhái zhǐ chū chǎn jiē zài duó zhèng quán hòu zài zhǎn shēng chǎn de chǔ shàng , zhú jìn xíng de shè huì gǎi zào , jìn 'ér dào xiāo miè jiē duì jiē běn shēn de cún zài tiáo jiàn。《 xuān yán pàn dāng shí zhǒng fǎn dòng de shè huì zhù cháoduìkōng xiǎng de pàn de shè huì zhù zuò liǎo xué de fēn píng jià
  
  《 xuān yánchǎn shù zuò wéi chǎn jiē xiān jìn duì de gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì diǎn dǒu zhēng lüè , zhǐ chū wéi dǎng de zuì jìn mùdì 'ér fèn dǒu zhēng shí xiàn gòng chǎn zhù zhōng mùdì zhī jiān de lián 。《 xuān yánzuì hòu zhuāng yán xuān gào:“ chǎn zhě zài zhè mìng zhōng shī de zhǐ shì suǒ liàn men huò de jiāng shì zhěng shì jiè。” bìng chū guó zhù de zhàn dǒu hào zhào:“ quán shì jiè chǎn zhělián lái !”  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - shí jiàn yǐng xiǎng
  
  《 xuān yánde běn yuán shì guān guī de xué zǒng jié ēn zhǐ chū:“ zhè xiē běn yuán de shí yùn yòngzhèng xuān yánzhōng suǒ shuō desuí shí suí dōuyào dāng shí de shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn 。” men fēi cháng zhòng shì zài shí jiàn zhōng jiǎn yàn de lùnyán jiū xīn de shǐ jīng yàn shí zǒng jié gōng shè (1792 1794) de jīng yàn bìng zuò wéi duìxuān yánde chōng xiū gǎi jiù shì fàn quán shì jiè chǎn jiē zhí xuān yánzuò wéi zhēng jiě fàng de xiǎng
  
  《 xuān yánzài 20 shì chū kāi shǐ chuán zhōng guó 1906 nián xiē bào kān shàng chū xiànxuān yánde mǒu xiē nèi róng jiè shào piàn duàn wén。 1920 nián chū bǎn chén wàng dào fān degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》, shìxuān yánzài zhōng guó zuì zǎo de quán wén běn
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - shǐ bèi jǐng
  
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yányóu 'ēn xiě 1847 nián 12 yuè zhì 1848 nián 1 yuè biǎo 1848 nián 2 yuè
  
  《 xuān yánshì chǎn jiē fǎn duì chǎn jiē de dǒu zhēng jiān ruì tiáo jiàn xià chǎn shēng de
  
  《 xuān yánshì ēn jìn xíng lùn yán jiū lùn dǒu zhēng zhēng chéng xiào de qíng kuàng xià chǎn shēng de
  
  《 xuān yánshì 'ēn wéi jiàn chǎn jiē zhèng dǎng 'ér dǒu zhēng de shí jiàn zhōng chǎn shēng de
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - nèi róng yào
  
  
  1848 nián 2 yuè 24 'ēn zhù degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánzài lún dūn chū bǎnzhè xuān yán shì gòng chǎn zhù zhě tóng méng 'èr dài biǎo huì wěi tuō ēn cǎo de tóng méng gāng lǐng
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánbāo kuò yǐn yán zhèng wén zhāng。 1872 nián héng 1893 nián 'ēn xiān hòu wéixuān yánde wéné wényīng wén lán wén wén bǎn zhuàn xiě liǎo piān yán piān yán jiǎn yào shuō míng liǎoxuān yánde běn xiǎng zài guó gòng chǎn zhù yùn dòng zhōng de shǐ wèizhǐ míngxuān yánde lùn yuán shì shǐ wéi zhù bìng gēn chǎn jiē mìng de jīng yàn jiào xùnduìxuān yánzuò liǎo chōng xiū gǎi
  
   yǐn yán fēn shuō míng xiě zuòxuān yánde bèi jǐng mùdì
  
  “ chǎn zhě chǎn zhězhè zhāng ēn yùn yòng shǐ wéi zhù de běn guān diǎnfēn liǎo chǎn jiē chǎn jiē de chǎn shēng zhǎn xiāng dǒu zhēng de guò chéngjiē shì liǎo běn zhù rán miè wáng shè huì zhù rán shèng de guān guī chǎn míng liǎo chǎn jiē de shǐ shǐ mìnglùn shù liǎo zhù de jiē dǒu zhēng xué shuō
  
   jiē dǒu zhēng shì tuī dòng jiē shè huì zhǎn de zhí jiē dòng 1--5 duàn)。
  
   kǎo chá chǎn jiē de chǎn shēng zhǎn guò chéngjiē shì běn zhù rán miè wáng de guī 6-28 duàn)。
  
   chǎn jiē de chǎn shēng zhǎn shǐ shǐ mìng 29--54 duàn)。
  
  “ chǎn zhě gòng chǎn dǎng rénzhè zhāng ēn chǎn míng liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì diǎn de rèn gòng chǎn dǎng de lùn běn gāng lǐng pàn liǎo chǎn jiē gōng gòng chǎn zhù de zhǒng miù lùnchǎn shù liǎo chǎn jiē zhuān zhèng de běn xiǎng tōng xiàng gòng chǎn zhù de yóu zhī
  
   gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì diǎn běn gāng lǐng 1--14 duàn)。
  
   chǎn jiē gōng gòng chǎn zhù de zhǒng miù lùn 15--68 duàn)。
  
   chǎn jiē zhuān zhèng de běn xiǎng tōng xiàng gòng chǎn zhù de yóu zhī 69--86 duàn)。
  
  “ shè huì zhù gòng chǎn zhù de wén xiànzhè zhāngfēn pàn liǎo dāng shí de zhǒng jiǎ shè huì zhù kōng xiǎng shè huì zhù zhǐ chū men dài biǎo de jiē dàn shì dǎzháo shè huì zhù de hào jìn xíng huó dòngfēn liǎo zhǒng jiǎ shè huì zhù liú pài chǎn shēng de shè huì shǐ tiáo jiànbìng jiē liǎo men de jiē shí zhì
  
   fǎn dòng de shè huì zhù 1--34 duàn)。
  
   bǎo shǒu de huò chǎn jiē de shè huì zhù 35--42 duàn)。
  
   pàn de kōng xiǎng de shè huì zhù gòng chǎn zhù 43--56 duàn)。
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán
  
  “ gòng chǎn dǎng rén duì zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài zhè zhāngzhù yào shì cóng gòng chǎn dǎng rén duì dài zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài shàngchǎn shù liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng rén mìng dǒu zhēng de xiǎng lüè
  
   gòng chǎn dǎng rén zhèng zhì dǒu zhēng lüè de běn yuán 1--4 duàn)。
  
   gòng chǎn dǎng rén zài guó de dǒu zhēng lüè 5--7 duàn)。
  
   gòng chǎn dǎng rén yùn yòng dǒu zhēng lüè de mùdì 8--12 duàn)。
  
  《 xuān yánshì xué gòng chǎn zhù de gāng lǐng xìng wén xiàn biāo zhì zhe zhù de dàn shēng。《 xuān yángāng gāng biǎojiù yíng lái liǎo 'ōu zhōu 1848 nián de mìng fēng bào
  
  《 xuān yánwán zhěng tǒng 'ér yán chǎn shù liǎo zhù de zhù yào xiǎngchǎn shù liǎo zhù de shì jiè guān bié shì de jiē dǒu zhēng xué shuōjiē shì liǎo běn zhù shè huì de nèi zài máo dùn zhǎn guī lùn zhèng liǎo běn zhù miè wáng shè huì zhù shèng de rán xìng。《 xuān yánlùn shù liǎo chǎn jiē zuò wéi běn zhù jué rén de wěi shǐ shǐ mìngchǎn shù liǎo zhù guān chǎn jiē zhuān zhèng de xiǎngchǎn míng liǎo gòng chǎn zhù mìng jǐn yào tóng chuán tǒng de suǒ yòu zhì guān shí xíng zuì chè de jué lièér qiě yào tóng chuán tǒng guān niàn shí xíng zuì chè de jué lièchǎn míng liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì rèn zhè zhù zuò cóng dàn shēng jiù tuī dòng zhe quán shì jiè chǎn jiē zhēng jiě fàng dǒu zhēngchéng wéi chǎn jiē zuì ruì de zhàn dǒu ēn zhǐ chū shì quán shè huì zhù wén xiàn zhōng chuán zuì guǎng zuì guó xìng de zhù zuòshì shì jiè guó qiān bǎi wàn gōng rén gòng tóng de gāng lǐng
  
  《 xuān yánjié shù shí qiáng diàogòng chǎn dǎng rén xiàng quán shì jiè xuān yòng bào mìng tuī fān quán xiàn chéng de shè huì zhì shí xiàn gòng chǎn zhù ràng qiē fǎn dòng jiē zài gòng chǎn zhù mìng de miàn qián dǒu chǎn jiē mìng zhōng shī de zhǐ shì suǒ liàn jiāng huò zhěng shì jiè。《 xuān yányòng xiǎng yún xiāo de zuì qiáng yīn chū chǎn jiē guó zhù de wěi hào zhàoquán shì jiè chǎn zhělián lái
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 -1872 nián wén bǎn yán
  
   gòng chǎn zhù zhě tóng méng zhè zài dāng shí tiáo jiàn xià rán zhǐ néng shì tuán de guó gōng rén zhì, 1847 nián 11 yuè zài lún dūn dài biǎo huì shàng wěi tuō men liǎng rén cǎo zhǔn bèi gōng de zhōu xiáng de lùn shí jiàn de dǎng gāngjiēguǒ jiù chǎn shēng liǎo zhè xuān yán》,《 xuān yányuán gǎo zài 'èr yuè mìng qián xīng dào lún dūn yìn。《 xuān yánzuì chū yòng wén chū bǎnhòu lái yòu yòng wén zài guóyīng guó měi guó zhì shǎo fān yìn guò shí 'èr yīng běn shì yóu 'ài lín · mài lín shì fān de 1850 nián zài lún dūnhóng gòng dǎng rén zhì shàng biǎohòu lái zài 1871 nián zhì shǎo yòu yòu sān zhǒng tóng de yīng běn zài měi guó chū bǎn běn 1848 nián liù yuè qián jiǔ zài yìn xíngzuì jìn yòu zài niǔ yuēshè huì zhù zhě bàoshàng dēngzǎixiàn zài yòu yòu rén zài zhǔn bèi xīn běn lán wén běn zài guó běn chū bǎn wèn shì hòu jiǔ jiù zài lún dūn chū xiàné běn shì liù shí nián dài zài nèi chū bǎn dedān mài wén běn shì zài yuán shū wèn shì hòu jiǔ jiù chū bǎn liǎo
  
   guǎn zuì jìn 'èr shí nián lái de qíng kuàng shēng liǎo duō biàn huàzhè xuān yánzhōng suǒ huī de bān běn yuán zhěng shuō lái zhí dào xiàn zài hái shì wán quán zhèng què de bié fāng běn lái zuò mǒu xiē xiū gǎizhè xiē yuán de shí yùn yòngzhèng xuān yánzhōng suǒ shuō desuí shí suí dōuyào dāng shí de shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn suǒ 'èr zhāng wěi chū de xiē mìng cuò shī bìng méi yòu shénme shū de xiàn zài zhè duàn zài duō fāng miàn yìng gāi yòu tóng de xiě liǎoyóu zuì jìn 'èr shí nián lái gōng yòu hěn zhǎn 'ér gōng rén jiē de zhèng dǎng zhì gēn zhe zhǎn láiyóu shǒu xiān yòu liǎo 'èr yuè mìng de shí jīng yàn 'ér hòu lái yóu shì yòu liǎo chǎn jiē zhǎng zhèng quán liǎng yuè zhī jiǔ de gōng shè de shí jīng yànsuǒ zhè gāng lǐng xiàn zài yòu xiē fāng jīng guò shí liǎo bié shì gōng shè jīng zhèng míng:“ gōng rén jiē néng jiǎn dān zhǎng xiàn chéng de guó jiā bìng yùn yòng lái dào de mùdì。”( jiàn lán nèi zhànguó gōng rén xié huì zǒng wěi yuán huì xuān yán wén bǎn shí jiǔ zhè xiǎng huī gèng jiā wán bèi。) hěn míng xiǎnduì shè huì zhù wén xiàn suǒ zuò de pàn zài jīn tiān kàn lái shì wán quán deyīn wéi zhè pàn zhǐ bāo kuò dào 1847 nián wéi zhǐtóng yàng hěn míng xiǎnguān gòng chǎn dǎng rén duì zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài wèn suǒ chū de jiàn zhāngsuī rán shàng zhì jīn hái shì zhèng què dedàn shì yóu zhèng zhì xíng shì jīng wán quán gǎi biànér dāng shí suǒ liè de xiē dǎng pài fēn bèi shǐ de zhǎn jìn chéng suǒ chè sǎo chúsuǒ zhè xiē jiàn zài shí jiàn fāng miàn jìng shì guò shí liǎo
  
   dàn shìxuān yánshì shǐ wén jiàn men méi yòu quán lái jiā xiū gǎixià zài bǎn shí néng jiā shàng piān bāo kuò cóng 1847 nián dào xiàn zài zhè duàn shí de dǎo yánzhè zài bǎn tài cāng liǎo zhì men jìng lái zuò zhè jiàn gōng zuò
  
   'ěr · · ēn 1872 nián 6 yuè 24 lún dūn
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 -1883 nián wén bǎn yán
  
   běn bǎn yán xìng zhǐ néng yóu rén shǔ míng liǎo zhè wèi rèn réndōu gèng yìng shòu dào 'ōu měi zhěng gōng rén jiē gǎn xiè de rén jīng cháng mián hǎi gōng de shàng jīng chū cháng chū liǎo qīng cǎozài shì shì hòujiù gèng tán shàng duìxuān yánzuò shénme xiū gǎi huò chōng liǎoyīn rèn wéi gèng yòu yào zài zhè zài míng què shēn shù xià miàn zhè diǎn
  
   guàn chuānxuān yánde běn xiǎngměi shǐ shí dài de jīng shēng chǎn rán yóu chǎn shēng de shè huì jié gòushì gāi shí dài zhèng zhì de jīng shén de shǐ de chǔyīn ( cóng yuán shǐ gōng yòu zhì jiě lái ) quán shǐ dōushì jiē dǒu zhēng de shǐ shè huì zhǎn jiē duàn shàng bèi xuē jiē xuē jiē zhī jiānbèi tǒng zhì jiē tǒng zhì jiē zhī jiān dǒu zhēng de shǐér zhè dǒu zhēng xiàn zài jīng dào zhè yàng jiē duàn bèi xuē bèi de jiē ( chǎn jiē ), guǒ tóng shí shǐ zhěng shè huì yǒng yuǎn bǎi tuō xuē jiē dǒu zhēngjiù zài néng shǐ cóng xuē de jiē ( chǎn jiē ) xià jiě fàng chū láihéng héng zhè běn xiǎng wán quán shì shǔ rén de
  
   zhè diǎn jīng shuō guòdàn zhèng shì xiàn zài zàixuān yánběn shēn de qián miàn xiě míng zhè diǎn
  
   · ēn   1883 nián 6 yuè 28 lún dūn
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - zhōng guó běn zhōng běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán
  
  
   jiǎn jiè
  
   zài dōng yíng shì guǎng ráo xiàn shōu cáng zhe 1920 nián 8 yuè chū bǎn de guó zuì zǎo degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánzhōng wén běnzhè kàn píng cháng de běn shūquè bèi chēng wéiguó bǎo”, de bǎo cún liú chuánjīng liǎo shì de fēng fēng
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánjié biǎo
  
  1919 nián 4 yuè 6 ,《 měi zhōu píng lùn shí liù hào zàimíng zhùlán nèi kānzǎigòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 ( jié ) 'èr zhāng chǎn zhě gòng chǎn dǎng rénhòu miàn shǔ gāng lǐng de duànbìng zài 'àn zhōng zhǐ chū:“ zhè xuān yán shì 'ēn zuì xiān zuì zhòng de jiàn。 ...... yào zhǐ zài zhù zhāng jiē duàn zhàn zhēngyào qiú de láo gōng lián 。 ...... shì biǎo shì xīn shí dài de wén shū。”
  
  《 měi zhōu píng lùn shí liù hào hái biǎo liǎo chén xiù de duǎn wéngāng cháng míng jiào》, wén zhāng shuō:“ ōu zhōu guó shè huì zhù de xué shuō jīng liú xíng liǎoé xiōng bìng qiě chéng liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng de shì jièzhè zhǒng fēng kǒng shàng jiù yào lái dào dōng fāng。”
  
  
  
   běn zhōng běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánde xiàn
   guǎng ráo cáng běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 ( cún dōng yíng shì shǐ guǎn ) guǎng ráo cáng běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 ( cún dōng yíng shì shǐ guǎn )
  
     1975 nián,《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánzhōng wén běn zài guǎng ráo de xiàn wèi shí tiān jīng chū liǎo xīn de qíng kuàng bìng zuò chū liǎo xīn de shuō míngguǎng ráo cáng běn píng zhuāng běncháng 18 kuān 12 xiàn zài de 32 kāi běn lüè xiǎo diǎnshū miàn yìn yòu shuǐ hóng bàn shēn xiàngshàng duān cóng yòu zhì zuǒ yìn zheshè huì zhù yán jiū xiǎo cóng shū zhǒng”, shàng shǔ ān 'ěr zhù”、“ chén wàng dào ”。 quán wén yòng 5 hào qiān shù pái 56 fēng yìn yòu qiān jiǔ bǎi 'èr shí nián yuè chū bǎn”、“ dìng jià yáng jiǎo yàngyìn shuà xíng zhě shìshè huì zhù yán jiū shè”。 jīng diào chá yán jiū chū guǎng ráo cáng běn jiū zhèng liǎo guò zài shàng hǎi cáng běn bào dào zhōng de què zhī chùguǎng ráo cáng běn de fēng miàn biāo shìgòng dǎng chǎn xuān yán”, ér shìgòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán”。《 dǎng shǐ liào cóng kānsuǒ kānzǎi de shàng hǎi 8 yuè cáng běn de jiè shào wén zhāng zhào piàn biāo míng shàng hǎi běn de fēng miàn biāo shìgòng dǎng chǎn xuān yán”。 jīng guò duì zhàoguǎng ráo běn shàng hǎi běn wán quán shì bǎn běn 'èrguǎng ráo běn liǎo běn zhèngde miànguò rèn wéigòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánquán běn zài guó chū bǎn shì 1920 nián 8 yuè shuōzhǐ yòu shàng hǎi dàng 'àn guǎn běn shí zuò zhèngbèi chēng wéi běn”、“ zhèng”。 yòu liǎo guǎng ráo cáng běnlìng shàng hǎi shū guǎn shàng yòu tóng běn), zài jiā shàng běi jīng shū guǎn bǎo cún de cán běnzhì shǎo shì yòu liǎo 4 běn 8 yuè de bǎn běnxiàn zài zhèng míng,《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánquán běn shì 1920 nián 8 yuè chū bǎn de sānjìn nòng qīng liǎo chū bǎn qíng kuàngcóng guǎng ráo cáng běn shàng hǎi dàng 'àn guǎnshàng hǎi shū guǎn de shōu cáng běn fēng miàn biāo dōushìgòng dǎng chǎn xuān yánzhè qíng kuàng lái kàn, 8 yuè bǎn běn fēng miàn biāo zhī bìng fēi shēng zài bié yìn běn zhī shàngzhè fēng miàn biāo cuò xiǎn rán shì yīn pái yìn huò jiàoduì shū suǒ zào chéng deér fēi shénme huò yuán yīn suǒ zào chéng deyīn wéifēi shàng shù pái de biāo qīng chǔ yìn zhegòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán duàn dìngzhèng shì yīn wéi shēng xiàn liǎo zhè bǎn fēng miàn biāo de xíng wén cuò yòu jiā xīn shū shòu qìng zài 9 yuè jiān jìn xíngzài bǎnshí jiū zhèng liǎo fēng miàn biāo cuò cóng xiàn yòu xiàn de bǎn běn fēn , 1920 nián 8 yuè bǎn běnjiù shì zuì zǎo de bǎn běnér qiě 8 yuè bǎn běn fēng fēn míng yìn zhechū bǎn”, 9 yuè bǎn běn yìn zhezài bǎn”, zhōng yāng dàng 'àn guǎn shōu cáng de 1924 nián 6 yuè bǎn běn yìn zhe sān bǎn yàng shuō míngjiǎ dìng 8 yuè bǎn běn zhī qián hái yòu bǎn běn de huà 8 yuè běn jiù yìng wéizài bǎn”, 9 yuè běn wéisān bǎn”, 1924 nián 6 yuè běn chéng liǎo bǎn”, dàn zhè zhǒng qíng kuàng bìng cún zài
  
   shū de yóu lái chuán
  
     guǎng ráo shōu cáng de zhè běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánxiān shì zài Jǐnán gòng chǎn zhù zhě shǒu zhōnghòu yòu chuán dào liǎo guǎng ráo céng xiǎng jīng liǎo fān màn cháng 'ér zhé de guò chéng
     yóu 1919 nián yùn dòng bào de dǎo huǒ xiàn shì shān dōng wèn 'ér,“ shí shān dōng de 'ài guó fǎn dǒu zhēng bié gāo zhǎng guǎng fànzhè jiù shǐ zhù zuògòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánzài shān dōng chuán kāi lái shíměi zhōu píng lùnxiàng xué xiào shòushì nián qiūwáng jìn měidèng 'ēn míngwáng xiáng qiān děng zài Jǐnán chéng xué shuō yán jiū huìxué yán jiū de zhù yào wén xiàn shìgòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 huì yuán táng huí shuō:“ dāng shí de zhù yào xué liào shìgòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》、《 xiàng dǎodài huí jiā qīn kàn liǎo wéi chēng zànshuō shì shèng rén。” guǎng ráo shōu cáng de zhè běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánzuì chū jiù shì zài Jǐnán gòng chǎn zhù zhě zhōng liú chuánxué de
     zài guǎng ráo cáng běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánde shǒu yòu xià jiǎo gài yòu fāngbǎo chénzhū hóng yìn hénér zhè wèibǎo chénshì shuí jīng diào chá shì Jǐnán de zǎo tuán yuán dǎng yuán zhāng bǎo chénzhōng yāng dàng 'àn guǎn bǎo cún de 1923 nián 12 yuè 15 Jǐnán tuán yuán diào chá biǎobiǎo míngzhāng bǎo chén shì jiāng rén, 1922 nián 1 yuè 1 tuánhòu dào Jǐnán gōng zuòcóng shì qīng nián yùn dòngzhōng yāng dàng 'àn guǎn hái yòu dàng 'àn shuō míng shì Jǐnán tuán de zhù yào rén zhī zhù guǎnjiào jiān xínggōng zuò 1922 nián céng rèn Jǐnán dǎng de dài shū de xiān huí zhāng bǎo chén shì dāng shí zài Jǐnán de míng dǎng yuán zhī wáng biànliú jiǔ děng Jǐnán de zǎo dǎng yuán huí zhāng bǎo chén dāng shí zài dào shēng yínháng zuò zhí yuánzài dǎng nèi guǎn dǎngtuán kān de xíng gōng zuòdào shēng yínháng shì shā 'é zài zhōng guó kāi shè de yínhángzǒng xíng shè zài shàng hǎishí yuè mìng hòu réng kāi bànzhāng bǎo chén shì gāi xíng Jǐnán fēn xíng de zhí yuáncháng lái wǎng shàng hǎiJǐnán zhī jiānyòu zài dǎng nèi dǎng tuán kān liè shū de xíng gōng zuòyīn néng shōu cún zhè zuì zǎo bǎn běn degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 me yòu shì zěn yàng chuán dào guǎng ráo xiàn liú cūn de yuán lái shì tōng guò lìng míng zǎo gòng chǎn dǎng yuán liú huī
     liú huī shì guǎng ráo xiàn liú cūn réncéng xiān hòu jiù nán yǎng cán jiǎng suǒ zhōu chǎn xué xiào, 1925 nián xià hòu huí Jǐnán zhí xué xiào rèn jiàozài Jǐnán jiān jié shí liǎo Jǐnán shī de wáng biànhóu lán pèi zhēnliú shū qínwáng lán yīng děng duō gòng chǎn dǎng yuántóng nián yóu pèi zhēn jiè shào jiā zhōng guó gòng chǎn dǎng men cháng yán zhēnliú jiǔ yún shēngzhāng bǎo chén děng nán tóng zhì xué huó dòngzhè yàng běn gài yòubǎo chényìn hén degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánjiù niǎn zhuǎn dào liǎo liú huī de shǒu zhōng。 1926 nián chūn jié tóng xiāng yán zhēnliú jiǔ tóng huí jiā xǐngqīn shíjiù zhè běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán duō zhù shū dǎng de xuān chuán cái liào dài huí liǎo guǎng ráo xiàn liú cūncóng zhè běn mìng wén xiàn biàn zài zhè piān de nóng cūn jīng liǎo píng fán de 50 chūn qiū
    guǎng ráo liú dǎng zhī shì zài 1925 nián chūn jiàn deliú jiǔ zài bāng zhù jiàn liú dǎng zhī shí céng cóng wài dài huí guò běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán liè zhù zuòdǎng de xuān chuán wén jiàn
     zhè běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yándāng shí yóu zhī shū liú liáng cái bǎo cún hòu, 1926 nián chūn jié jiānliú huī yòu gěi liú zhī dài lái liǎo běn gài yòubǎo chényìn hén degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 zhè yàngliú zhī liù dǎng yuánjiù yōng yòu liǎo liǎng běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 zhè zài dāng shí tōng de nóng cūn dǎng zhī lái shuōwěi shí nán néng guìzhī shū liú liáng cái jīng cháng zài wǎn shàng zhào dǎng yuán menzài jiā de sān jiān běi méi yóu dēng xià xué gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán wén jiàn dōng nóng xián jiédǎng zhī hái bàn nóng mín xiàoyóu liú liáng cái huò dǎng yuán xuān jiǎng mìng dào wén huà zhī shí。《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yányòu chéng liǎo liú liáng cái děng tóng zhì bèi de hǎo cái liàocóng xiàn cúngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán kàn chūyóu zhè běn shū dāng nián jīng cháng bèi fān yuè zhì zài shū de zuǒ xià jiǎo liú xià liǎo míng xiǎn de zhǐ hén sǔn
    《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánshì zhù zhù zuò zài zhōng guó chuán zuì zǎozuì guǎng fàn de bǎo shū zài chéng shìzài zhī shí fènzǐ zhōngzài mìng de xiān zhī xiān jué zhě huī liǎo wéi zhòng yào de zuò yòngdàn shì xiàng guǎng ráo cáng běn zhè yàng de chuán qíng kuàng shì duō jiàn de zài dāng shí shān dōng zhè yàng zhǐ yòu bǎi rén jiā de xiǎo cūnzài pín nóng mín dāng zhōng chuán huī zhuóshí shí zài zài de zuò yòngzhè duì rèn shí hòu zhù zài zhōng guó chuán de guǎng shēn néng shuō shì
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - zhǐ dǎo xiǎng
  
   guàn chuānxuān yánquán piān de běn xiǎng huò zhǐ dǎo shì wéi zhù shǐ guān,《 xuān yánde zhōng xīn xiǎng shì guān liǎng rán xìngde yuán yùn yòng wéi shǐ guān lùn zhèng bìng chǎn míng chǎn jiē jiě fàng de xìng zhìtiáo jiàn bān mùdìyóu shì guān xiàn dài gōng rén jiē de wěi shǐ zuò yòng shǐ shǐ mìnggōng rén jiē xiān jìn zhèng dǎng shǐ wèi shǐ shǐ mìng zhǐ dǎo xiǎng de xiān jìn xìng jiàn xìngzhàn dǒu xìngyuán xìng lüè xìng děng zhēngcóng 'ér wéi gōng rén jiē quán rén lèi de chè jiě fàng zhǐ míng liǎo xué de jìng
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - zhù yào diǎn
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánshì ēn quán chéng shú zhù zuò de gāng lǐng hóng xiànshì jiě shénme shì zhù de guān jiàn ēn de quán zhù zuòjiù shì wéi shí xiànxuān yánzhōng deliǎng rán xìng”, wéi shí xiàn chǎn jiē de chè jiě fàng 'ér jìn xíng de lùn yán jiū duàn wán shàn zhǎn xué shè huì zhù lùnbìng shǐ lùn biàn wéi gāng lǐngshǐ gāng lǐng zhū shí shīshì lùn tóng shí jiàn xiāng jié shǐ xué shè huì zhù tóng gōng rén yùn dòng xiāng jié zhè jiù shì zhù de xué shè huì zhù xíng xíng de shè huì zhù xiāng bié de zhù yào diǎn
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 -
  
  ( )《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánquè liǎo xué shè huì zhù de běn yuán
  
   xué lùn zhèng liǎo gòng chǎn zhù de shǐ rán xìng
  
   'èrmíng què zhǐ chū liǎo chǎn jiē mìng de běn xiàn zhù yào rèn
  
   sāně yào chǎn míng liǎo chǎn jiē de jiàn dǎng xué shuō lüè yuán
  
  ( èr)《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánshì gōng rén jiē jiě fàng de wěi zhì
  
   gōng rén jiē yùn hán zhe jiě fàng de zuì qiáng de liàng yuán quánshì tuī dòng shǐ qián jìn de huǒ chē tóugōng rén jiē shì zài gǎi zào jiù shì jièjiàn shè xīn shè huì de kào liàng lǐng dǎo liàngzhè zhǒng liàng de xiàn chéng liǎo xué shè huì zhù lùn de kuài zhù yào de shí”。 yóu zhù shì gōng rén jiē de lùn biǎo xiàn chǎn jiē jiě fàng tiáo jiàn de lùn gài kuòyīn dàn chǎn shēng chū láibìng xiàng gōng rén jiē jìn xíng guàn shū hòu jiù néng zhǎng qiān bǎi wàn chǎn zhě de xīn líng bèi jué de gōng rén suǒ jiē shòuchéng wéi gōng rén jiē de shì jiè guāndǎo zhì gōng rén jiē zhèng dǎng de chǎn shēngcóng 'ér shǐ chǎn jiē yóu zài jiē xiàng wéi jiē zhuǎn biàn
  
  《 xuān yánchǎn míng liǎo gōng rén jiē de shǐ zuò yòng shǐ shǐ mìng chǎn jiē jiě fàng de xìng zhìtiáo jiàn mùdì
  
  《 xuān yánshì chǎn jiē gēn běn de lùn biǎo xiàn
  
   zhù lùn jīng zhǎng qún zhòngjiù huì wéi zhàn shèng de zhì liàng
  
  ( sān)《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánjǐyǔ zhōng guó gòng chǎn dǎng rénzhōng guó mìng shè huì zhù shì de wěi yǐng xiǎng guāng huī zhǐ dǎo
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》( xià jiǎn chēngxuān yán》) shì 'ēn wéi gòng chǎn zhù zhě tóng méng cǎo de dǎng gāngshì xué shè huì zhù de gāng lǐng xìng wén xiàn。《 xuān yánjiē shì liǎo rén lèi shè huì zhǎn de guān guī duì zhōng guó shè huì de zhǎn chǎn shēng liǎo shēn yuǎn de yǐng xiǎng duō shì láizhōng guó chǎn shēng liǎo sān wèi zhàn zài shí dài qián liè de dài biǎo rén sūn zhōng shānmáo dōng zhāo mendōu shòu dàoxuān yánde zhí jiē yǐng xiǎng jiào
  
  1896 niánzhōng guó mìng de xiān xíng zhě sūn zhōng shān liú yīng guó jiānjiù zài yīng guǎn dàoxuān yánděng zhù lùn zhù céng dūn liú xué shēng yán jiū de běn lùngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 1899 nián 3 yuè shàng hǎiwàn guó gōng bàokānzǎi jié de yīng guó shè huì xué jiā jié de tóng xué wén jiù shè dàoxuān yánde yòu guān nèi róng。 1905 nián chǎn jiē mìng pài zhū zhí xìn zài tóng méng huì guān bàomín bào 'èr hào shàng biǎo de zhì shè huì mìng jiā xiǎozhuàn wén shù liǎo 'ēn de shēng píng xué shuōbìng jiǎn yào jiè shào liǎoxuān yánde xiě zuò bèi jǐng běn xiǎng shǐ hái xuān yánde wén běn bìng cān zhào yīng wén běn zhāi liǎo gāi shū de duàn wén 'èr zhāng de shí gāng lǐng quán wénbìng zuò liǎo jiě shìzuò zhě jiāng gāi shū de shū míng wéigòng chǎn zhù xuān yán》。 1908 nián 3 yuè 15 liú shī péishǔ míng shēn shūzàitiān bào biǎo liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán 》。 zhè shì zhōng guó rén wéixuān yánzuò hòuyòu guānxuān yánde wén zhāng duàn jiàn zhū bào duān
  
  1917 nián 'é guó shí yuè mìng de shèng jìn huàn xǐng liǎo zhōng guó de xiān jìn fènzǐ。“ yùn dòngqián hòuzhōng guó chū xiàn liǎo duō jiè shào tǎo lùnxuān yánde wén zhāng zhù zài zhōng guó dào guǎng fàn de chuán 。 1920 nián 3 yuè zhāo chàng dǎo chéng deběi jīng xué héng héng biān ji zhùxué yán jiū huì fān liǎo wén bǎnxuān yánde quán wényìn liǎo shǎo liàng yóu yìn běn zài dāng shí de xiān jìn fènzǐ zhōng chuán yuè。 1920 nián 8 yuèyóu chén wàng dào gēn wén yīng wén bǎn běn fān dexuān yánde zhōng wén běn zài gòng chǎn guó de zhù xià yóu shàng hǎi shè huì zhù yán jiū shè zhèng shì chū bǎnchén wàng dào běn zài hòu de 20 nián zhōngduō chóngyìnguǎng wéi liú chuánmáo dōng zài 1920 nián yuè liǎo kǎo zhù dejiē dǒu zhēng》、 chén wàng dào fān degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán yīng guó rén zuò deshè huì zhù shǐ》。 zhōu 'ēn lái duì chén wàng dào jiù shuō guò:“ mendōu shì jiào chū lái de。”
  
  《 xuān yánduì dāng shí zài guó wài qín gōng jiǎn xué de qīng nián chǎn shēng liǎo zhòng yào de yǐng xiǎng。 1920 nián chūcài sēn zài guó xiān hòu fān chūxuān yán》、《 shè huì zhù cóng kōng xiǎng dào xué de zhǎnděng zhù zuò de zhòng yào duàn luòzài qín gōng jiǎn xué de xué shēng zhōng guǎng wéi liú chuándèng xiǎo píng shì zài guó qín gōng jiǎn xué shí dàoxuān yánde hòu lái shuō de mén lǎo shī shìgòng chǎn dǎng xuān yángòng chǎn zhù 》。
  
   suí zhe zhōng guó mìng xíng shì de zhǎnduìxuān yánde qiú zēng。《 xuān yánde zhōng wén běn chū bǎn hòu dào 1949 nián zhōng huá rén mín gòng guó chéng yòu yòu 5 zhōng wén běn wèn shì wén zhì liàng duàn gāosuǒ shōu yán duàn zēng jiā xíng shù liàng kuò
  
   xīn zhōng guó chéng hòu, 1949 nián 11 yuè zài běi jīng yìn liǎo lián wài jiāo chū bǎn chū bǎn de shōu yòu 'ēn xiě de quán 7 piān yán dexuān yánbǎi zhōu nián niàn běn。 1958 nián zhōng gòng zhōng yāng biān jiàodìng liǎoxuān yánde zhōng běnshōu 'ēn quán juàn。 1964 nián gēn wén bìng cān kǎo yīng 'é děng wén běn zài zuò liǎo jiàodìngchū bǎn liǎo dān xíng běnshì zhōng guó liú chuán zuì guǎng de bǎn běn。 1972 nián 5 yuèxīn biān de juàn běn 'ēn xuǎn zhèng shì chū bǎn zhōng shōu liǎoxuān yánde zhèng wén 'ēn xiě de 7 piān yán。 1995 nián 6 yuèyòu biān ji chū bǎn liǎo 'èr bǎnzhè bǎn 'ēn xuǎn duì shōu zài de wén xiàn zuò liǎo jiào tiáozhěngbìng 'àn yuán zhù wén duì wén chóngxīn zuò liǎo jiàodìng。 1997 nián 8 yuè rén mín chū bǎn shè yòu gēn 'ēn xuǎn zhōng wén 'èr bǎn juàn zhōng dexuān yánde xīn wén chū bǎn liǎo dān xíng běnbìng zuò wéi liè zhù zuò de liè shū liè níng zhù wén zhī zhǒng chū bǎn xíngzhè shìgòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán jīn zài guó chū bǎn de zuì xīn bǎn běn
  
   jiāng mín tóng zhì zài dǎng de shí bào gào zhōng zhǐ chū:“ jìn 20 nián lái gǎi kāi fàng xiàn dài huà jiàn shè chéng gōng de gēn běn yuán yīn zhī jiù shì liǎo xiē chāo yuè jiē duàn de cuò guān niàn zhèng yòu zhì liǎo pāo shè huì zhù běn zhì de cuò zhù zhāng”。 zhè jiù qīng chǔ gào men wán zhěng zhǔn què jiě guān shè huì zhù chū jiē duànzhè jiù jué dìng liǎo men xiàn jiē duàn de fèn dǒu biāo shì jiàn shè zhōng guó de shè huì zhù men yào wèicǐ 'ér gòng xiàn de qiēshè 'ér kōng tán gòng chǎn zhù jiù shì yòu huò duō huò shǎo bèi pàn liǎo gòng chǎn zhù
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - xué tài fāng
  
  ( duì běn yuán de shí yùn yòngsuí shí suí dōuyào dāng shí de shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn
  
   zàixuān yánde chū bǎn yán zhōng duō shuō míngduì běn yuán de shí yùn yòngsuí shí suí dōuyào dāng shí de shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn duì bié yuán yuán gèng yào gēn shí de shí qíng kuàng jìn xíng de fēn zhè guān jiàn shì zhǔn què běn yuán yuán de xué jiè xiànyīn wéi duì běn yuán shì néng wéi bèi dewéi bèi liǎo běn yuán jiù huì zǒu xiàng zhù de fǎn miànzàng sòng mìng chéng guǒcóng 'ér néng chéng wéi zhù de chǐ pàn
  
  ( èryào shí shì qiú shì jiān chí zhù de wéi biàn zhèng guān diǎn
  
   cóng cháng yuǎn kànshè huì zhù zhōng jiāng chè zhàn shèng běn zhù zhōng jiāng zài quán shì jiè fàn wéi nèi wán quán shèng ér zài zhī qiánshè huì zhù zài měi guó jiā de shí jiàn yòu néng shēng shèn zhì duō de zàn shí shī bài huò cuò zhéguó shè huì zhù yùn dòng hái néng jīng ruò gān gāo cháo jiāo de shí yīn duì shè huì zhù de qián mìng yùn yào mǎn huái xìn xīn yòu diào qīng xīnrèn bēi guān de lùn tiáohé máng guān jiǎo xìng xīn dōushì cuò shí fēn yòu hài de
  
  ( sān zhù shì chéng biàn de jiào tiáo suí zhe shí dài de zhǎn 'ér duàn dào fēng zhǎn
  
   dèng xiǎo píng tóng zhì shuō guò:“ zhēn zhèng de liè níng zhù zhě gēn xiàn zài de qíng kuàngrèn shí chéng zhǎn liè níng zhù 。 ..... xīn de xiǎngguān diǎn chéng zhǎn zhù shì zhēn zhèng de zhù zhě。” fèi chú jìng zhǐ xué yán jiū zhù de fāng kāi běn guó de shí shí dài zhǎn lái tán zhù méi yòu chū méi yòu zhèng dǎng de shí bào gào zhǐ chū de yàng:“ dìng yào guó gǎi kāi fàng xiàn dài huà jiàn shè de shí wèn men zhèng zài zuò de shì qíng wéi zhōng xīnzhuóyǎn zhù lùn de yùn yòngzhuóyǎn duì shí wèn de lùn kǎozhuóyǎn xīn de shí jiàn xīn zhǎn。”
  
  ( yào zhèng què rèn shí cónggòng chǎn dǎng xuān yándào dèng xiǎo píng lùn de chéng zhǎn guān
  
   dèng xiǎo píng lùn de běn guān diǎn tónggòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánde běn yuán jīng shén shí zhì shì zhì debāo kuògòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánzài nèi de liè zhù máo dōng xiǎng shì dèng xiǎo píng lùn de shēn hòu gēn zhù yào lái yuándèng xiǎo píng lùn shì bāo kuòxuān yánzài nèi de liè zhù máo dōng xiǎng de běn yuán yuán de chéng zhǎnèr zhě tóng chù xué zhī zhōngshì fēn de tǒng yìng rén wéi 'èr zhě duì lái huò liè kāi láisuǒ duì xiē shì guān zhòng yuán de shì fēi wèn chéng qīngduì jīng zào chéng hěn de liáng yǐng xiǎng de yòu xiē fēi zhù de cuò xiǎng guān diǎn yīngdāng rèn zhēn jiā jiū zhèng
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - jié
  
   zài guò dào bàn shì zhōngshè huì zhù de shí jiàn jīng jīng sān gāo cháo gāo cháo shì gōng shè de chuàng 'èr gāo cháo shì 'é guó shí yuè mìng de shèng shǒu xiān zài lián jiàn shè shè huì zhù guó jiā sān gāo cháo shì 'èr shì jiè zhàn hòu zhì 70 nián dàishè huì zhù mìng jiàn shè zài liè guó jiā bié shì zài zhōng guó shèng
  
   shè huì zhù de shí jiàn biǎo míngshí xiàn shè huì zhù gòng chǎn zhù jué shì shénme kōng xiǎngér shì jīng huò jiāng yào biàn chéng huó shēng shēng de xiàn shízhè shì jīng guò mìng zhèng dǎng rén mín chí jiǔ fèn dǒu zhōng jiāng zuì hòu shèng de chóng gāo xiǎngtóng shí biǎo míngshí xiàn shè huì zhù de dào shì hěn zhé de yào jīng guò duō de chéng gōng shī bàigāo cháo cháozhè yàng huí zhé de chéng
  
   zhù zhǎn shǐ jiù shì duàn chuàng zào xìng zhǎn yòng xīn de yuán dài bié jiù de yuán de guò chéngjiù zhù zuò wéi xué lùn 'ér yán yǒng yuǎn huì guò shíyīn wéi shí jiàn wéi yuán tóu huó shuǐ duàn shí jìnhuì guò shí de shì bié yuán ér bié de yuán de guò shízhèng shì zhěng zhù xué xué shuō yǒng huó de bǎo zhèng jīn wéi zhǐhái méi yòu zhǒng lùn xué shuōzài zǒng shàng néng xiàng zhù zhè yàng wéi rén men rèn shí gǎi zào shì jiè gōng xué de běn lùn fāng jiù yòu zhǒng lùn xué shuō xiàng zhù zhè yàng qiáng diào lùn de yùn yòng lián shí yòu chuàng zào xìng


  Manifesto of the Communist Party (German: Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei), often referred to as The Communist Manifesto, was published on February 21, 1848, and is one of the world's most influential political manuscripts. Commissioned by the Communist League and written by communist theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, it laid out the League's purposes and program. It presents an analytical approach to the class struggle (historical and present) and the problems of capitalism, rather than a prediction of communism's potential future forms.
  
  Friedrich Engels has often been credited in composing the first drafts, which led to The Communist Manifesto. In July 1847, Engels was elected into the Communist League, where he was assigned to draw up a catechism. This became the Draft of a Communist Confession of Faith. The draft contained almost two dozen questions that helped express the ideas of both Engels and Karl Marx at the time. In October 1847, Engels composed his second draft for the Communist League entitled, The Principles of Communism. The text remained unpublished until 1914, despite its basis for The Manifesto. From Engels's drafts Marx was able to write, once commissioned by the Communist League, The Communist Manifesto, where he combined more of his ideas along with Engels's drafts and work, The Condition of the Working Class in England.
  
  Although the names of both Engels and Karl Marx appear on the title page alongside the "persistent assumption of joint-authorship", Engels, in the preface introduction to the 1883 German edition of the Manifesto, said that the Manifesto was "essentially Marx's work" and that "the basic thought... belongs solely and exclusively to Marx."
  
  Engels wrote after Marx's death,
  
   "I cannot deny that both before and during my forty years' collaboration with Marx I had a certain independent share in laying the foundations of the theory, but the greater part of its leading basic principles belong to Marx....Marx was a genius; we others were at best talented. Without him the theory would not be by far what it is today. It therefore rightly bears his name."
  
  Textual history
  
  The Communist Manifesto was first published (in German) in London by a group of German political refugees in 1848. It was also serialised at around the same time in a German-language London newspaper, the Deutsche Londoner Zeitung. The first English translation was produced by Helen Macfarlane in 1850. The Manifesto went through a number of editions from 1872 to 1890; notable new prefaces were written by Marx and Engels for the 1872 German edition, the 1882 Russian edition, the 1883 French edition, and the 1888 English edition. This edition, translated by Samuel Moore with the assistance of Engels, has been the most commonly used English text since.
  
  However, some recent English editions, such as Phil Gasper's annotated "road map" (Haymarket Books, 2006), have used a slightly modified text in response to criticisms of the Moore translation made by Hal Draper in his 1994 history of the Manifesto, The Adventures of the "Communist Manifesto" (Center for Socialist History, 1994).
  Contents
  
  The Manifesto is divided into an introduction, three substantive sections, and a conclusion.
  Preamble
  
  The introduction begins with the notable comparison of communism to a "spectre", claiming that across Europe communism is feared, but not understood, and thus communists ought to make their views known with a manifesto:
  
   A spectre is haunting Europe—the spectre of Communism. All the Powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre: Pope and Czar, Metternich and Guizot, French Radicals and German police-spies.
   Where is the opposition party that has not been decried as Communist by its opponents in power? Where is the opposition party that has not hurled back the branding reproach of Communism, against the more advanced opposition parties, as well as against its reactionary adversaries?
  
  I. Bourgeois and Proletarians
  
  The first section, "Bourgeois and Proletarians", puts forward Marx's neo-Hegelian version of history, historical materialism, claiming that
  
   The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.
  
   Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, have stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.
  
  The section goes on to argue that the class struggle under capitalism is between those who own the means of production, the ruling class or bourgeoisie, and those who labour for a wage, the working class or proletariat.
  
   The bourgeoisie, wherever it has got the upper hand, has put an end to all feudal, patriarchal, idyllic relations. It ... has left remaining no other nexus between man and man than naked self-interest, than callous “payment in cash” ... for exploitation, veiled by religious and political illusions, it has substituted naked, shameless, direct, brutal exploitation ... Constant revolutionizing of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones ... All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned, and man is at last compelled to face with sober senses, his real conditions of life, and his relations with his kind.
  
  However:
  
   The essential condition for the existence and rule of the bourgeois class is the accumulation of wealth in private hands, the formation and increase of capital; the essential condition of capital is wage-labour. Wage-labour rests entirely on the competition among the workers.
  
  This section further explains that the proletarians will eventually rise to power through class struggle: the bourgeoisie constantly exploits the proletariat for its manual labour and cheap wages, ultimately to create profit for the bourgeois; the proletariat rise to power through revolution against the bourgeoisie such as riots or creation of unions. The Communist Manifesto states that while there is still class struggle amongst society, capitalism will be overthrown by the proletariat only to start again in the near future; ultimately communism is the key to class equality amongst the citizens of Europe.
  II. Proletarians and Communists
  
  The second section, "Proletarians and Communists," starts by outlining the relationship of conscious communists to the rest of the working class:
  
   The Communists do not form a separate party opposed to other working-class parties.
   They have no interests separate and apart from those of the proletariat as a whole.
   They do not set up any sectarian principles of their own, by which to shape and mould the proletarian movement.
   The Communists are distinguished from the other working-class parties by this only: 1. In the national struggles of the proletarians of the different countries, they point out and bring to the front the common interests of the entire proletariat, independently of all nationality. 2. In the various stages of development which the struggle of the working class against the bourgeoisie has to pass through, they always and everywhere represent the interests of the movement as a whole.
  
  It goes on to defend communism from various objections, such as the claim that communists advocate "free love", and the claim that people will not perform labor in a communist society because they have no incentive to work.
  
  The section ends by outlining a set of short-term demands. These included, among others, the abolition of both private land ownership and of the right to inheritance, a progressive income tax, universal education, centralization of the means of communication and transport under state management, and the expansion of the means of production owned by the state. The implementation of these policies, would, the authors believed, be a precursor to the stateless and classless society.
  
  One particularly controversial passage deals with this transitional period:
  
   When, in the course of development, class distinctions have disappeared, and all production has been concentrated in the hands of a vast association of the whole nation, the public power will lose its political character. Political power, properly so called, is merely the organized power of one class for oppressing another. If the proletariat during its contest with the bourgeoisie is compelled, by the force of circumstances, to organize itself as a class, if, by means of a revolution, it makes itself the ruling class, and, as such, sweeps away by force the old conditions of production, then it will, along with these conditions, have swept away the conditions for the existence of class antagonisms and of classes generally, and will thereby have abolished its own supremacy as a class.
  
  It is this concept of the transition from socialism to communism which many critics of the Manifesto, particularly during and after the Soviet era, have highlighted. Anarchists, liberals, and conservatives have all asked how an organization such as the revolutionary state could ever (as Engels put it elsewhere) "wither away."
  
  In a related dispute, later Marxists make a separation between "socialism", a society ruled by workers, and "communism", a classless society. Engels wrote little and Marx wrote less on the specifics of the transition to communism, so the authenticity of this distinction remains a matter of dispute.
  10 point program of Communism
  
   1. Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes.
   2. A heavy progressive or graduated income tax.
   3. Abolition of all right of inheritance.
   4. Confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels.
   5. Centralisation of credit in the hands of the State, by means of a national bank with State capital and an exclusive monopoly.
   6. Centralisation of the means of communication and transport in the hands of the State.
   7. Extension of factories and instruments of production owned by the State; the bringing into cultivation of waste-lands, and the improvement of the soil generally in accordance with a common plan.
   8. Equal liability of all to labour. Establishment of industrial armies, especially for agriculture.
   9. Combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries; gradual abolition of the distinction between town and country, by a more equitable distribution of the population over the country.
   10. Free education for all children in public schools. Abolition of children's factory labour in its present form. Combination of education with industrial production.
  
  According to the Communist Manifesto, all these were prior conditions for a transition from capitalism to communism, but Marx and Engels later expressed a desire to modernize this passage.
  III. Socialist and Communist Literature
  
  The third section, "Socialist and Communist Literature," distinguishes communism from other socialist doctrines prevalent at the time the Manifesto was written. While the degree of reproach of Marx and Engels toward rival perspectives varies, all are eventually dismissed for advocating reformism and failing to recognize the preeminent role of the working class. Partly because of Marx's critique, most of the specific ideologies described in this section became politically negligible by the end of the nineteenth century.
  IV. Position of the Communists in Relation to the Various Opposition Parties
  
  The concluding section, "Position of the Communists in Relation to the Various Opposition Parties," briefly discusses the communist position on struggles in specific countries in the mid-nineteenth century such as France, Switzerland, Poland, and Germany. It then ends with a declaration of support for other communist revolutions and a call to action:
  
   In short, the Communists everywhere support every revolutionary movement against the existing social and political order of things.
   The Communists disdain to conceal their views and aims. They openly declare that their ends can be attained only by the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win.
  
  Workers of the world, unite!
  《 shè huì yuē lùn》 - míng shū jiǎn jiè
  
   zuò zhě:( guó suō( 1712-1788 nián
   lèi xíngzhèng zhì lùn zhù zuò
   chéng shū shí jiān: 1762 nián
  《 shè huì yuē lùn》 - bèi jǐng sōu suǒ
  
   suō chū shēng ruì shì nèi zhōng biǎo jiàng jiā tíngcóng xiǎo shī qīnkào bié rén yǎng jiào zhǎngdàsuī rán shēng huó tiáo jiàn jiān dàn fèn qiáng xué chéng cái。 16 suì jiā wài chū liú làngdāng guò xué rén shūyuèpǔ chāo xiě yuánzài zhǎn xiàn liǎo de cái huá, 1750 nián suō zhēng wénlùn xué shùhuò tóu děng jiǎng 'ér chū míng dào liǎo duō shàng liú shè huì guì rén de 'ài zhè xiē yōng jīn bǎi wàn de guì wèitā gōng yìng shū shì de shēng huógěi jiè shào suǒ yào rèn shí de rén suō hěn kuài jiù jìn liǎo wán quán tóng de shēng huó juàn
  
   cóng 1762 nián suō yóu xiě zhèng lùn wén zhāng dāng shēng liǎo yán zhòng de jiū fēn de xiē tóng shì kāi shǐ shū yuǎn yuē jiù zài zhè shí huàn liǎo míng xiǎn de piān zhí kuáng zhèngsuī rán yòu xiē rén duì biǎo shì yǒu hǎodàn què cǎi huái shì de tài tóng men měi réndōu zhēng chǎo guò shēng de zuì hòu 20 nián běn shàng shì zài bēi cǎn tòng zhōng guò de, 1778 nián zài guó mài nóng wéi 'ěr shì
  
   tuī jiàn yuè bǎn běn zhào shāng yìn shū guǎn chū bǎn
  《 shè huì yuē lùn》 - nèi róng jīng yào
  
  《 shè huì yuē lùnquán shū gòng fēn 4 juàn juàn zhù yào lùn shù liǎo rén lèi shì zěn yàng yóu rán zhuàng tài guò dào zhèng zhì zhuàng tài de yuē de gēn běn tiáo jiàn shì shénme 'èr juàn zhù yào tǎo lùn guó jiā de wèn sān juàn lùn shù de shì zhèng zhì zhèng de xíng chéng juàn zài tǎo lùn zhèng zhì de tóng shí chǎn shù liǎo gǒng guó jiā zhì de fāng cóng luó shǐ chū lùn shù liǎo zhù quán zhě zhì shí xiàn de mǒu xiē jié
  
  “ rén shì shēng 'ér yóu dedàn què wǎng zài jiā suǒ zhī zhōng wéi shì qiē de zhù rénfǎn 'ér qiē gèng shì 。”《 shè huì yuē lùnde kāi piān huà jiù chū liǎo zhè zhèn lóng kuì de guān diǎn suō de zhè lùn duàn shì zài jūn zhù zhuān zhì zhì héng xíng 'ōu zhōu de shí dàizhēn duì yīng guó wáng quán zhuān zhì lùn dài biǎo rén fèi 'ěr guān méi yòu rén shì shēng 'ér yóu dezhè jué duì jūn zhù zhuān zhì zhì lài cún de lùn 'ér chū lái dezhè běn shū fǎn duì fēng jiàn zhuān zhìchàng yán mín zhù gòng zhù zhāng rén mín zhù quán wéi zhù zhōng xīn nèi róng chū liǎo mìng xìng de xiàn zhèng lùn
  
   suō rèn wéi yóu de rén men zuì chū shēng huó zài rán zhuàng tàirén men de xíng wéi shòu rán zhī pèi rán xìng wéi chǔ rén lèi liè biàn deyǒng héng de rán quán shēng cún yóupíng děngzhuī qiú xìng huò cái chǎn rén shēncái chǎn shòu qīn fàn de quán yóu rán zhuàng tài cún zài zhǒng zhǒng duān yóu de rén men píng děng de dìng yuēcóng rán zhuàng tài xià bǎi tuō chū láixún zhǎo chū zhǒng jié de xíng shìshǐ néng quán gòng tóng de liàng lái wèi bǎo zhàng měi jié zhě de rén shēn cái bìng qiě yóu zhè jié 'ér shǐ měi quán tǐxiàng lián de rén yòu zhǐ guò shì zài cóng běn rénbìng qiě réng rán xiàng wǎng yàng yóuzhè zhǒng jié de xíng shì jiù shì guó jiāyóu guó jiā shì yóu de rén men píng děng de dìng yuē chǎn shēng derén men zhǐ shì rán quán zhuǎn ràng gěi zhěng shè huì 'ér bìng shì fèng xiàn gěi rèn rényīn rén mín zài guó jiā zhōng réng shì yóu deguó jiā de zhù quán zhǐ néng shǔ rén mín
  
   rán hòu suō jìn chǎn shù liǎo rén mín zhù quán de yuán zhù quán shì zhuǎn ràng deyīn wéi guó jiā yóu zhù quán zhě gòu chéngzhǐ yòu zhù quán zhě cái néng xíng shǐ zhù quánzhù quán shì fēn deyīn wéi dài biǎo zhù quán de zhì shì zhěng zhù quán shì dài biǎo deyīn wéizhù quán zài běn zhì shàng shì yóu gōng suǒ gòu chéng deér zhì yòu shì jué dài biǎo de zhǐ néng shì tóng zhìhuò zhě shì lìng zhìér jué néng yòu shénme zhōng jiān de dōng yīn rén mín de yuán jiù shì néng shì rén mín de dài biǎo men zhǐ guò shì rén mín de bàn shì yuán liǎo men bìng néng zuò chū rèn kěn dìng de jué dìng”。 tóng shízhù quán shì jué duì dezhì gāo shàng qīn fàn deyīn wéi zhù quán shì gōng de xiànshì guó jiā de líng hún zhè yàng de lùn suō fǎn duì jūn zhù xiàn 'ér jiān jué zhù zhāng mín zhù gòng
  
  《 shè huì yuē lùnhái lùn shù liǎo liè běn lùnzài zhōng guàn chuānzhuó rén mín zhù quán wéi zhōng xīn nèi róng de chǎn jiē mín zhù zhù jīng shén suō zhǐ chū shì rén mín gōng gòng zhì de xiànshì rén mín zhì de quán rén mín wéi suǒ zuò de guī dìng de diǎn zài zhì de biàn xìng duì xiàng de biàn xìngqián zhě zhǐ shì rén mín gōng de xiànhòu zhě zhǐ kǎo de duì xiàng shì quán de xíng wéi 'ér fēi bié rén
  
   tóng shí chǎn shù liǎo yóu de guān shǒu xiān yóu shì zhì derén mín cóng jiù shì cóng de zhìjiù wèi zhe yóu shì yóu de bǎo zhàng fāng miànrén rén zūn shǒu cái néng gěi rén men xiǎng shòu yóu quán de 'ān quán bǎo zhànglìng fāng miàn qiǎngpò rén men yóu
  
   wài suō hái tǒng chū liǎo lùn rèn wéi yào zhì guó jiù yào yòu xiǎng de zài zhì dìng shí zūn xún xià liè yuán móu rén mín zuì xìng wéi yuán quán yóu rén mín zhǎng yóu xián míng zhě chéng dān de rèn yào zhù zhǒng rán de shè huì tiáo jiàn zhǐ guò shì bǎo zhàngzūn xún jiáo zhèng rán de guān 'ér yào bǎo chí de wěn dìng xìngyòu yào shì shí xiū gǎifèi chú hǎo de
  
  “ rén shì shēng 'ér yóu píng děng dezhè shì tiān de quán ”,《 shè huì yuē lùnzhōng de zhè lùnkāi chuàng liǎo 'ōu zhōu quán shì jiè mín zhù píng děng xiǎng zhī xiān derén quán tiān “, zhù quán zài mínde xīn xué shuō xiàngjūn quán shén shòude chuán tǒng guān niàn liǎo tiǎo zhàn suǒ jiē shì derén quán yóuquán píng děngde yuán zhì jīn réng zuò wéi fāng zhèng zhì de chǔ
  《 shè huì yuē lùn》 - zhuān jiā diǎn píng
  
   suō shì 18 shì guó méng yùn dòng jié chū de zhèng zhì xiǎng jiāwén xué jiā de cái wén zǎo fēngmǐ liǎo dāng shí de zhěng 'ōu zhōubìng wéi hòu rén liú xià liǎo liè huàshídài de zhùhěn shǎo yòu zhé xué jiā néng dài lái suō zhù zuò yàng de zhèn hàn de shù xué tánhuò guó róng jiǎngshǐ róng huò 'ōu zhōu zhé xué shī chēng hào de wén xué míng zhùxīn 'ài luò zài shì jiè wén xué shǐ shàng yòu zhe hěn gāo wèishǐ shēn méng shí zhù míng wén xué jiā de hángliè。《 shè huì yuē lùnyòu zuòmín yuē lùnshì zuì wéi jié chū de dài biǎo zuò zhī bèi wéirén lèi jiě fàng de shēngshì jiè mìng de shān dòng zhě”。 suō shì 'ōu zhōu méng yùn dòng zhōng zhòng yào de xiǎng jiā 'ěr tài míng de zhù yào zuò pǐn yòuchàn huǐ 》、《 ài 'ér》、《 shè huì yuē lùn》、《 xīn 'ài luò 》。 de zhù yào xiǎngtiān rén quán xué shuō chūrén mín zhù quánde kǒu hào xiǎng shì guó mìng zhōng bīn pài de zhìduì 'ōu měi guó de chǎn jiē mìng chǎn shēng liǎo shēn yǐng xiǎng
  
   deshè huì yuē lùnzhōng dezhù quán zài mín shuōjiù huàfēn liǎo shí dài
  
  《 shè huì yuē lùn suō jiāng huā sòng gěi wèi nǎi de qīn
  《 shè huì yuē lùn chū liǎotiān rén quán zhù quán zài mín de xiǎng”。 gāng wèn shì jiù zāo dào liǎo jìn zhǐ suō běn rén bèi liú wáng dào yīng guódànshè huì yuē lùnsuǒ chàng de mín zhù lùn què hěn kuài fēngmǐ quán shì jiè yǐn liǎo zhèn jīng shì jiè de guó mìng guó guó jiā yán yóupíng děng 'àibiàn lái shè huì yuē lùn》。 1789 nián guó guó mín dài biǎo huì tōng guò derén quán xuān yánzhōngshè huì de mùdì shì wéi zhòng móu de”、“ tǒng zhì quán shǔ rén mínděng nèi róng chōng fēn xiàn liǎoshè huì yuē lùnde jīng shén。《 shè huì yuē lùnhái duì měi guó de xuān yánchǎn shēng liǎo zhòng yào yǐng xiǎngcóng luó 'ěr dào liè níng céng yòngshè huì yuē lùnwéi de zhèng quán zuò jiě shì。 1978 niánzài niàn suō shì shì 200 zhōu nián de huó dòng zhōngzhuān mén zhào kāi liǎo guó yán tǎo huìyán jiū suō de xiǎngchū bǎn de xīn chuántuī chū wéi cái de diàn shì de hái bèi 'ān fàng zài guó de wěi rén nèi suō zàishè huì yuē lùnzhōng jiàn dexiāo fèi zhě de zhǒng xiàn jǐng chéng shì de sāo luàn huǐ miè xìng de jūn fèi dānděng děngdōuyǐ chéng wéi dāng dài shè huì de xiàn shí wèn qiándān zài guó jiù yòu 150 duō wèi xué zhě zài zhuān mén yán jiū suō de xiǎng
  
   yòu shuō suō de zhèng zhì lùn shēn shòu bólātú de xiǎng guóde yǐng xiǎng。《 xiǎng guóde gài niànjiàn rén xìng shàn de niàn chǔ shàngbólātú xià de shuō,“ zhǐ yòu zhèng zhí de rén cái huì xìng ”,“ shàn de zhìchéng wéi de xiǎng guó de chǔ suō xiāng xìn rén xìng shàn chàng kuān róng xìngjiān dìng fǎn duì rèn zhèng zhì bào tóng shì lùn shù xiǎng guó de yuán tóng bólātú suō jiāng lùn kuàng jià wán quán jiàn zàirén shēng 'ér yóude chǔ zhī shàng jiù shì shuō yóu zhì”。 zhè chǔ jiù shí zài duō liǎohěn zǎo qiánrén men yòu gèng hǎo de dàn wén yán de shuō :“ tiān rén quán。” yóu tiān rén quán zuò wéi yuán suǒ gòu zào de zài zhǐ shì xiǎngér shì xiàn dài gōng mín shè huì de běn yuán gōng mín shè huì zhōnggōng mín shī liǎo yóu rén suǒ bùwèi de yóuér dào gōng mín de zhèng zhì quán zhèng zhì yóu deshè huì yuē lùn》( yòu mín yuē lùn》) suǒ yào jiě jué de shì rén quán de yòu jié cóng xìng zhǐ néng lái rén mínchéng liǎo suō de chéng zhě bèi pàn zhě de gòng tóng de niànqián zhě chǎn shēng liǎo měi guó mìng mín zhù de jiàn hòu zhě rén mín zhī míng zhuān quán shā suōzuò wéizhù quán zài mínde gòu huà zhějiù shì zài 200 nián hòu hái chǔyú zhēng lùn de zhōng xīn de lùn dào shì zài chàng mín zhù yóuhái shì zài chàng quán bào zhèng
  
  《 shè huì yuē lùnzhé xué jiā suō tóu zhù zuò
   rén quán shì shǔ de shì shǔ guó jiā de yuē dìng 'ér chéng guó jiā de xìngshì yòu xiào xìng zhèng quán xìng de zhōng pàn duàn yóu shì lái duì rén de bǎo ér shì lái duì de chè cānyùzhè shì qièshí bǎo zhàng yóu de xiān jué tiáo jiànzài zhè guò chéng dejiāo ér fēibìng ”( wán quán shì shù xué shàng de zhǒngxíng chéng gōng mín zhì héng héng zhù quán zhě de zhì héng héng bān zhìér zhè zhǒng zhù quán zhě yīn wéi de duàn cānyù nèi róng shì cháng xīn de gòng róng decóng zhè diǎn chū duō shù rén shuō liǎo suàn de yuē sān zhāng rán chéng wéi zhù quán zài mín de dào de xiàn fāng shì
  
   suō zhèng quán míng bái fēn chéng liǎo xíng zhèng liǎng fēnqián zhě shǔ shè huì yuē de fàn chóuér hòu zhě shì yuē de nèi róngyīn shì biàn tuī fān de)。 zhè niàn duì hòu lái mín zhù zhèng zhì de zhǎn yòu zhe miè de gòng xiànzài suō zhī qiánmèng jiū delùn de jīng shénduì de jiě gèng jiā shēn wéi quē suō dezhù quán zài mínde dòng 。《 shè huì yuē lùn shǐ zhì zhōng zhǐ yáng liǎo zhǒng zhìzhuān zhì zhèng àn suō de huàzhè jiù shì zhǒng miè shì de quán gāo zhù quán zhě zhī shàng de zhì de zhì suō jǐn jǐn lùn shù liǎo men de rán cóng zhí jiē mín zhù zhìguì dài zhì dào jūn zhù xiàn zhìtǒng zhì de gēn shì rén mín zhù quán héng héng héng zhēn zhèng biǎo jiù shì suō bìng jìn 'ér rèn zhēn zhèng 'ér zhì de zhèng tǒng chēng wéi gòng zhèng zài suō kàn lái shí dài de zhèng zhì shè huì xíng tài shì xiǔ de yào dào shí dài cái néng zhǎo dào de huí guī
  
  《 shè huì yuē lùnshì shì jiè zhèng zhì xué shuō shǐ shàng zuì zhòng yào de jīng diǎn zhī shì zhèn hàn shì jiè de 1789 nián guó mìng de hào jiǎo yīn shū chǎn shù de duō yuán yuán jǐn zài mìng zhī chū bèi zài guórén quán xuān yánděng zhòng yào wén xiàn zhōngzài mìng hòu de cháng shí chéng wéi chǎn jiē de zhèng zhì zhì de shí suō de xiǎng duì hòu shì xiǎng jiā men lùn de xíng chéng yòu zhòng yǐng xiǎng
  
   suō de zhèng zhì zhù zuò zhōng yòu duō xiǎng xīn yíngyǐn rén shèngdàn shì zǒng shuō lái jiù shì zhǒng zhuī qiú píng děng de qiáng liè wàng zhǒng tóng yàng qiáng liè de gǎn shòuxiàn cún shè huì zhì de jīng dào liǎo lìng rén néng róng rěn de chéng rén shēng xià lái běn lái shì yóu dedàn shì lùn zǒu dào dōuyào dài shàng jiā suǒ suō néng bìng huān bào xíng wéidàn shì liǎo rén shí xíng bào mìngzhú gǎi shè huì zhì
  
   yòu rén píng suō shì shén jīng zhì de rénshì nán zhù zhěshì xiǎng bùqiè shí de de xiǎng jiāzhè yàng de píng shàng shì zhèng què dedàn shì yuǎn de quē diǎn gèng zhòng yào de shì de dòng chá jié chū de chuàng zào jīng shén suǒ shǎn xiàn chū lái de xiǎng huǒ huāliǎng duō shì lái duàn yǐng xiǎng zhe xiàn dài xiǎng
  《 shè huì yuē lùn》 - miào jiā
  
   kàn dào liǎo lìng shì jiè de quán qíng dōubèi duì zhēn duì yóuduì dào de 'ài zhì diào liǎo
   shuí kuài juàn lái bìng xiǎng dào zhè shì deér qiě bèi tóu nǎo jiǎn dān de rén suǒ xiāng xìn de huà jiù shì wén míng de diàn zhě


  Social contract describes a broad class of theories that try to explain the ways in which people form states to maintain social order. The notion of the social contract implies that the people give up sovereignty to a government or other authority in order to receive or maintain social order through the rule of law. It can also be thought of as an agreement by the governed on a set of rules by which they are governed.
  
  Social contract theory formed a central pillar in the historically important notion that legitimate state authority must be derived from the consent of the governed. The starting point for most of these theories is a heuristic examination of the human condition absent from any structured social order, usually termed the “state of nature”. In this condition, an individual’s actions are bound only by his or her personal power, constrained by conscience. From this common starting point, the various proponents of social contract theory attempt to explain, in different ways, why it is in an individual’s rational self-interest to voluntarily give up the freedom one has in the state of nature in order to obtain the benefits of political order.
  
  Thomas Hobbes (1651), John Locke (1689) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762) are the most famous philosophers of contractarianism. However, they drew quite different conclusions from this starting-point. Hobbes advocated an authoritarian monarchy, Locke advocated a liberal monarchy, while Rousseau advocated liberal republicanism. Their work provided theoretical groundwork of constitutional monarchy, liberal democracy and republicanism. The Social Contract was used in the Declaration of Independence as a sign of enforcing Democracy, and more recently has been revived by thinkers such as John Rawls.
  
  Overview
  
  According to Thomas Hobbes, human life would be "nasty, brutish, and short" without political authority. In its absence, we would live in a state of nature, where we each have unlimited natural freedoms, including the "right to all things" and thus the freedom to harm all who threaten our own self-preservation; there would be an endless "war of all against all" (Bellum omnium contra omnes). To avoid this, free men establish political community i.e. civil society through a social contract in which each gain civil rights in return for subjecting himself to civil law or to political authority.
  
  Alternatively, some have argued that we gain civil rights in return for accepting the obligation to respect and defend the rights of others, giving up some freedoms to do so; this alternative formulation of the duty arising from the social contract is often identified with arguments about military service.
  Violations of the contract
  
  The social contract and the civil rights it gives us are neither "natural rights" nor permanently fixed. Rather, the contract itself is the means towards an end — the benefit of all — and (according to some philosophers such as Locke or Rousseau), is only legitimate to the extent that it meets the general interest ("general will" in Rousseau). Therefore, when failings are found in the contract, we renegotiate to change the terms, using methods such as elections and legislature. Locke theorized the right of rebellion in case of the contract leading to tyranny.
  
  Since civil rights come from agreeing to the contract, those who choose to violate their contractual obligations, such as by committing crimes, abdicate their rights, and the rest of society can be expected to protect itself against the actions of such outlaws. To be a member of society is to accept responsibility for following its rules, along with the threat of punishment for violating them. In this way, society works by "mutual coercion, mutually agreed upon" (Hardin 1968).
  History
  Classical thought
  
  Many have argued that Plato's dialog Crito expresses a Greek version of social contract theory. In this dialog, Socrates refuses to escape from jail to avoid being put to death. He argues that since he has willingly remained in Athens all of his life despite opportunities to go elsewhere, he has accepted the social contract i.e. the burden of the local laws, and he cannot violate these laws even when they are against his self-interest.
  
  Epicurus seems to have had a strong sense of social contract, with justice and law being rooted in mutual agreement and advantage, as evidenced by these lines, among others, from his Principal Doctrines:
  
   31. Natural justice is a pledge of reciprocal benefit, to prevent one man from harming or being harmed by another. 32. Those animals which are incapable of making binding agreements with one another not to inflict nor suffer harm are without either justice or injustice; and likewise for those peoples who either could not or would not form binding agreements not to inflict nor suffer harm. 33. There never was such a thing as absolute justice, but only agreements made in mutual dealings among men in whatever places at various times providing against the infliction or suffering of harm. 34. Injustice is not an evil in itself, but only in consequence of the fear which is associated with the apprehension of being discovered by those appointed to punish such actions.
  
  Also see Epicurean ethics
  Renaissance developments
  
  Quentin Skinner has argued that several critical modern innovations in contract theory are found in the writings from French Calvinists and Huguenots, whose work in turn was invoked by writers in the Low Countries who objected to their subjection to Spain and, later still, by Catholics in England. Among these, Francisco Suárez (1548–1617), from the School of Salamanca, might be considered as an early theorist of the social contract, theorizing natural law in an attempt to limit the divine right of absolute monarchy. All of these groups were led to articulate notions of popular sovereignty by means of a social covenant or contract: all of these arguments began with proto-“state of nature” arguments, to the effect that the basis of politics is that everyone is by nature free of subjection to any government.
  
  However, these arguments relied on a corporatist theory found in Roman Law, according to which "a populus" can exist as a distinct legal entity. Therefore these arguments held that a community of people can join a government because they have the capacity to exercise a single will and make decisions with a single voice in the absence of sovereign authority — a notion rejected by Hobbes and later contract theorists.
  Philosophers
  Hugo Grotius
  
  In the early 17th century, Grotius (1583–1645) introduced the modern idea of natural rights of individuals. Grotius says that we each have natural rights which we have in order to preserve ourselves. He uses this idea to try to establish a basis for moral consensus in the face of religious diversity and the rise of natural science and to find a minimal basis for a moral beginning for society, a kind of natural law that everyone could potentially accept. He goes so far as to say even if we were to concede what we cannot concede without the utmost wickedness, that there is no God, these laws would still hold. The idea was considered incendiary, since it suggests that power can ultimately go back to the individuals if the political society that they have set up forfeits the purpose for which it was originally established, which is to preserve themselves. In other words, the people i.e. the individual people, are sovereign. Grotius says that the people are sui juris - under their own jurisdiction. People have rights as human beings but there is a delineation of those rights because of what is possible for everyone to accept morally - everyone has to accept that each person is entitled to try to preserve themselves and therefore they shouldn't try to do harm to others or to interfere with them and they should punish any breach of someone else's rights that arises.
  Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan (1651)
  
  The first modern philosopher to articulate a detailed contract theory was Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). According to Hobbes, the lives of individuals in the state of nature were "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short", a state where self-interest and the absence of rights and contracts prevented the 'social', or society. Life was 'anarchic' (without leadership/ the concept of sovereignty). Individuals in the state of nature were apolitical and asocial. This state of nature is followed by the social contract.
  
  The social contract was an 'occurrence' during which individuals came together and ceded some of their individual rights so that others would cede theirs (e.g. person A gives up his/her right to kill person B if person B does the same). This resulted in the establishment of society, and by extension, the state, a sovereign entity (like the individuals, now under its rule, used to be) which was to protect these new rights which were now to regulate societal interactions. Society was thus no longer anarchic.
  
  But the state system, which grew out of the social contract, was anarchic (without leadership). Just as the individuals in the state of nature had been sovereigns and thus guided by self-interest and the absence of rights, so states now acted in their self-interest in competition with each other. Just like the state of nature, states were thus bound to be in conflict because there was no sovereign over and above the state (i.e. more powerful) capable of imposing social-contract laws. Indeed, Hobbes' work helped to serve as a basis for the realism theories of international relations, advanced by E.H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau.
  John Locke's Second Treatise of Government (1689)
  
  John Locke's conception of the social contract differed from Hobbes' in several ways, but retained the central notion that persons in a state of nature would willingly come together to form a state. Locke believed that individuals in a state of nature would have stronger moral limits on their action than accepted by Hobbes, but recognized that people would still live in fear of one another. Locke argued that individuals would agree to form a state that would provide a "neutral judge", and that could therefore protect the lives, liberty, and property of those who lived within it. While Hobbes argued for near-absolute authority, Locke argued that laws could only be legitimate if they sought to achieve the common good. Locke also believed that people will do the right thing as a group, and that all people have natural rights.
  Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Du contrat social (1762)
  
  Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), in his influential 1762 treatise The Social Contract, outlined a different version of social contract theory, based on popular sovereignty. Although Rousseau wrote that the British were perhaps at the time the freest people on earth, he did not approve of their representative government. Rousseau believed that liberty was possible only where there was direct rule by the people as a whole in lawmaking, where popular sovereignty was indivisible and inalienable. Citizens must, in at least some circumstances, be able to choose together the fundamental rules by which they would live, and be able to revise those rules on later occasions if they choose to do so - something the British people as a whole were unable to do.
  
  Rousseau's political theory has some points in common with Locke's individualism, but departs from it in his development of the "luminous conception" (which he credited to Diderot) of the general will. Rousseau argues a citizen can be an egoist and decide that his personal interest should override the collective interest. However, as part of a collective body, the individual citizen puts aside his egoism to create a "general will", which is popular sovereignty itself. Popular sovereignty (i.e., the rule of law), thus decides what is good for society as a whole, and the individual (including the administrative head of state, who could be a monarch) must bow to it, or be forced to bow to it:
  
   [The social contract] can be reduced to the following terms: Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will; and in a body we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.
  
  Rousseau's striking phrase that man must "be forced to be free" should be understood this way: since the indivisible and inalienable popular sovereignty decides what is good for the whole, then if an individual lapses back into his ordinary egoism and breaks the law, he will be forced to listen to what they decided as a member of the collectivity (i.e. as citizens). Thus, the law, inasmuch as it is voted by the people's representatives, is not a limitation of individual freedom, but its expression; and enforcement of law, including criminal law, is not a restriction on individual liberty, as the individual, as a citizen, explicitly agreed to be constrained if, as a private individual, he did not respect his own will as formulated in the general will. Because laws represent the restraints of civil freedom, they represent the leap made from humans in the state of nature into civil society. In this sense, the law is a civilizing force, and therefore Rousseau believed that the laws that govern a people helped to mold their character.
  Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's individualist social contract (1851)
  
  While Rousseau's social contract is based on popular sovereignty and not on individual sovereignty, there are other theories espoused by individualists, libertarians and anarchists, which do not involve agreeing to anything more than negative rights and creates only a limited state, if any.
  
  Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) advocated a conception of social contract which didn't involve an individual surrendering sovereignty to others. According to him, the social contract was not between individuals and the state, but rather between individuals themselves refraining from coercing or governing each other, each one maintaining complete sovereignty upon oneself:
  
   What really is the Social Contract? An agreement of the citizen with the government? No, that would mean but the continuation of [Rousseau’s] idea. The social contract is an agreement of man with man; an agreement from which must result what we call society. In this, the notion of commutative justice, first brought forward by the primitive fact of exchange, …is substituted for that of distributive justice … Translating these words, contract, commutative justice, which are the language of the law, into the language of business, and you have commerce, that is to say, in its highest significance, the act by which man and man declare themselves essentially producers, and abdicate all pretension to govern each other.
   —Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century (1851)
  
  John Rawls' Theory of Justice (1971)
  
  John Rawls (1921–2002) proposed a contractarian approach that has a decidedly Kantian flavour, in A Theory of Justice (1971), whereby rational people in a hypothetical "original position", setting aside their individual preferences and capacities under a "veil of ignorance", would agree to certain general principles of justice. This idea is also used as a game-theoretical formalization of the notion of fairness.
  Philip Pettit's Republicanism (1997)
  
  Philip Pettit (b. 1945) has argued, in Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government (1997), that the theory of social contract, classically based on the consent of the governed (as it is assumed that the contract is valid as long as the people consent to being governed by its representatives, who exercise sovereignty), should be modified, in order to avoid dispute. Instead of arguing that an explicit consent, which can always be manufactured, should justify the validity of social contract, Philip Pettit argues that the absence of an effective rebellion against the contract is the only legitimacy of it.
  Criticism
  David Hume
  
  An early critic of social contract theory was Rousseau's friend, the philosopher David Hume, who in 1742 published an essay "On Civil Liberty", in whose second part, entitled, "Of the Original Contract ", he stressed that the concept of a "social contract" was a convenient fiction:
  
   AS no party, in the present age can well support itself without a philosophical or speculative system of principles annexed to its political or practical one; we accordingly find that each of the factions into which this nation is divided has reared up a fabric of the former kind, in order to protect and cover that scheme of actions which it pursues. . . . The one party [defenders of the absolute and divine right of kings, or Tories], by tracing up government to the DEITY, endeavor to render it so sacred and inviolate that it must be little less than sacrilege, however tyrannical it may become, to touch or invade it in the smallest article. The other party [the Whigs, or believers in constitutional monarchy], by founding government altogether on the consent of the PEOPLE suppose that there is a kind of original contract by which the subjects have tacitly reserved the power of resisting their sovereign, whenever they find themselves aggrieved by that authority with which they have for certain purposes voluntarily entrusted him. --David Hume, "On Civil Liberty" [II.XII.1]
  
  However, Hume did agree that, no matter how a government is founded, the consent of the governed is the only legitimate foundation on which a government can rest.
  
   My intention here is not to exclude the consent of the people from being one just foundation of government where it has place. It is surely the best and most sacred of any. I only pretend that it has very seldom had place in any degree and never almost in its full extent. And that therefore some other foundation of government must also be admitted. --Ibid II.XII.20
  
  Logic of contracting
  
  According to the will theory of contract, which was dominant in the 19th century and still exerts a strong influence, a contract is not presumed valid unless all parties agree to it voluntarily, either tacitly or explicitly, without coercion. Lysander Spooner, a 19th century lawyer and staunch supporter of a right of contract between individuals, in his essay No Treason, argues that a supposed social contract cannot be used to justify governmental actions such as taxation, because government will initiate force against anyone who does not wish to enter into such a contract. As a result, he maintains that such an agreement is not voluntary and therefore cannot be considered a legitimate contract at all.
  
  Modern Anglo-American law, like European civil law, is based on a will theory of contract, according to which all terms of a contract are binding on the parties because they chose those terms for themselves. This was less true when Hobbes wrote Leviathan; then, more importance was attached to consideration, meaning a mutual exchange of benefits necessary to the formation of a valid contract, and most contracts had implicit terms that arose from the nature of the contractual relationship rather than from the choices made by the parties. Accordingly, it has been argued that social contract theory is more consistent with the contract law of the time of Hobbes and Locke than with the contract law of our time, and that features in the social contract which seem anomalous to us, such as the belief that we are bound by a contract formulated by our distant ancestors, would not have seemed as strange to Hobbes' contemporaries as they do to us.
  Multiple contracts
  
  Legal scholar Randy Barnett has argued, that, while presence in the territory of a society may be necessary for consent, it is not consent to any rules the society might make regardless of their content. A second condition of consent is that the rules be consistent with underlying principles of justice and the protection of natural and social rights, and have procedures for effective protection of those rights (or liberties). This has also been discussed by O.A. Brownson, who argued that there are, in a sense, three "constitutions" involved: The first the constitution of nature that includes all of what the Founders called "natural law". The second would be the constitution of society, an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it does establish the third, a constitution of government. To consent, a necessary condition is that the rules be constitutional in that sense.
  Tacit consent
  
  The theory of an implicit social contract holds that by remaining in the territory controlled by some government, people give consent to be governed. This consent is what gives legitimacy to the government. Philosopher Roderick Long argues that this is a case of question begging, because the argument has to presuppose its conclusion:
  
   I think that the person who makes this argument is already assuming that the government has some legitimate jurisdiction over this territory. And then they say, well, now, anyone who is in the territory is therefore agreeing to the prevailing rules. But they’re assuming the very thing they're trying to prove – namely that this jurisdiction over the territory is legitimate. If it's not, then the government is just one more group of people living in this broad general geographical territory. But I've got my property, and exactly what their arrangements are I don't know, but here I am in my property and they don't own it – at least they haven't given me any argument that they do – and so, the fact that I am living in "this country" means I am living in a certain geographical region that they have certain pretensions over – but the question is whether those pretensions are legitimate. You can’t assume it as a means to proving it.
  
  Criticisms of natural rights
  
  Contractualism is based on the notion that rights are agreed upon in order to further our interests: each individual subject is accorded individual rights, which may or may not be inalienable, and form the basis of civil rights, as in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. It must be underlined, however, as Hannah Arendt did on her book on imperialism, that the 1789 Declarations, in this agreeing with the social contract theory, bases the natural rights of the human-being on the civil rights of the citizen, instead of the reverse as the contractualist theory does. This criticism derives from a long tradition going back to St. Augustine of Hippo, who in The City of God (book) envisioned a unified Christian society presided over by a king who was responsible for the welfare of his subjects. Political Augustinianism with its insistence on divine sovereignty and on the two separate spheres of a heavenly and an earthly community, has indeed been regarded as incompatible with social contract theories. This raises the question of whether social contractarianism, as a central plank of liberal thought, is reconcilable with the Christian religion, and particularly with Catholicism and Catholic social teaching. The individualist and liberal approach has also been criticized since the 19th century by thinkers such as Marx, Nietzsche & Freud, and afterward by structuralist and post-structuralist thinkers, such as Lacan, Althusser, Foucault, Deleuze or Derrida
   zhēn xīn jiē shòu zhè míng yán héng héngzuì shǎo guǎn shì de zhèng shì zuì hǎo de zhèng ”; bìng wàng néng gèng xùn gèng chè dào zhí xíngzhí xíng zhī hòu xiāng xìn zuì zhōng huì biàn chéng:“ shì guǎn de zhèng cái shì zuì hǎo de zhèng ”。 zhǐ yào rén men duì yòu suǒ dài men jiù huì dào yàng de zhèng chōng liàng zhèng zhǐ guò shì zhǒng quán zhī dàn shì duō shù zhèng wǎng wǎng ér suǒ yòu de zhèng yòu shí huì rén men duì cháng bèi jūn chū de jiàn hěn duō hěn yòu fèn liàngzhí guǎng fàn xuān chuándàn zuì zhōng néng huì yòng lái fǎn duì cháng bèi zhèng cháng bèi jūn zhǐ shì zhèng de shǒu zhèng běn shēn shì yóu rén mín xuǎn yòng lái zhí xíng men zhì de zhǒng shìdàn shì zài rén mín néng gòu tōng guò cǎi xíng dòng zhī qián tóng yàng yòu néng bèi yǐn làn yòng zhí quánqǐng kàn dāng qián de zhàn zhēngzhè shì xiāng duì shǎo shù rén cháng bèi zhèng dāng gōng shǐ yòng de yīn wéi zài kāi shǐ rén mín bìng tóng cǎi zhè zhǒng shǒu duàn
  
  ( suō luó de zhù zhāng yòu diǎn xiàng shì yóu zhù bìng qiě zài jiēguǒ shàng qīng xiàng zhèng zhù zhě 'àn
  
   qián de měi guó zhèng héng héng shí shàng shì chuán tǒng xíng shìsuī shuō rén xuǎn shì xīn de què shǐ wán zhěng chuán sòng dào xià dàiér měi yòu dōuzài shī de wán zhěng xìngchú zhī wài yòu néng shì shénme de zhāoqì liàng shàng huó rényīn wéi rén néng 'àn de zhì shǐ zhī cóngduì rén mín lái shuō shì zhǒng qiāng guǒ men běn zhèng jīng dàngzhēn jiā huǒ yòng lái xiāng gōng kěn dìng huì bēng lièdàn de yào xìng huì yīn 'ér jiǎn shǎoyīn wèirénmín yào yòu zhè yàng huò yàng de bìng qīn 'ěr líng tīng chū yùn zhuǎn zào yīn lái mǎn men yòu guān zhèng de gài niànyīn zhèng biàn néng xiǎn shì chū rén men huì duō me róng zhì shēn qiáng zhì zhī xiàshèn zhì shì de qiáng zhìmùdì shì wèile cóng zhōng huò mendōu chéng rèn zhè shì zhuāng miào shìdàn zhèng chú liǎo shàn piān zhí néng zhī wài cóng lái méi yòu jìn guò rèn shì méi yòu shǐ guó jiā bǎo chí yóu méi yòu 'ān dìng méi yòu gōng jiào suǒ yòu de chéng jiù dōushì kào měi guó rén mín yòu de xìng 'ér huò deér qiěyào shì zhèng jīng cháng cóng zhōng náozhè chéng jiù huò huì gèng xiē guǒ rén men néng tōng guò zhèng zhè quán zhī shí xiàn yuē shù men jiāng huì fēi cháng gāo xīngzhèng gāng cái suǒ shuōbèi tǒng zhì zhě zuì shòu yuē shù shízhèng shì tǒng zhì gòu zuì zhī shímào shāng ruò méi yòu yìn 'ān rén suǒ zào chéng de gēn běn néng yuè guò zhě men duàn shè zhì de zhàng 'ài 'ér zhǎn guǒ men jǐn gēn zhèng xíng dòng de hòu guǒér dòng men zhēn yìng dāng jiāng zhè rén dāng zuò xiē zài tiě guǐ shàng fàng zhì zhàng 'ài de táo guǐ yàng jiā chéng
  
   shuō shí zài dezuò wéi gōng mínér xiàng xiē chēng wéi zhèng de rén bìng yào qiú fèi chú zhèng ér shì wàng néng yòu hǎo diǎn de zhèng ràng měi réndōu shuō shuō shénme yàng de zhèng néng yíng de zūn jìngzhè jiāng shì jiàn zhǒng zhèng de
  
  ( suō luó bìng rèn wéi shì zhèng zhù zhě
  
   dāng quán dàn luò rén mín shǒu zhōng fēn rén bèi yǔn cháng jiǔ zhì guó jiā de yóu jìng jǐn jǐn shì yīn wéi men dài biǎo zhe zhēn yīn wéi zhè kàn lái duì shǎo shù rén zuì gōng zhèngér shì yīn wéi men zài liàng shàng zuì qiáng rán 'ér shǐ shì zài suǒ yòu qíng kuàng xià yóu duō shù rén tǒng zhì de zhèng néng zhèng shì rén men tōng cháng jiě de zhèng jiǎ shè zài zhèng kào duō shù rénér yòng liáng zhī lái pàn duàn shì fēiduō shù rén zhǐ jué dìng zhèng gāi guǎn huò gāi guǎn de wèn zhè yàng de zhèng nán dào néng shí xiàn nán dào gōng mín yǒng yuǎn yīngdāng zài dìng shí huò zài zuì chéng shàng shǐ de liáng xīn cóng zhě guǒ zhè yàngrén men yào liáng xīn yòu yòu yòng xiǎng men shǒu xiān yīnggāi shì rén cái shì chén mínjǐn jǐn wèile gōng zhèng 'ér péi yǎng zūn jìng de guàn shì de yòu quán chéng dān de wéi jiù shì zài rèn shí hòu zuò rèn wéi shì zhèng què de shìgōng méi yòu liáng xīndàn shì yóu yòu liáng xīn de rén men chéng de gōng shì yòu liáng xīn de gōng zhè yàng de shuō wán quán zhèng què háo méi yòu shǐ rén biàn gèng gōng zhèng xiēxiāng fǎnyóu zūn zhòng shèn zhì shì hǎo xīn rén zài biàn chéng fēi zhèng de zhí xíng zhě kàn dào yóu shì bīngshàng xiàoshàng wèixià shì děng bīng jūn huǒ bān yùn gōng chéng de duì lìng rén xiàn de duì liè fān shān yuè lǐngbēn zhàn zhēngdàn shì yóu men wéi bèi liǎo de zhìcháng qíng liáng xīn men de xíng jūn biàn cháng kùn nánrén réndōu gǎn dào xīn jīng ròu tiàozhè jiù shì guòfèn zūn zhòng de tōng 'ér rán de jiēguǒ men suǒ juǎnrù de shì yīcháng kěwù de jiāo duì men shēn xìn mendōu wàng píngxiàn zài men chéng liǎo shénmeshì rén hái shì xiē xiǎo xíng huó dòng bǎo lěi huò dàn yào zài wéi mǒu xiē shǒu duàn de zhǎng quán zhě xiào láoqǐng cān guān hǎi jūn shuǐ bīng jiù shì měi guó zhèng suǒ néng zào jiù de rénhuò zhě shuō zhè jiù shì néng yòng shù rén gǎi biàn chéng de múyàng zhǐ shì rén lèi de yǐng huí bèi 'ān fàng zài zhàn gǎng de huó rénzhèng rén men suǒ shuōzhè wèi shì bīng dài zhe péi zàng mái zài duī ……
  
   yīn zhè xiē rén bìng fēi zuò wéi rén wèiguó xiào láoér shì zuò wéi ròu de men bāo kuò cháng bèi jūnmín bīngjiān kānshǒujǐng chá fāng mín tuán děngzài fēn qíng kuàng xià men de pàn duàn dào gǎn méi yòu huī rèn zuò yòng men shì wéi cái shí kuàiyào shì néng zào chū tóu rén lái néng dào tóng yàng de mùdìzhè zhǒng rén huì dào cǎo rén huò duī gèng néng yǐn rén men de zūn jìng men zhǐ yòu gǒu tóng děng de jià zhírán 'ér zhè yàng de rén què bèi biàn shì wéi hǎo gōng mín rénzhū duō shù zhězhèng shī shīguān yuán děngzhù yào yòng tóu nǎo lái wèiguó jiā dàn shìyóu men hěn shǎo biàn bié dào shì fēiér yòu néng zhī jué xiàng shì fèng shàng yàng wéi guǐ yòu xiē zhēn zhèng chēng shàng shì yīng xióngài guó zhěxùn dào zhě huò gǎi jiā de rén men què shí yòng liáng xīn wèiguó jiā yīn 'ér wǎng wǎng huì zhì guó jiā de xíng jìngjiēguǒ men tōng cháng bèi guó jiā dāng zuò rén kàn dài
  
   rén jīn tiān gāi zěn yàng duì dài měi guó zhèng cái shì shuō néng zhī xiāng lián 'ér shī miàn néng chéng rèn zhèng zhì zhì jiù shì de zhèng yīn wéi shì de zhèng
  
   suǒ yòu de réndōu chéng rèn mìng de quán jiù shì dāng rén men róng rěn cái huò néng de zhèng shí jué xiào zhōng bìng kàng de quán dàn shì jīhū suǒ yòu de réndōu shuō xiàn zài shì zhǒng qíng kuàng men rèn wéi zhǐ yòu nián mìng cái shǔ zhǒng fēi cháng shí yào shì yòu rén gào zhè shì huài zhèng yīn wéi xiàng jìn gǎng kǒu de wài guó shāng pǐn zhēng shuì wán quán néng zhè zhǒng zhǐ kòng dāng huí shìyīn wéi yào zhè xiē shāng pǐnsuǒ yòu dōuyòu zhè yòu néng xiāo zuì 'è lùn yào shì cóng zhōng jìn xíng shān dòng biàn shì de zuì 'èdàn shì dāng zhè kāi shǐ huǐ huài dāng zhèn qiǎng jié zhì lái shí shuōràng men zài yào zhè yàng de liǎohuàn huà shuōdāng chéng nuò yào bǎo yóu de guó jiā de liù fēn zhī rén kǒu shì dāng guó jiā wán quán bèi wài guó jūn duì fēi róu lìnzhēng bìng yóu jūn guǎn zhì de shí hòu xiǎngguò liǎo duō jiǔchéng shí de rén biàn huì lái zào fǎn mìngshǐ zhè rèn gèng wéi jǐn de shì shí shìbèi róu lìn de guó jiā shì men deér qīn lüè jūn què shì men de
  
   dāng rán rén méi yòu rèn dìng yào zhì jiū zhèng mǒu zhǒng miù shì zuì gōng zhèng de miù réng shìdàng cóng shì shì qíngdàn yòu rèn tóng zhè miù dāo liǎng duàn rán zài dāng huí zhèng shì jiù yīnggāi běn shàng zhōng zhǐ duì de zhī chíyào shì zhì zhuī qiú suǒ shǒu xiān zhì shǎo bǎo zhèng méi yòu zài bié rén jiān shàng xiān cóng shēn shàng xià láihǎo ràng néng jìn xíng de suǒqǐng kàn zhè shè huì shì duō me xié céng tīng dào chéng yòu xiē shì mín shuō:“ wàng men mìng lìng qián zhèn huò kāi héng héng kàn shì fǒu huì 。” dàn zhèng shì zhè xiē rén men měi réndōu zhí jiē 'ér zhōng chéng shì jiànjiē tōng guò chū qián gōng liǎo shēn jué cān jiā yīcháng fēi zhèng zhàn zhēng díshì bīng shòu dào rén men de zàn měi zhè xiē zàn měi zhě zhōng de mǒu xiē rén bìng méi yòu jué yōng dòng zhè chǎng zhàn zhēng de fēi zhèng zhèng zhè xiē rén de xíng wéi quán wēi zhèng shì shì bīng men suǒ miè shì xiè dezài men kàn lái guó jiā zài fàn zuì shí yòu zhuī huǐ zhī yīn 'ér yào zhuān rén lái biān chī dàn yòu méi yòu hòu huǐ dào yào tíng zhǐ piàn fàn zuì de chéng yīn zài zhì gōng mín zhèng de míng xià men zuì hòu dōubèi duì men de bēi liè xíng jìng biǎo shì jìng zhī chírén men zài fàn zuì de shǒu liǎn hóng zhī hòu xué huì liǎo mǎn zài dào biàn chéng liǎo fēi dào zhè zhǒng shì yìng zài men de shēng huó bìng fēi wán quán méi yòu yào
  
  …… guǒ bèi lín piàn zǒu yuán qián néng jǐn jǐn mǎn zhī dào shòu piànhuò duì bié rén shuō shòu piànhuò yào qiú shù cháng hái huì cǎi yòu zhòu huò quán tuì péibìng shè bǎo zhèng zài shòu piànchū yuán de xíng dònghéng héng chū zhèng gǎn bìng jiā xíng de xíng dònghéng héng néng gòu gǎi biàn shì guān zhè zhǒng xíng dòng běn shàng shì mìng de tóng qián rèn shì jié rán tóng jǐn fēn liǎo zhèng jiào huì fēn liǎo jiā tíngshì de hái fēn rénjiāng shēn shàng de 'è cóng shén shèng de fēn zhōng fēn chū
  
   fēi zhèng de díquè cún zài men jiū jìng shì mǎn cóng menhái shì yīngdāng biān xiū gǎi biān cóng men zhí zhì men chéng gōnghuò zhě gān cuì chāo yuè menzài qián zhè zhǒng zhèng tǒng zhì xià de rén men tōng cháng rèn wéi men yīnggāi děng dàizhí zhì men shuō liǎo duō shù rén lái xiū gǎi men rèn wéi guǒ men kàngzhè zhǒng jiū zhèng fāng jiāng zuì 'è de xiàn zhuàng gèng huàidàn zào chéng zhè zhǒng jiù miàn de rèn yīngdāng guī jiù zhèng běn shēn shǐ zhī yuè gǎi yuè huài wèishénme néng shì xiān dào gǎi bìng wéi zhī gōng fāng biàn wèishénme 'ài shǎo shù míng zhì de rén wèihé zài hái méi yòu shòu dào shāng hài shí jiù háo jiào zhe kàng wèihé gōng mín men shí zhǐ chū de cuò bìng ràng men zhù dòng gànhǎoshì qíng wèihé zǒng shì dīng zài shí jià shàngjiāng bái chū jiào ménbìng xuān pàn huá shèng dùn lán lín wéi pàn
  
   yòu rén huì rèn wéizhèng duì xiē 'ér qièshí mào fàn quán wēi de rén wǎng wǎng shì shú shì deyào rán zěn me méi yòu wèicǐ guī dìng guò míng quèqiàdàng xiāng yìng de chéng méi yòu cái chǎn de rén zhǐ yào yòu huí jué xiàng zhōu zhèng jiāo xiān lìng jiù huì bèi sòng jìn jiān guān de shí jiān shòu suǒ zhī dào de rèn xiàn zhìjǐn jǐn yóu sòng jìn de huǒ rén rèn jué dìngdàn shì guǒ cóng zhōu tōu liǎo bèi xiān lìng de qián hěn kuài jiù néng xiāo yáo wài
  
   guǒ zhè yàng de gōng zhèng shì zhèng yào de fēn jiù ràng ràng néng huì diào zhè xiē píng héng héng dāng ránzhè dào shí huì wán dàn guǒ zhè zhǒng fēi zhèng yòu zhuān yòng de tánhuánghuá lúnshéng huò bǐng néng rèn wéi gǎi zào bìng dìng jiù shì huài shìdàn shì guǒ de běn xìng jiù yào qiú duì lìng rén shī nüè me yào shuōqǐng fàn yòng de shēng mìng lái fǎn hǎo ràng zhè tíng zhǐ yùn zhuǎnzài rèn qíng kuàng xià bǎo zhèng cānyù suǒ qiǎn de zuì guò
  
   zhì shuō yào zhí xíng zhōu zhèng chū de xiāo chú zuì 'è de fāng zhī dào yòu zhè zhǒng fāng men fèi shí tài jiǔ rén de shēng mìng yòu xiàn yòu shì yào zuò lái dào zhè shì jiè de zhù yào mùdì shì yào jiāng jiàn chéng shēng huó de yuánér shì zài shēng huó lùn hǎo hái shì huài rén yàng yàng shìdōu zuòér zhǐ zuò xiē shìzhèng yīn wèitā néng yàng yàng shìdōu zuò jiù yīnggāi jiāng xiē shì zuò cuòjiǎ zhōu cháng huò zhōu huì méi yòu xiàng qǐng yuàn méi yòu xiàng men qǐng yuàn guǒ men tīng dào de qǐng yuàn gāi zěn me bànzài qián qíng kuàng xiàzhōu zhèng duì bìng méi xiǎng chū rèn bàn zhēn zhèng de zuì guò zài de xiàn běn shēnzhè tīng lái néng guò yán zhí huò tōng qíng dàn wéi yòu zhè zhǒng jīng shén cái shì men duì dài xiàn zhì de tài hán yòu zuì chéng de shàn zuì shēn de kǎozhè shì suǒ yòu shì xiàng hǎo de fāng miàn zhuǎn huà de guī jiù xiàng rén zài tóng bìng de shēng dǒu zhōng huì quán shēn jìng luán yàng
  
   háo yóu jìng gào xiē chēng wéi fèi lùn zhě de rén men zhēn zhèng shōu huí lùn zài rén cái chǎn fāng miàn duì zhū sài zhōu zhèng de zhī chí yào děng dào men xíng chéng duō shù hòu zài zài men zhōng jiān zhí xíng zhèng rèn wéizhǐ yào yòu shàng zhàn zài men biān jiù gòu liǎo děng dài zài shuōrèn lín gèng yǒng gǎn de réndōu xíng chéng duō shù
  
   měi nián jǐn yòu huì tōng guò shōu shuì guān zhí jiē miàn duì miàn měi guó zhèng huò de dài biǎo héng héng zhōu zhèng jiāo dàozhè shì xiàng zhè zhǒng chǔjìng de rén rán jiāo dào de wéi fāng shìzhè zhèng shí fēn qīng chǔ yào qiú chéng rèn ér wèile yào zài zhè zhǒng qíng kuàng xià yìng bìng biǎo duì wēi wēi de mǎn 'ài dài de zuì jiǎn dānzuì yòu xiàobìng zài qián xíng shì xià zuì yòu yào de fāng shì jiù shì fǒu rèn de lín shōu shuì guānzhèng shì yào duì de rénhéng héng yīn wéi jìng bìng gēn yáng zhǐ wén jiànér shì yào gēn rén zhēng lùnhéng héng yuàn dāng liǎo zhèng de dài rén……
  
   zài gōng dào guān rén de zhèng de tǒng zhì xià zhèng zhě de zhēn zhèng guī shì jiān jīn tiān zhū sài gōngjǐ xiē jiào yóu yòu diǎn zhāoqì de rén de shì fāng jiù shì de jiān zhōu zhèng 'àn de lìng jiāng men zhú chū huò jiān jìn láiyīn wéi zhè xiē rén jīng 'àn zhào men de yuán fàng zhú chū liǎozài jiān zài xiē táo wáng de bǎo shì de zhàn qián lái tóu zhǒng hài de yìn 'ān rén zhōng jiān men zhǎo dào liǎo guī zài shì juédàn gèng yóugèng chéng shí de chǎng suǒzhōu zhèng guān de shì zàn chéng ér shì fǎn duì de rénhéng héng shì zhōu de yóu rén wèn xīn kuì shēng huó de wéi fāng guǒ yòu rén rèn wéi yóu rén de yǐng xiǎng zài jiān huì xiāo shī men de shēng yīn zài néng tòng guān yuán men de 'ěr duǒ men zài qiáng zhī nèi zài shì rén jiù cuò liǎo men zhī dào zhēn yào miù qiáng duō bèi zhī dào qīn shēn jīng guò xiē fēi zhèng de rén néng gòu duō me xióng biàn 'ér yòu xiào tóng fēi zhèng zuò dǒu zhēngtóu shàng de zhěng xuǎn piào dān dān shì zhāng xiǎo zhǐ tiáoér shì de quán yǐng xiǎngshǎo shù cóng duō shù ruǎn ruò shèn zhì hái suàn shàng shǎo shùdàn guǒ jìn quán zhì jiāng shì dǎng dàn ràng zhōu zhèng lái xuǎn chū yào me suǒ yòu zhèng zhě guān jìn jiān yào me fàng zhàn zhēng zhì xiǎng shì huì háo chí deyào shì jīn nián yòu qiān rén jiāo shuì kuǎn hái suàn shàng shì bào liúxiě de shǒu duàn men ruò jiāo liǎo shuì shǐ zhōu zhèng yòu néng shí xíng bào zào chéng liúxiěshì shí shàng zhè jiù shì píng mìng de dìng yào shì rèn zhè zhǒng mìng shì néng de huàjiǎ wèi shōu shuì guān huò rèn zhèng guān yuán wèn zhèng yòu rén wèn guò de:“ me gāi zěn me bàn ?” de huí shì:“ guǒ zhēn yào gān diǎn shìjiù qǐng zhí 。” dāng chén mín jué xiào zhōngguān yuán zhí me zhè chǎng mìng jiù chéng gōng liǎojiù suàn zhè zhǒng zuò néng huì yǐn liúxiě dāng rén men de liáng xīn shòu dào chuāngshāng shízhè nán dào shì zhǒng liúxiě yóu zhè zhǒng chuāngshāng rén jiāng shī zhēn zhèng de yǒng xiǔ de zhì huì liúxiě zhǐzhí zhì jīng shén shàng de wángxiàn zài kàn dào zhè zhǒng xíng de xuè zhèng zài liú tǎng
  
   nián qiánzhōu zhèng céng jiào huì de míng yào qiú zhī qián gòngyǎng shī de chuán dào qīn tīng guòér cóng lái wèi tīng guò。“ qián ,” shuō,“ yào rán jiù jìn jiān 。” jiù shì dàn xìng de shì lìng rén jué yīnggāi míng bái wèishénme jiào shī yào shuì gěi shīér shì shī gěi jiào shī shì zhōu xué xiào de jiào shīdàn kào yuàn juān kuǎn wéi shēng míng bái wèishénme xué xiào jiù néng xiàng jiào huì yàngzài zhōu de zhī chí xià chū de shuì dānrán 'érzài dāng xuǎn yuán men de yào qiú xià zūn xiě xià liǎo zhè yàng de shēng míng:“ jǐn yán wéi zhènghēng · wèi · suō luó wàng bèi rèn wéi shì rèn méi yòu jiā de lián tuán de yuán。” zhè shēng míng jiāo gěi liǎo zhèn gōng suǒ de wén shū hái bǎo liú zhesuī rán zhōu zhèng dāng shí shuō guò jiān chí yuán xiān de jué dìngdàn tīng shuō wàng bèi rèn wéi shì jiào táng de chéng yuán lái zhí méi duì chū lèi yào qiú yuàn qiān biǎo shì cóng wèi qiān rèn de qiē shè huì tuán duàn jué guān zhī dào zhè xiē tuán de míng chēng zhī dào gāi dào chù xún fèn wán zhěng de míng dān
  
   yòu liù nián méi jiāo rén tóu shuì liǎojiù wéi zhè céng jìn jiān zhù liǎo wǎndāng zài zhàn zhe kǎomiàn duì 'èr sān yīng chǐ hòu de jiān shí shí qiáng yīng chǐ hòu de tiě mén tòu guāng de tiě shān lán shí jìn zhù qiáng liè gǎn dào zhè jiān jǐn dāng zuò xuè ròu zhī guān jìn lái shì děng chǔn huái zuì hòu shì fǒu huì duàn dìng zhè jiù shì duì de zuì hǎo fāng ér cóng méi xiǎng dào yào mǒu zhǒng fāng shì lái jiào zuò diǎn shì zài xiǎngsuī rán de jiē fāng lín men zhī jiān liǎo shí qiángdàn men yào dào xiàng yàng yóuhái yòu gèng nán pān yuègèng nán de qiáng méi gǎn dào bèi jiān jìn qiáng shì shí kuài huóní huī de làng fèi gǎn dàoquán shì mín zhōngzhǐ yòu rén liǎo shuì men wán quán zhī gāi zěn yàng duì dài men de yán xíng quē jiào yǎng lùn men duì jìn xíng wēi xié huò zàn yángzǒng shì cuò kàn liǎo de běn yīn wéi men rèn wéi de zhù yào yuàn wàng shì zhàn dào shí qiáng de lìng biānkàn dào men zài chén shí qín fèn suǒ mén zhǐ hǎo zhī xiào de kāi mén shè zhàngyòu gēn men chū liǎoér zhè cái shì zhēn zhèng de wēi xiǎnyīn wéi men jiě men biàn jué dìng chéng de ròu jiù xiàng qún wán tóngdāng men jiē jìn men suǒ tòng hèn de rén shíbiàn nüè dài de gǒu gǎn dào zhōu zhèng zhì néng xià jiù xiàng zhe yín tānɡ chí de rén yàng dǎn xiǎo yǒu fēn duì shèng xià de diǎn zūn jìng jīng dàng rán cún zhēn wéi hàn
  
   yóu kàn láizhōu zhèng cóng wèi yòu shí zhèng shì guò rén de xīn líng lùn shì cóng zhì hái shì dào de jiǎo zhǐ kàn dào rén de ròu gǎn guān bìng bèi gāo zhì néng jiàn chéng shízhǐ shì zài zhì shàng qiáng liǎo shì shēng lái jiù shòu qiáng zhì de rén yào 'àn de fāng shì kōng ràng men kàn kàn shuí zuì qiáng mín zhòng yòu shénme liàng men zhǐ néng qiǎngpò ér yào cóng gèng gāo de guī men qiǎngpò chéng wéi xiàng men yàng de rén méi tīng shuō yòu rén yīngdāng cóng duō shù rén de qiǎngpò 'ér zhè zhǒng huò zhǒng fāng shì shēng huó yàng suàn shì shénme yàng de shēng huódāng zhèng mìng lìng shuōjiāo qián hái shì jiāo mìngshí wèishénme yào cōng máng de qián gěi néng kùn nán chóngchóng zhī shì hǎorán 'ér zěn me néng bāng zhù xiàng zhè yàng bāng zhù wèicǐ zhí shè huì zhè shì fǒu chéng gōng yùn zhuǎn rèn shì gōng chéng shī de 'ér xiàndāng xiàng bìng pái luò hòuméi yòu tíng xià lái qiān ràng lìng liǎng zhě 'àn men de guī jìn zuì de néng shēngzhǎngbiàn mào shèng néng zhí zhì chāo yuè bìng huǐ miè lìng zhū zhí néng 'àn běn xìng shēngzhǎng wáng rén tóng yàng
  
   xiǎng rèn rén huò guó jiā zhēng chǎo xiǎng tiǎo zhǎo chū wēi chā bié xiǎng biāo bǎng gāo lín děng shuō shèn zhì shì yào xún zhǎo jiè kǒu lái zūn shǒu guó jiā lìngzūn shǒu guó jiā lìng shì zài gāo xīng guò liǎodàn zài zhè wèn shàng què shí yòu yóu huái měi nián dāng shōu shuì guān dào lái shí zǒng yào shěn chá xià guó jiā zhōu zhèng de lìng tài rén mín de qíng biàn zhǎo dào zūn shǒu de qián xiāng xìn zhōu zhèng hěn kuài jiù huì shǐ fàng suǒ yòu zhè xiē zuò rán hòu jiāng biàn chéng de tóng bāo xiāng de 'ài guó zhěcóng fàng liǎo de jiǎo kànxiàn suī rán yòu duō quē xiàn réng shī wéi hěn hǎo de xiàn tíng lìng rén zūn jìngshèn zhì běn zhōu zhèng měi guó zhèng zài duō fāng miàn shì xiāng dāng lìng rén qīn pèi 'ér yòu hǎn jiàn de gòulìng rén gǎn 'ēn jìn duō rén duì zuò chū miáo shùdàn shì cóng lüè gāo diǎn de jiǎo kàn men zhèng miáo shù guò de yàngyào shì huàn chéng zuì gāo de jiǎo yòu shuí shuō chū men shì shénmehuò men hái zhēn zhí kàn huò xiǎng
  
   rán 'ér zhèng méi yòu duō guān jiāng jìn liàng xiǎng shèn zhì zài zhè shì jiè zài zhèng tǒng zhì xià shēng huó de shí duōyào shì rén kǎo yóuhuàn xiǎng yóuxiǎng xiàng yóu cún zài de shì cóng huì hěn jiǔ bèi kàn zuò shì cún zài zhī me míng zhì de tǒng zhì zhě gǎi jiā de 'ài duì liǎo duō zuò yòng
  
  
  
   zhī dào duō shù rén xiǎng de yàngdàn shì xiē zhuān mén yán jiū zhè lèi wèn wéi zhí de rén hěn shǎo lìng mǎn yóu zhèng zhì jiā zhě men wán quán chǔyú zhè gòu zhī nèi men jué néng qīng chǔ 'ér guān guān chá men cháng shuō yào tuī jìn shè huìdàn men shè jiù méi yòu zhī chù men néng yòu dìng de jīng yàn jiàn shíháo wèn néng xiǎng chū liǎo xiē yòu chuàng xìng de shèn zhì shì yòu yòng de zhì duì men chéng zhì gǎn xiè mendàn men suǒ yòu de zhì huì xiào yòng dōuhěn yòu xiàn men jīng cháng huì wàng zhè shì jiè bìng shì yóu zhèng quán zhī suǒ tǒng zhìdān 'ěr · wéi cóng wèi diào chá guò zhèng yīn quán tán lùn duì xiē kǎo chè gǎi xiàn xíng zhèng de yuán men lái shuō de huà jiù shì zhì huìér zài xiǎng jiā xiē zhí zài cānyù de xiǎng jiā yǎn cóng wèi zhèng shì guò zhè wèn liǎo jiěyòu xiē rén tōng guò duì zhè wèn de níng jìng míng zhì de kǎo jiǔ jiāng huì jiē shìwéi de kǎo fàn wéi tǎn dàng xiōng huái dōushì yòu xiàn de
  
   dàn shì duō shù gǎi zhě de píng yōng zhí xiāng xiē gèng wéi píng yōng 'ér tōng de zhèng de zhì huì kǒu cái xiāng wéi de huà jīhū shì wéi yòu zhìyòu jià zhí de huà men wèiyòu 'ér gǎn xiè shàng xiāng 'ér yán zǒng shì jiān qiáng yòu yòu chuàng xìngyóu shì jiǎng jiū shí derán 'ér de běn zhì shì zhì huìér shì jǐn shèn shī de zhēn shì zhēn zhǐ guò shì xié diàohuò xié diào de quán zhī zhēn de shēn yǒng yuǎn shì xié de shì yòng lái jiē shì xiē néng cuò xíng wéixiàng zhì de zhèng wéi bèi chēng wéixiàn de hàn wèi zhěwán quán dāng zhī kuì duì xiàn zhǐ yòu hàn wèiér cóng wèi zhēn zhèng gōng guò shì lǐng xiùér shì suí cóng de lǐng xiù shì17 nián cǎo xiàn de rén。“ cóng wèi zuò chū ,” shuō,“ cóng wèi jiàn zuò chū cóng wèi zhī chí guò cóng wèi suàn zhī chí xiē rǎo yuán dìng 'ān pái de zhèng shì yóu xiàn de 'ān pái zhōu chéng liǎo qián zhè lián bāng。” zài kǎo xiàn duì zhì de rèn wèn shí shèn zhì shuō,“ rán zhè shì zǎo xiān yuē de fēnhéng héng jiù ràng cún zài xià 。” jìn guǎn jīng míng guò réncái néng chāo qúnhái shì jiāng jiàn shì cóng de chún zhèng zhì guān zhōng fēn chū lái kàn zuò shì jué duì yào yòng cái zhì lái chù de shìhéng héng zài dāng jīn měi guójiù zhì zhè wèn rén dào yīnggāi gān xiē shénme shì wéi zhǐ néng huò shì bèi jué wàng zuò chū xià liè huí tóng shí hái shēng míng shì zuò wéi xià de péng yǒu huà shuō jué liǎohéng héng zhè me shuō huàhái néng yòu shénme xīn de rén de shè huì rèn de zhǔn tán?“ fāng ,” shuō,“ xiē zhōu de zhèng yīnggāi 'àn shénme xíng shì lái diào zhěng zhè zhì yóu men kǎo men duì men de xuǎn mínduì yòu guān shì rén xìng zhèng de biàn cháng guī shàng běn shēn zài fāng xíng chéngcóng mǒu zhǒng rén lèi gǎn qíng zhōng chǎn shēnghuò yóu yuán yīn chéng de shè tuán háo xiāng gān men cóng wèi dào guò de jiāng lái yǒng yuǎn huì dào。”
  
   xiē zhī zhēn yòu gèng chún jié de yuán quán de rén xiē zài yán zhēn de xiǎo wǎng gāo chù zhuī xún de rén men hěn cōng míng shǒu zài shèng jīng xiàn bàng biān gōng jìng shuǐ jiě ér xiē kàn dào shuǐ shì cóng 'ér huì zhè xiē húpō de rén men què zài zhěng zhuāng chū men tàn xún zhēn yuán tóu de chéng
  
   zài měi guó méi yòu chū xiàn guò tiān cáizhè zhǒng rén zài shì jiè shǐ shàng shǔ hǎn jiànyǎn shuō jiāzhèng zhì jiā xióng biàn zhě chéng qiān shàng wàndàn shì yòu néng jiě jué dāng qián shǒu wèn de yán rén què shàng wèi kāi kǒu shuō huà men huān xióng biàn zhǐ shì yīn wéi shì mén shùér tài kǎo néng biǎo de zhēn huò mǒu zhǒng yīng xióng zhù men de zhě men shàng wèi dǒng yóu mào yóulián ménggōng zhèng duì guó jiā suǒ yòu de xiāng duì jià zhí men méi yòu tiān huò cái néng jiě jué zhū shuì shōujīn róngshāng shēng chǎn nóng děng shì zhèng yào shì men wán quán tīng píng guó huì fèi huà lián piān de zhě men de zhǐ dǎoér men de zhǐ dǎo yòu dào rén mín shí de jiū zhèngyào liǎo duō jiǔměi guó zài shì jiè shàng de wèi biàn huì sàng shī。《 xīn yuē quán shūwèn shì yòu qiān bǎi niánsuī rán néng méi yòu shuō xià miàn de huàdàn shì yòu gòu zhì huì shí néng xīn yuējīng shén lái zhǐ dǎo xué de rén yòu zài
  
   zhèng de quán wēishèn zhì shì yuàn shùn cóng de quán wēihéng héng yīn wéi cóng xiē dǒng duōgānde hǎo de rénshèn zhì zài duō shì qíng shàng cóng xiē dǒng gānde dōubù de rénhéng héng réng rán shì gòu chún jié deyán shuō lái dào bèi tǒng zhì zhě de chéng rèn tóng zhǐ yào méi ràng duì rén cái chǎn jiù méi yòu chún cuì de quán cóng jué duì jūn zhù zhì dào yòu xiàn jūn zhù zhìzài cóng yòu xiàn jūn zhù zhì dào mín zhù zhì de jìn chéng jiù shì tōng xiàng zhēn zhèng zūn zhòng rén de jìn chéng men suǒ zhī dào de mín zhù zhì shì fǒu jiù shì zhèng néng zuò de zuì hòu gǎi jìnnán dào jiù néng zài mài jìn chéng rèn bìng zhì rén quánzhōu zhèng jiāng rén zuò wéi zhǒng gèng gāo de liàng 'ér jiā chéng rènbìng xiāng yìng duì dàiyīn wéi zhèng suǒ yòu de quán quán wēi dōulái zhè liàngzài zhī qiánjué huì yòu zhēn zhèng yóu wén míng de zhōu míng de shì zuì hòu hái shì shè xiǎng liǎo zhōuzhè zhōu néng gōng zhèng duì dài suǒ yòu de rénbīn bīn yòu jiāng rén shì wéi lín biàn yòu xiē rén qún suǒ zhǐ yào men dǎo luàn tīng mìng rénér shì wán chéng zuò wéi lín tóng bāo de suǒ yòu zhōu zhèng réng néng chǔzhī tài ránrèn yóu zhōu néng jié chū zhè zhǒng guǒ shíbìng rěn nài dào guā shú luò de shí jiāng wéi suǒ shè xiǎng delìng gèng wán shàngèng zhuàng de zhōu píng dào jìn guǎn zhè zhōu zhì jīn rèn fāng hái kàn dào
  
  
   zhāi měi guó de shǐ wén xiànzhào fán biān
  
   sān lián shū diàn1989 nián bǎn


  I heartily accept the motto, -- "That government is best which governs least"; and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally amounts to this, which also I believe, -- "That government is best which governs not at all"; and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have. Government is at best but an expedient; but most governments are usually, and all governments are sometimes, inexpedient. The objections which have been brought against a standing army, and they are many and weighty, and deserve to prevail, may also at last be brought against a standing government. The standing army is only an arm of the standing government. The government itself, which is only the mode which the people have chosen to execute their will, is equally liable to be abused and perverted before the people can act through it. Witness the present Mexican war, the work of comparatively a few individuals using the standing government as their tool; for, in the outset, the people would not have consented to this measure.
  
  This American government -- what is it but a tradition, though a recent one, endeavoring to transmit itself unimpaired to posterity, but each instant losing some of its integrity? It has not the vitality and force of a single living man; for a single man can bend it to his will. It is a sort of wooden gun to the people themselves. But it is not the less necessary for this; for the people must have some complicated machinery or other, and hear its din, to satisfy that idea of government which they have. Governments show thus how successfully men can be imposed on, even impose on themselves, for their own advantage. It is excellent, we must all allow. Yet this government never of itself furthered any enterprise, but by the alacrity with which it got out of its way. It does not keep the country free. It does not settle the West. It does not educate. The character inherent in the American people has done all that has been accomplished; and it would have done somewhat more, if the government had not sometimes got in its way. For government is an expedient by which men would fain succeed in letting one another alone; and, as has been said, when it is most expedient, the governed are most let alone by it. Trade and commerce, if they were not made of India rubber, would never manage to bounce over the obstacles which legislators are continually putting in their way; and, if one were to judge these men wholly by the effects of their actions, and not partly by their intentions, they would deserve to be classed and punished with those mischievous persons who put obstructions on the railroads.
  
  But, to speak practically and as a citizen, unlike those who call themselves no-government men, I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government. Let every man make known what kind of government would command his respect, and that will be one step toward obtaining it.
  
  After all, the practical reason why, when the power is once in the hands of the people, a majority are permitted, and for a long period continue, to rule, is not because they are most likely to be in the right, nor because this seems fairest to the minority, but because they are physically the strongest. But a government in which the majority rule in all cases cannot be based on justice, even as far as men understand it. Can there not be a government in which majorities do not virtually decide right and wrong, but conscience? -- in which majorities decide only those questions to which the rule of expediency is applicable? Must the citizen ever for a moment, or in the least degree, resign his conscience to the legislator? Why has every man a conscience, then? I think that we should be men first, and subjects afterward. It is not desirable to cultivate a respect for the law, so much as for the right. The only obligation which I have a right to assume is to do at any time what I think right. It is truly enough said that a corporation has no conscience; but a corporation of conscientious men is a corporation with a conscience. Law never made men a whit more just; and, by means of their respect for it, even the well-disposed are daily made the agents of injustice. A common and natural result of an undue respect for law is, that you may see a file of soldiers, colonel, captain, corporal, privates, powder-monkeys, and all, marching in admirable order over hill and dale to the wars, against their wills, ay, against their common sense and consciences, which makes it very steep marching indeed, and produces a palpitation of the heart. They have no doubt that it is a damnable business in which they are concerned; they are all peaceably inclined. Now, what are they? Men at all? or small movable forts and magazines, at the service of some unscrupulous man in power? Visit the Navy Yard, and behold a marine, such a man as an American government can make, or such as it can make a man with its black arts -- a mere shadow and reminiscence of humanity, a man laid out alive and standing, and already, as one may say, buried under arms with funeral accompaniments, though it may be
  
  "Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note,
  
  As his corse to the rampart we hurried;
  
  Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot
  
  O'er the grave where our hero we buried."
  
  The mass of men serve the state thus, not as men mainly, but as machines, with their bodies. They are the standing army, and the militia, jailers, constables, posse comitatus, etc. In most cases there is no free exercise whatever of the judgment or of the moral sense; but they put themselves on a level with wood and earth and stones; and wooden men can perhaps be manufactured that will serve the purpose as well. Such command no more respect than men of straw or a lump of dirt. They have the same sort of worth only as horses and dogs. Yet such as these even are commonly esteemed good citizens. Others, as most legislators, politicians, lawyers, ministers, and office-holders, serve the state chiefly with their heads; and, as they rarely make any moral distinctions, they are as likely to serve the devil, without intending it, as God. A very few, as heroes, patriots, martyrs, reformers in the great sense, and men, serve the state with their consciences also, and so necessarily resist it for the most part; and they are commonly treated as enemies by it. A wise man will only be useful as a man, and will not submit to be "clay," and "stop a hole to keep the wind away," but leave that office to his dust at least:--
  
  "I am too high-born to be propertied,
  
  To be a secondary at control,
  
  Or useful serving-man and instrument
  
  To any sovereign state throughout the world."
  
  He who gives himself entirely to his fellow-men appears to them useless and selfish; but he who gives himself partially to them is pronounced a benefactor and philanthropist.
  
  How does it become a man to behave toward this American government to-day? I answer, that he cannot without disgrace be associated with it. I cannot for an instant recognize that political organization as my government which is the slave's government also.
  
  All men recognize the right of revolution; that is, the right to refuse allegiance to, and to resist, the government, when its tyranny or its inefficiency are great and unendurable. But almost all say that such is not the case now. But such was the case, they think, in the Revolution of '75. If one were to tell me that this was a bad government because it taxed certain foreign commodities brought to its ports, it is most probable that I should not make an ado about it, for I can do without them. All machines have their friction; and possibly this does enough good to counterbalance the evil. At any rate, it is a great evil to make a stir about it. But when the friction comes to have its machine, and oppression and robbery are organized, I say, let us not have such a machine any longer. In other words, when a sixth of the population of a nation which has undertaken to be the refuge of liberty are slaves, and a whole country is unjustly overrun and conquered by a foreign army, and subjected to military law, I think that it is not too soon for honest men to rebel and revolutionize. What makes this duty the more urgent is the fact that the country so overrun is not our own, but ours is the invading army.
  
  Paley, a common authority with many on moral questions, in his chapter on the "Duty of Submission to Civil Government," resolves all civil obligation into expediency; and he proceeds to say that "so long as the interest of the whole society requires it, that is, so long as the established government cannot be resisted or changed without public inconveniency, it is the will of God... that the established government be obeyed, and no longer.... This principle being admitted, the justice of every particular case of resistance is reduced to a computation of the quantity of the danger and grievance on the one side, and of the probability and expense of redressing it on the other." Of this, he says, every man shall judge for himself. But Paley appears never to have contemplated those cases to which the rule of expediency does not apply, in which a people, as well as an individual, must do justice, cost what it may. If I have unjustly wrested a plank from a drowning man, I must restore it to him though I drown myself. This, according to Paley, would be inconvenient. But he that would save his life, in such a case, shall lose it. This people must cease to hold slaves, and to make war on Mexico, though it cost them their existence as a people.
  
  In their practice, nations agree with Paley; but does any one think that Massachusetts does exactly what is right at the present crisis?
  
  "A drab of state, a cloth-o'-silver slut, To have her train borne up, and her soul trail in the dirt."
  
  Practically speaking, the opponents to a reform in Massachusetts are not a hundred thousand politicians at the South, but a hundred thousand merchants and farmers here, who are more interested in commerce and agriculture than they are in humanity, and are not prepared to do justice to the slave and to Mexico, cost what it may. I quarrel not with far-off foes, but with those who, near at home, co-operate with, and do the bidding of those far away, and without whom the latter would be harmless. We are accustomed to say, that the mass of men are unprepared; but improvement is slow, because the few are not materially wiser or better than the many. It is not so important that many should be as good as you, as that there be some absolute goodness somewhere; for that will leaven the whole lump. There are thousands who are in opinion opposed to slavery and to the war, who yet in effect do nothing to put an end to them; who, esteeming themselves children of Washington and Franklin, sit down with their hands in their pockets, and say that they know not what to do, and do nothing; who even postpone the question of freedom to the question of free-trade, and quietly read the prices-current along with the latest advices from Mexico, after dinner, and, it may be, fall asleep over them both. What is the price-current of an honest man and patriot to-day? They hesitate, and they regret, and sometimes they petition; but they do nothing in earnest and with effect. They will wait, well disposed, for others to remedy the evil, that they may no longer have it to regret. At most, they give only a cheap vote, and a feeble countenance and Godspeed, to the right, as it goes by them. There are nine hundred and ninety-nine patrons of virtue to one virtuous man; but it is easier to deal with the real possessor of a thing than with the temporary guardian of it.
  
  All voting is a sort of gaming, like checkers or backgammon, with a slight moral tinge to it, a playing with right and wrong, with moral questions; and betting naturally accompanies it. The character of the voters is not staked. I cast my vote, perchance, as I think right; but I am not vitally concerned that that right should prevail. I am willing to leave it to the majority. Its obligation, therefore, never exceeds that of expediency. Even voting for the right is doing nothing for it. It is only expressing to men feebly your desire that it should prevail. A wise man will not leave the right to the mercy of chance, nor wish it to prevail through the power of the majority. There is but little virtue in the action of masses of men. When the majority shall at length vote for the abolition of slavery, it will be because they are indifferent to slavery, or because there is but little slavery left to be abolished by their vote. They will then be the only slaves. Only his vote can hasten the abolition of slavery who asserts his own freedom by his vote.
  
  I hear of a convention to be held at Baltimore, or elsewhere, for the selection of a candidate for the Presidency, made up chiefly of editors, and men who are politicians by profession; but I think, what is it to any independent, intelligent, and respectable man what decision they may come to? Shall we not have the advantage of his wisdom and honesty, nevertheless? Can we not count upon some independent votes? Are there not many individuals in the country who do not attend conventions? But no: I find that the respectable man, so called, has immediately drifted from his position, and despairs of his country, when his country has more reason to despair of him. He forthwith adopts one of the candidates thus selected as the only available one, thus proving that he is himself available for any purposes of the demagogue. His vote is of no more worth than that of any unprincipled foreigner or hireling native, who may have been bought. Oh for a man who is a man, and, as my neighbor says, has a bone in his back which you cannot pass your hand through! Our statistics are at fault: the population has been returned too large. How many men are there to a square thousand miles in this country? Hardly one. Does not America offer any inducement for men to settle here? The American has dwindled into an Odd Fellow -- one who may be known by the development of his organ of gregariousness, and a manifest lack of intellect and cheerful self-reliance; whose first and chief concern, on coming into the world, is to see that the almshouses are in good repair; and, before yet he has lawfully donned the virile garb, to collect a fund for the support of the widows and orphans that may be; who, in short ventures to live only by the aid of the Mutual Insurance company, which has promised to bury him decently.
  
  It is not a man's duty, as a matter of course, to devote himself to the eradication of any, even the most enormous wrong; he may still properly have other concerns to engage him; but it is his duty, at least, to wash his hands of it, and, if he gives it no thought longer, not to give it practically his support. If I devote myself to other pursuits and contemplations, I must first see, at least, that I do not pursue them sitting upon another man's shoulders. I must get off him first, that he may pursue his contemplations too. See what gross inconsistency is tolerated. I have heard some of my townsmen say, "I should like to have them order me out to help put down an insurrection of the slaves, or to march to Mexico; -- see if I would go"; and yet these very men have each, directly by their allegiance, and so indirectly, at least, by their money, furnished a substitute. The soldier is applauded who refuses to serve in an unjust war by those who do not refuse to sustain the unjust government which makes the war; is applauded by those whose own act and authority he disregards and sets at naught; as if the state were penitent to that degree that it hired one to scourge it while it sinned, but not to that degree that it left off sinning for a moment. Thus, under the name of Order and Civil Government, we are all made at last to pay homage to and support our own meanness. After the first blush of sin comes its indifference; and from immoral it becomes, as it were, unmoral, and not quite unnecessary to that life which we have made.
  
  The broadest and most prevalent error requires the most disinterested virtue to sustain it. The slight reproach to which the virtue of patriotism is commonly liable, the noble are most likely to incur. Those who, while they disapprove of the character and measures of a government, yield to it their allegiance and support are undoubtedly its most conscientious supporters, and so frequently the most serious obstacles to reform. Some are petitioning the State to dissolve the Union, to disregard the requisitions of the President. Why do they not dissolve it themselves -- the union between themselves and the State -- and refuse to pay their quota into its treasury? Do not they stand in the same relation to the State, that the State does to the Union? And have not the same reasons prevented the State from resisting the Union, which have prevented them from resisting the State?
  
  How can a man be satisfied to entertain an opinion merely, and enjoy it? Is there any enjoyment in it, if his opinion is that he is aggrieved? If you are cheated out of a single dollar by your neighbor, you do not rest satisfied with knowing that you are cheated, or with saying that you are cheated, or even with petitioning him to pay you your due; but you take effectual steps at once to obtain the full amount, and see that you are never cheated again. Action from principle -- the perception and the performance of right -- changes things and relations; it is essentially revolutionary, and does not consist wholly with anything which was. It not only divides states and churches, it divides families; ay, it divides the individual, separating the diabolical in him from the divine.
  
  Unjust laws exist; shall we be content to obey them, or shall we endeavor to amend them, and obey them until we have succeeded, or shall we transgress them at once? Men generally, under such a government as this, think that they ought to wait until they have persuaded the majority to alter them. They think that, if they should resist, the remedy would be worse than the evil. But it is the fault of the government itself that the remedy is worse than the evil. It makes it worse. Why is it not more apt to anticipate and provide for reform? Why does it not cherish its wise minority? Why does it cry and resist before it is hurt? Why does it not encourage its citizens to be on the alert to point out its faults, and do better than it would have them? Why does it always crucify Christ, and excommunicate Copernicus and Luther, and pronounce Washington and Franklin rebels?
  
  One would think, that a deliberate and practical denial of its authority was the only offence never contemplated by government; else, why has it not assigned its definite, its suitable and proportionate, penalty? If a man who has no property refuses but once to earn nine shillings for the State, he is put in prison for a period unlimited by any law that I know, and determined only by the discretion of those who placed him there; but if he should steal ninety times nine shillings from the State, he is soon permitted to go at large again.
  
  If the injustice is part of the necessary friction of the machine of government, let it go, let it go; perchance it will wear smooth -- certainly the machine will wear out. If the injustice has a spring, or a pulley, or a rope, or a crank, exclusively for itself, then perhaps you may consider whether the remedy will not be worse than the evil; but if it is of such a nature that it requires you to be the agent of injustice to another, then, I say, break the law. Let your life be a counter friction to stop the machine. What I have to do is to see, at any rate, that I do not lend myself to the wrong which I condemn.
  
  As for adopting the ways which the State has provided for remedying the evil, I know not of such ways. They take too much time, and a man's life will be gone. I have other affairs to attend to. I came into this world, not chiefly to make this a good place to live in, but to live in it, be it good or bad. A man has not everything to do, but something; and because he cannot do everything, it is not necessary that he should do something wrong. It is not my business to be petitioning the Governor or the Legislature any more than it is theirs to petition me; and if they should not hear my petition, what should I do then? But in this case the State has provided no way; its very Constitution is the evil. This may seem to be harsh and stubborn and unconciliatory; but it is to treat with the utmost kindness and consideration the only spirit that can appreciate or deserves it. So is an change for the better, like birth and death which convulse the body.
  
  I do not hesitate to say, that those who call themselves Abolitionists should at once effectually withdraw their support, both in person and property, from the government of Massachusetts, and not wait till they constitute a majority of one, before they suffer the right to prevail through them. I think that it is enough if they have God on their side, without waiting for that other one. Moreover, any man more right than his neighbors constitutes a majority of one already.
  
  I meet this American government, or its representative, the State government, directly, and face to face, once a year -- no more -- in the person of its tax-gatherer; this is the only mode in which a man situated as I am necessarily meets it; and it then says distinctly, Recognize me; and the simplest, the most effectual, and, in the present posture of affairs, the indispensablest mode of treating with it on this head, of expressing your little satisfaction with and love for it, is to deny it then. My civil neighbor, the tax-gatherer, is the very man I have to deal with -- for it is, after all, with men and not with parchment that I quarrel -- and he has voluntarily chosen to be an agent of the government. How shall he ever know well what he is and does as an officer of the government, or as a man, until he is obliged to consider whether he shall treat me, his neighbor, for whom he has respect, as a neighbor and well-disposed man, or as a maniac and disturber of the peace, and see if he can get over this obstruction to his neighborliness without a ruder and more impetuous thought or speech corresponding with his action? I know this well, that if one thousand, if one hundred, if ten men whom I could name -- if ten honest men only -- ay, if one HONEST man, in this State of Massachusetts, ceasing to hold slaves, were actually to withdraw from this copartnership, and be locked up in the county jail therefor, it would be the abolition of slavery in America. For it matters not how small the beginning may seem to be: what is once well done is done forever. But we love better to talk about it: that we say is our mission. Reform keeps many scores of newspapers in its service, but not one man. If my esteemed neighbor, the State's ambassador, who will devote his days to the settlement of the question of human rights in the Council Chamber, instead of being threatened with the prisons of Carolina, were to sit down the prisoner of Massachusetts, that State which is so anxious to foist the sin of slavery upon her sister -- though at present she can discover only an act of inhospitality to be the ground of a quarrel with her -- the Legislature would not wholly waive the subject the following winter.
  
  Under a government which imprisons any unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison. The proper place to-day, the only place which Massachusetts has provided for her freer and less desponding spirits, is in her prisons, to be put out and locked out of the State by her own act, as they have already put themselves out by their principles. It is there that the fugitive slave, and the Mexican prisoner on parole, and the Indian come to plead the wrongs of his race, should find them; on that separate, but more free and honorable ground, where the State places those who are not with her, but against her -- the only house in a slave State in which a free man can abide with honor. If any think that their influence would be lost there, and their voices no longer afflict the ear of the State, that they would not be as an enemy within its walls, they do not know by how much truth is stronger than error, nor how much more eloquently and effectively he can combat injustice who has experienced a little in his own person. Cast your whole vote, not a strip of paper merely, but your whole influence. A minority is powerless while it conforms to the majority; it is not even a minority then; but it is irresistible when it clogs by its whole weight. If the alternative is to keep all just men in prison, or give up war and slavery, the State will not hesitate which to choose. If a thousand men were not to pay their tax-bills this year, that would not be a violent and bloody measure, as it would be to pay them, and enable the State to commit violence and shed innocent blood. This is, in fact, the definition of a peaceable revolution, if any such is possible. If the tax-gatherer, or any other public officer, asks me, as one has done, "But what shall I do?" my answer is, "If you really wish to do anything, resign your office." When the subject has refused allegiance, and the officer has resigned his office, then the revolution is accomplished. But even suppose blood should flow. Is there not a sort of blood shed when the conscience is wounded? Through this wound a man's real manhood and immortality flow out, and he bleeds to an everlasting death. I see this blood flowing now.
  
  I have contemplated the imprisonment of the offender, rather than the seizure of his goods -- though both will serve the same purpose -- because they who assert the purest right, and consequently are most dangerous to a corrupt State, commonly have not spent much time in accumulating property. To such the State renders comparatively small service, and a slight tax is wont to appear exorbitant, particularly if they are obliged to earn it by special labor with their hands. If there were one who lived wholly without the use of money, the State itself would hesitate to demand it of him. But the rich man -- not to make any invidious comparison -- is always sold to the institution which makes him rich. Absolutely speaking, the more money, the less virtue; for money comes between a man and his objects, and obtains them for him; and it was certainly no great virtue to obtain it. It puts to rest many questions which he would otherwise be taxed to answer; while the only new question which it puts is the hard but superfluous one, how to spend it. Thus his moral ground is taken from under his feet. The opportunities of living are diminished in proportion as what are called the "means" are increased. The best thing a man can do for his culture when he is rich is to endeavor to carry out those schemes which he entertained when he was poor. Christ answered the Herodians according to their condition. "Show me the tribute-money," said he; -- and one took a penny out of his pocket; -- if you use money which has the image of Caesar on it, and which he has made current and valuable, that is, if you are men of the State, and gladly enjoy the advantages of Caesar's government, then pay him back some of his own when he demands it; "Render therefore to Caesar that which is Caesar's, and to God those things which are God's" -- leaving them no wiser than before as to which was which; for they did not wish to know.
  
  When I converse with the freest of my neighbors, I perceive that, whatever they may say about the magnitude and seriousness of the question, and their regard for the public tranquillity, the long and the short of the matter is, that they cannot spare the protection of the existing government, and they dread the consequences to their property and families of disobedience to it. For my own part, I should not like to think that I ever rely on the protection of the State. But, if I deny the authority of the State when it presents its tax-bill, it will soon take and waste all my property, and so harass me and my children without end. This is hard. This makes it impossible for a man to live honestly, and at the same time comfortably in outward respects. It will not be worth the while to accumulate property; that would be sure to go again. You must hire or squat somewhere, and raise but a small crop, and eat that soon. You must live within yourself, and depend upon yourself always tucked up and ready for a start, and not have many affairs. A man may grow rich in Turkey even, if he will be in all respects a good subject of the Turkish government. Confucius said, "If a state is governed by the principles of reason, poverty and misery are subjects of shame; if a state is not governed by the principles of reason, riches and honors are the subjects of shame." No: until I want the protection of Massachusetts to be extended to me in some distant Southern port, where my liberty is endangered, or until I am bent solely on building up an estate at home by peaceful enterprise, I can afford to refuse allegiance to Massachusetts, and her right to my property and life. It costs me less in every sense to incur the penalty of disobedience to the State than it would to obey. I should feel as if I were worth less in that case.
  
  Some years ago, the State met me in behalf of the Church, and commanded me to pay a certain sum toward the support of a clergyman whose preaching my father attended, but never I myself. "Pay," it said, "or be locked up in the jail." I declined to pay. But, unfortunately, another man saw fit to pay it. I did not see why the schoolmaster should be taxed to support the priest, and not the priest the schoolmaster: for I was not the State's schoolmaster, but I supported myself by voluntary subscription. I did not see why the lyceum should not present its tax-bill, and have the State to back its demand, as well as the Church. However, at the request of the selectmen, I condescended to make some such statement as this in writing:-- "Know all men by these presents, that I, Henry Thoreau, do not wish to be regarded as a member of any incorporated society which I have not joined." This I gave to the town clerk; and he has it. The State, having thus learned that I did not wish to be regarded as a member of that church, has never made a like demand on me since; though it said that it must adhere to its original presumption that time. If I had known how to name them, I should then have signed off in detail from all the societies which I never signed on to; but I did not know where to find a complete list.
  
  I have paid no poll-tax for six years. I was put into a jail once on this account, for one night; and, as I stood considering the walls of solid stone, two or three feet thick, the door of wood and iron, a foot thick, and the iron grating which strained the light, I could not help being struck with the foolishness of that institution which treated me as if I were mere flesh and blood and bones, to be locked up. I wondered that it should have concluded at length that this was the best use it could put me to, and had never thought to avail itself of my services in some way. I saw that, if there was a wall of stone between me and my townsmen, there was a still more difficult one to climb or break through, before they could get to be as free as I was. I did not for a moment feel confined, and the walls seemed a great waste of stone and mortar. I felt as if I alone of all my townsmen had paid my tax. They plainly did not know how to treat me, but behaved like persons who are underbred. In every threat and in every compliment there was a blunder; for they thought that my chief desire was to stand the other side of that stone wall. I could not but smile to see how industriously they locked the door on my meditations, which followed them out again without let or hindrance, and they were really all that was dangerous. As they could not reach me, they had resolved to punish my body; just as boys, if they cannot come at some person against whom they have a spite, will abuse his dog. I saw that the State was half-witted, that it was timid as a lone woman with her silver spoons, and that it did not know its friends from its foes, and I lost all my remaining respect for it, and pitied it.
  
  Thus the State never intentionally confronts a man's sense, intellectual or moral, but only his body, his senses. It is not armed with superior wit or honesty, but with superior physical strength. I was not born to be forced. I will breathe after my own fashion. Let us see who is the strongest. What force has a multitude? They only can force me who obey a higher law than I. They force me to become like themselves. I do not hear of men being forced to have this way or that by masses of men. What sort of life were that to live? When I meet a government which says to me, "Your money or your life," why should I be in haste to give it my money? It may be in a great strait, and not know what to do: I cannot help that. It must help itself; do as I do. It is not worth the while to snivel about it. I am not responsible for the successful working of the machinery of society. I am not the son of the engineer. I perceive that, when an acorn and a chestnut fall side by side, the one does not remain inert to make way for the other, but both obey their own laws, and spring and grow and flourish as best they can, till one, perchance, overshadows and destroys the other. If a plant cannot live according to its nature, it dies; and so a man.
  
  The night in prison was novel and interesting enough. The prisoners in their shirt-sleeves were enjoying a chat and the evening air in the doorway, when I entered. But the jailer said, "Come, boys, it is time to lock up"; and so they dispersed, and I heard the sound of their steps returning into the hollow apartments. My room-mate was introduced to me by the jailer as "a first-rate fellow and a clever man." When the door was locked, he showed me where to hang my hat, and how he managed matters there. The rooms were whitewashed once a month; and this one, at least, was the whitest, most simply furnished, and probably the neatest apartment in the town. He naturally wanted to know where I came from, and what brought me there; and, when I had told him, I asked him in my turn how he came there, presuming him to be an honest man, of course; and, as the world goes, I believe he was. "Why," said he, "they accuse me of burning a barn; but I never did it." As near as I could discover, he had probably gone to bed in a barn when drunk, and smoked his pipe there; and so a barn was burnt. He had the reputation of being a clever man, had been there some three months waiting for his trial to come on, and would have to wait as much longer; but he was quite domesticated and contented, since he got his board for nothing, and thought that he was well treated.
  
  He occupied one window, and I the other; and I saw that if one stayed there long, his principal business would be to look out the window. I had soon read all the tracts that were left there, and examined where former prisoners had broken out, and where a grate had been sawed off, and heard the history of the various occupants of that room; for I found that even here there was a history and a gossip which never circulated beyond the walls of the jail. Probably this is the only house in the town where verses are composed, which are afterward printed in a circular form, but not published. I was shown quite a long list of verses which were composed by some young men who had been detected in an attempt to escape, who avenged themselves by singing them.
  
  I pumped my fellow-prisoner as dry as I could, for fear I should never see him again; but at length he showed me which was my bed, and left me to blow out the lamp.
  
  It was like travelling into a far country, such as I had never expected to behold, to lie there for one night. It seemed to me that I never had heard the town-clock strike before, nor the evening sounds of the village; for we slept with the windows open, which were inside the grating. It was to see my native village in the light of the Middle Ages, and our Concord was turned into a Rhine stream, and visions of knights and castles passed before me. They were the voices of old burghers that I heard in the streets. I was an involuntary spectator and auditor of whatever was done and said in the kitchen of the adjacent village-inn -- a wholly new and rare experience to me. It was a closer view of my native town. I was fairly inside of it. I never had seen its institutions before. This is one of its peculiar institutions; for it is a shire town. I began to comprehend what its inhabitants were about.
  
  In the morning, our breakfasts were put through the hole in the door, in small oblong-square tin pans, made to fit, and holding a pint of chocolate, with brown bread, and an iron spoon. When they called for the vessels again, I was green enough to return what bread I had left; but my comrade seized it, and said that I should lay that up for lunch or dinner. Soon after he was let out to work at haying in a neighboring field, whither he went every day, and would not be back till noon; so he bade me good-day, saying that he doubted if he should see me again.
  
  When I came out of prison -- for some one interfered, and paid that tax -- I did not perceive that great changes had taken place on the common, such as he observed who went in a youth and emerged a tottering and gray-headed man; and yet a change had to my eyes come over the scene -- the town, and State, and country -- greater than any that mere time could effect. I saw yet more distinctly the State in which I lived. I saw to what extent the people among whom I lived could be trusted as good neighbors and friends; that their friendship was for summer weather only; that they did not greatly propose to do right; that they were a distinct race from me by their prejudices and superstitions, as the Chinamen and Malays are; that in their sacrifices to humanity, they ran no risks, not even to their property; that after all they were not so noble but they treated the thief as he had treated them, and hoped, by a certain outward observance and a few prayers, and by walking in a particular straight though useless path from time to time, to save their souls. This may be to judge my neighbors harshly; for I believe that many of them are not aware that they have such an institution as the jail in their village.
  
  It was formerly the custom in our village, when a poor debtor came out of jail, for his acquaintances to salute him, looking through their fingers, which were crossed to represent the grating of a jail window, "How do ye do?" My neighbors did not thus salute me, but first looked at me, and then at one another, as if I had returned from a long journey. I was put into jail as I was going to the shoemaker's to get a shoe which was mended. When I was let out the next morning, I proceeded to finish my errand, and, having put on my mended shoe, joined a huckleberry party, who were impatient to put themselves under my conduct; and in half an hour -- for the horse was soon tackled -- was in the midst of a huckleberry field, on one of our highest hills, two miles off, and then the State was nowhere to be seen.
  
  This is the whole history of "My Prisons."
  
  I have never declined paying the highway tax, because I am as desirous of being a good neighbor as I am of being a bad subject; and as for supporting schools, I am doing my part to educate my fellow-countrymen now. It is for no particular item in the tax-bill that I refuse to pay it. I simply wish to refuse allegiance to the State, to withdraw and stand aloof from it effectually. I do not care to trace the course of my dollar, if I could, till it buys a man or a musket to shoot one with -- the dollar is innocent -- but I am concerned to trace the effects of my allegiance. In fact, I quietly declare war with the State, after my fashion, though I will still make what use and get what advantage of her I can, as is usual in such cases.
  
  If others pay the tax which is demanded of me, from a sympathy with the State, they do but what they have already done in their own case, or rather they abet injustice to a greater extent than the State requires. If they pay the tax from a mistaken interest in the individual taxed, to save his property, or prevent his going to jail, it is because they have not considered wisely how far they let their private feelings interfere with the public good.
  
  This, then, is my position at present. But one cannot be too much on his guard in such a case, lest his action be biased by obstinacy or an undue regard for the opinions of men. Let him see that he does only what belongs to himself and to the hour.
  
  I think sometimes, Why, this people mean well; they are only ignorant; they would do better if they knew how: why give your neighbors this pain to treat you as they are not inclined to? But I think, again, This is no reason why I should do as they do, or permit others to suffer much greater pain of a different kind. Again, I sometimes say to myself, When many millions of men, without heat, without ill-will, without personal feeling of any kind, demand of you a few shillings only, without the possibility, such is their constitution, of retracting or altering their present demand, and without the possibility, on your side, of appeal to any other millions, why expose yourself to this overwhelming brute force? You do not resist cold and hunger, the winds and the waves, thus obstinately; you quietly submit to a thousand similar necessities. You do not put your head into the fire. But just in proportion as I regard this as not wholly a brute force, but partly a human force, and consider that I have relations to those millions as to so many millions of men, and not of mere brute or inanimate things, I see that appeal is possible, first and instantaneously, from them to the Maker of them, and, secondly, from them to themselves. But, if I put my head deliberately into the fire, there is no appeal to fire or to the Maker of fire, and I have only myself to blame. If I could convince myself that I have any right to be satisfied with men as they are, and to treat them accordingly, and not according, in some respects, to my requisitions and expectations of what they and I ought to be, then, like a good Mussulman and fatalist, I should endeavor to be satisfied with things as they are, and say it is the will of God. And, above all, there is this difference between resisting this and a purely brute or natural force, that I can resist this with some effect; but I cannot expect, like Orpheus, to change the nature of the rocks and trees and beasts.
  
  I do not wish to quarrel with any man or nation. I do not wish to split hairs, to make fine distinctions, or set myself up as better than my neighbors. I seek rather, I may say, even an excuse for conforming to the laws of the land. I am but too ready to conform to them. Indeed, I have reason to suspect myself on this head; and each year, as the tax-gatherer comes round, I find myself disposed to review the acts and position of the general and State governments, and the spirit of the people, to discover a pretext for conformity.
  
  "We must affect our country as our parents,
  
  And if at any time we alienate
  
  Our love or industry from doing it honor,
  
  We must respect effects and teach the soul
  
  Matter of conscience and religion,
  
  And not desire of rule or benefit."
  
  I believe that the State will soon be able to take all my work of this sort out of my hands, and then I shall be no better a patriot than my fellow-countrymen. Seen from a lower point of view, the Constitution, with all its faults, is very good; the law and the courts are very respectable; even this State and this American government are, in many respects, very admirable and rare things, to be thankful for, such as a great many have described them; but seen from a point of view a little higher, they are what I have described them; seen from a higher still, and the highest, who shall say what they are, or that they are worth looking at or thinking of at all?
  
  However, the government does not concern me much, and I shall bestow the fewest possible thoughts on it. It is not many moments that I live under a government, even in this world. If a man is thought-free, fancy-free, imagination-free, that which is not never for a long time appearing to be to him, unwise rulers or reformers cannot fatally interrupt him.
  
  I know that most men think differently from myself; but those whose lives are by profession devoted to the study of these or kindred subjects, content me as little as any. Statesmen and legislators, standing so completely within the institution, never distinctly and nakedly behold it. They speak of moving society, but have no resting-place without it. They may be men of a certain experience and discrimination, and have no doubt invented ingenious and even useful systems, for which we sincerely thank them; but all their wit and usefulness lie within certain not very wide limits. They are wont to forget that the world is not governed by policy and expediency. Webster never goes behind government, and so cannot speak with authority about it. His words are wisdom to those legislators who contemplate no essential reform in the existing government; but for thinkers, and those who legislate for all time, he never once glances at the subject. I know of those whose serene and wise speculations on this theme would soon reveal the limits of his mind's range and hospitality. Yet, compared with the cheap professions of most reformers, and the still cheaper wisdom and eloquence of politicians in general, his are almost the only sensible and valuable words, and we thank Heaven for him. Comparatively, he is always strong, original, and, above all, practical. Still, his quality is not wisdom, but prudence. The lawyer's truth is not truth, but consistency or a consistent expediency. Truth is always in harmony with herself, and is not concerned chiefly to reveal the justice that may consist with wrong-doing. He well deserves to be called, as he has been called, the Defender of the Constitution. There are really no blows to be given by him but defensive ones. He is not a leader, but a follower. His leaders are the men of '87. "I have never made an effort," he says, "and never propose to make an effort; I have never countenanced an effort, and never mean to countenance an effort, to disturb the arrangement as originally made, by which the various States came into the Union." Still thinking of the sanction which the Constitution gives to slavery, he says, "Because it was a part of the original compact -- let it stand." Notwithstanding his special acuteness and ability, he is unable to take a fact out of its merely political relations, and behold it as it lies absolutely to be disposed of by the intellect -- what, for instance, it behooves a man to do here in America to-day with regard to slavery, but ventures, or is driven, to make some such desperate answer as the following, while professing to speak absolutely, and as a private man -- from which what new and singular code of social duties might be inferred? "The manner," says he, "in which the governments of those States where slavery exists are to regulate it is for their own consideration, under their responsibility to their constituents, to the general laws of propriety, humanity, and justice, and to God. Associations formed elsewhere, springing from a feeling of humanity, or any other cause, have nothing whatever to do with it. They have never received any encouragement from me, and they never will."
  
  They who know of no purer sources of truth, who have traced up its stream no higher, stand, and wisely stand, by the Bible and the Constitution, and drink at it there with reverence and humility; but they who behold where it comes trickling into this lake or that pool, gird up their loins once more, and continue their pilgrimage toward its fountain-head.
  
  No man with a genius for legislation has appeared in America. They are rare in the history of the world. There are orators, politicians, and eloquent men, by the thousand; but the speaker has not yet opened his mouth to speak who is capable of settling the much-vexed questions of the day. We love eloquence for its own sake, and not for any truth which it may utter, or any heroism it may inspire. Our legislators have not yet learned the comparative value of free-trade and of freedom, of union, and of rectitude, to a nation. They have no genius or talent for comparatively humble questions of taxation and finance, commerce and manufacturers and agriculture. If we were left solely to the wordy wit of legislators in Congress for our guidance, uncorrected by the seasonable experience and the effectual complaints of the people, America would not long retain her rank among the nations. For eighteen hundred years, though perchance I have no right to say it, the New Testament has been written; yet where is the legislator who has wisdom and practical talent enough to avail himself of the light which it sheds on the science of legislation?
  
  The authority of government, even such as I am willing to submit to -- for I will cheerfully obey those who know and can do better than I, and in many things even those who neither know nor can do so well -- is still an impure one: to be strictly just, it must have the sanction and consent of the governed. It can have no pure right over my person and property but what I concede to it. The progress from an absolute to a limited monarchy, from a limited monarchy to a democracy, is a progress toward a true respect for the individual. Even the Chinese philosopher was wise enough to regard the individual as the basis of the empire. Is a democracy, such as we know it, the last improvement possible in government? Is it not possible to take a step further towards recognizing and organizing the rights of man? There will never be a really free and enlightened State until the State comes to recognize the individual as a higher and independent power, from which all its own power and authority are derived, and treats him accordingly. I please myself with imagining a State at least which can afford to be just to all men, and to treat the individual with respect as a neighbor; which even would not think it inconsistent with its own repose if a few were to live aloof from it, not meddling with it, nor embraced by it, who fulfilled all the duties of neighbors and fellow-men. A State which bore this kind of fruit, and suffered it to drop off as fast as it ripened, would prepare the way for a still more perfect and glorious State, which also I have imagined, but not yet anywhere seen.
  běn shū wéi miáo huì liǎo cóng xìn shè huì zhuǎn biàn dào mèng xiǎng shè huì de chéng gōng lán bìng zhǐ chū gōng zuò chǎng suǒshì chǎng huán jìng xiū xián děng fāng miàn jiāng shēng de biàn huàběn shū jǐn xiàn gěi měi wèi yòu zhì cóng shāng de rén héng héng wàng liǎo jiě wèi lái shì chǎng zǒu xiàng de réndāng shì chǎngxiāo fèi zhě yuán gōng mendōu yuè mèng xiǎng shè huì shíměi xiǎng zhì liú zài xìn shè huì de rénzhè běn shū shì měi wèi xīn wèi láichōng jǐng 21 shì shēng huó de rén yuè
   běn shū 1 zhāng jiè shào liǎo mèng xiǎng shè huì de luó jigōng guǒ cǎi yòng zhè zhǒng xīn xíng luó ji jiù huì zuò shī jiāng chū xiàn de shì chǎng zēngzhǎng huìshì shí shàngmèng xiǎng shè huì jīng xiàng bīng shān yàng qiǎo rán lái línsuī chén zhe huǎnquè shì dǎng guǒ shùn shì 'ér wéikǒng yào bèi bīng shān niǎn píng 2 zhāng tàn tǎo liǎo shì chǎng lún kuòjiǎng shù shì liù zhǒng jīng chū chú xíng de qíng gǎn shì chǎng chū liǎo zhǒng yòu zhù zhàn lüè xìng wéi de quán xīn luó jibìng zuǒ fēng shēng dòng de shì wàng zhū lái yǐn gān quán 3 zhāng lùn shù de shì gōng yuán gōng héng héng wèi lái de gōng shǐ mìngyuǎn jǐng zhàn lüègōng bèi kàn zuò luòchōng mǎn xíng xíng de shìyòu de chuán wén 4 zhāng shè xiāo fèi zhě gōng yuán gōng de jiā xiū xián shí guāngzài zhè fēn men xiǎng xiàng wèi lái de rén men zěn yàng xiū xián shí guāngbìng tàn tǎo gōng zuò shí jiān de guān 5 zhāng fàng yǎn quán qiútàn tǎo liǎo guó jiā zhī jiān de guān zhú jiàn chéng xíng de quán qiú zhōng chǎn jiē zhǎn zhōng guó jiā de qíng kuànghái miáo shù liǎo zhàn 10 duō rén kǒu de xiāo fèi zhě lìng wài 40 zàn shí chǔyú luò hòu shuǐ píng de rén men
  
   běn gēn wèi lái yán jiū yuàn shì xiǎng quán qiú de wèi lái xué yán jiū shèng diàn zhí mǐn ruìzhèn lóng kuì de 'ér shù zhìběn shū suǒ miáo shù demèng xiǎng shè huì shì zhōng zuì yòu zhèn hàn xìng de jié chū yán zhī
   zài xìn shè huì duān chū xiàn zhī hòu jiǔtiān cái de wèi lái xué jiā jiù zài kǎo 'àn zhǒng 'ér lái de shè huì xíng tàizuò zhě xuān chēngxìn shí dài jīng shānrén lèi de zhǎn zài jīng liè wén míngnóng wén mínggōng wén míng qián suàn wéi biāo zhì de xìn shí dài zhī hòu jiāng kuà zhǒng shè huì xíng tàimèng xiǎng shè huì
   jiāng lái lín de mèng xiǎng shè huìshì zhǒng wán quán xīn xíng de shè huì zhōng de shè tuán réndōu píng jiè de shì yáng míng ér zài jǐn jǐn lài shù xìn mèng xiǎng shè huì bìng fēi chī rén kuáng xiǎng zài duō chū zhēng róng héng héng wèi lái chǎn pǐn dòng rén men de xīn língér jǐn jǐn shì shuō rén men de tóu nǎodāng qián zhèng shì wéi chǎn pǐn qíng gǎn jià zhí de hǎo shí běn shū gōng liǎo tào zhàn lüè xìng wéi de quán xīn luó jiyòu zhù jiě wèi lái de shì chǎngshì wèi lái shè huì huò quē de xiàng dǎo
   qián yán
  1. wèi lái zhù mèng xiǎng shè huì de shí xiàn 2. shì shì jiǎng shù zhě de shì chǎng
  2. shì shì jiǎng shù zhě de shì chǎng ( èr) 3. cóng kān yán dào shí
  4. ài róng róng de jiā tíng gōng xīn xíng xiū xián shí guāng 5. quán qiú shāng shì
   zhì xiè
   yóu fēng kuáng 'ér bèi niàn de shí dài
   rǎn mǎn zuì dān chún de nián qīng rén de xuè de shí dài
   máo dōng xiǎng hóng chā mǎn quán shì jiè de shí dài
   liù shí nián dàishì jiè shàng jǐn jǐn yòu menhái yòu guó hóng wèi bīng běn xué shēng lián huì kuǎ diào de dài
   de wáng yuǎn shí jiān de liú shì gèng zài bèi de yīn yǐng xià chéngzhǎng de menzhōng huì yòu tiān yǎng shì huò shì zhè dài de shí nián
  beatles liǎo u.s.s.r, men huí dào liù shí nián dài
   míng jīng rén
   zuò zhělài hóng
  
   qián yán
   shàng piān rén de míng shēng chéng míng
   rén wèihé yào zhuī qiú míng shēng .
  ( míng shēng zhǒng rén shēng guān;( èrzhuī qiú míng shēng yòu hǎo chù;( sānwèishénme
   yào zhuī qiú míng shēng
   èr rén chéng míng
  ( chéng míng de sān jiē duàn;( èr zhì shù chóng bài 'ǒu xiàng;( sān
   fǎng chóng bài 'ǒu xiàng;( gǎn chāo míng rén chéng míng;( dǎo zhì chéng míng de
   xiē yīn
   sān lùn lǐng de chéng míng fāng
  ( zhèng zhì;( èrzōng jiào chuàng gǎi ;( sān xiǎng shè huì xué;(
   rán xué;( míng;( liùjūn shì;( wén xué;( yīnyuè;( jiǔhuì
   huà;( shídiàn yǐng;( shí wēng jiā;( shí 'èr háng tàn xiǎn;( shí
   sān ;( shí tōng wén xué;( shí liú xíng yīnyuè;( shí liùmíng rén pèi 'ǒu
   huò qíng ;( shí liè
   rén de míng shēng de xiǎohǎo huài
  ( míng shēng de shí zhì;( èrmíng xiǎo de héng liàng;( sānshénme yàng de rén zuì yòu
   míng ;( jué dìng míng xiǎo de shí yīn ;( yǐng xiǎng míng shēng hǎo huài de yīn
   ;( liùmíng rén de děng
   kuò chuán míng shēng de fāng
  ( àn de diǎn zào chū de xíng xiàng;( èr míng zhī;( sān
   bàn shàn shì shè jiǎng huò jīn huìshè zhì gòuxīng jiàn xué xiàobìng
   míng mìng míng;( zhēng de míng mìng míng zhǒng lùnguān diǎn
   xiǎng xiàn míngjìliáng dān wèi rán jǐng rán xiàn xiàng shì jié
   gòuxué xiào zhìtuán pài bié děng;( xiě běn shēn shòu huān yíng de zìzhuàn
  ( liùjiàn niàn xìng jiàn zhù;( zhì zào zhǒng shén yòu de chuán shuō shì
   zài mín jiān guǎng fàn liú chuán gāo de míng wàng;( zhuān zhì huò qiáng shǒu duàn
   chuán míng shēng;( jiǔgōng chéng shēn tuì;( shíyǒng mǎn duàn chuàng xīn duàn
   xīn chéng jiù
   liù rén yīngdāng shēng huó
  ( shí jiān shì ;( èrzhù jiàn kāng;( sānduì dài jīn qián;(
   ǒu;( yìng chóu shè jiāo huó dòng;( liùjiā tíng guān
   xìng chéng míng
  ( xìng de cái néng;( èr xìng chéng míng yào de zhàng 'ài;( sān xìng chéng míng
   yìng bèi de zhì;( xìng chéng míng xuǎn de bàn
   míng rén chǎn zhù de shǐ shì
   jiǔ yòu guān chéng míng míng shēng de shì yánjǐng
   xià piān wén míngmín guó jiā de míng rén
   lìng rén jīng tàn de yóu tài mín
  ( yóu tài wěi rén míng rén;( èryóu tài rén zhuī qiú chéng gōng de dòng ;( sānyóu tài
   rén zài jīng shén wén huà lǐng wěi rén bèi chū de yuán yīn;( yóu tài rén zài shāng shàng de
   chéng gōng
   èr gèn mián yán de zhōng huá wén míng
  ( zài shì jiè shàng zuì shèng míng de shí wèi zhōng guó rén:( èr yòu guó shèng
   míng de zhōng guó rén;( sān wèi zhèng zhì jiā de wèi lái wèi;( zhōng guó wén míng de
   shuāi luòmiàn lín de nán zhōng guó jiāng lái de wěi rén
   sān chóng shàng yǒng héng fēi bào de yìn rén
  ( wén míngzhé xué shè huì;( èrwěi zhèng zhì jiā de yáo lán;( sān zōng jiào
   shī zhé xué jiā de xiāng;( dōng fāng wén xué shù de wáng guó;( xué jiè
   tuán jié líng qiǎo de běn rén
  ( běn rén―― yǒng biàn shàn xué de mín ;( èr zhù
   de běn rén;( sān néng wéi de dān běn rén;( běn jìn xiàn dài huà chéng
   gōng de yuán yīn;( zhù míng de běn rén
   zhōng shì zuì xìng yùn de 'ā rén
  ( zhèng jiào rén ;( èrā wén huà de huáng jīn shí dài chū xiàn de yuán yīn
  ( sānwén xué chéng gōng de yuán yīn jié chū de wén háo;( xué xué shù de xīn
   yuán
   liù huī huáng de wén míng huà wén míng
  ( wén míng;( èr huà wén míng
   jīn tiě de luó wén míng
   'ōu zhōu zhōng shì de jīng yuàn wén huà
  ( zhōng shì zǎo de 'ōu wén míng;( èrbài zhàn tíng wén míng míng rén
   jiǔ 'ōu jìn xiàn dài wén míng de xiān yīng guó rén
  ( yīng guó de zhōng shì zhèng zhì jiā shè huì huó dòng jiā;( èryīng guó wén huàmín
   xìng jìn xiàn dài zhèng zhì jiā;( sānyīng guó duì rén lèi de wěi gòng xiàn xué wén
   huà míng rén
   shí 'ōu zhōu wén huà de lǎo guó rén
  ( guó rén de wén huà qíng jié;( èrzhù míng de zhèng zhì huó dòng jiā guó
   xīng shuāi shǐ;( sān guó de wěi rén;( guó de xiǎng jiāshè huì xué
   jiā;( wén xué shù jiā
   shí lìng rén jìng wèi de guó rén
  ( zhì de mín zhèng zhì wén huà zhèng zhì zōng jiào míng rén;( èr guó mín
   xìng jīng chéng jiù;( sān guó mín xìng wén huà xué shù míng rén
   shí 'èr wén xīng de yáo lán
  ( de shǐ mín xìng ;( èrzhōng shì de rén
  ( sānwén xīng shí dài;( wén xīng hòu de xīng shuāi shǐ
  ( wén xīng hòu zhù míng de wén huà rén
   shí sān zhū de 'ōu zhōu guó 'é
  ( é de chū diǎn;( èré de zhèng zhì míng rén ;( sāné de
   jiè míng rén;( é de xiǎng zhé xué chéng jiù;( é de xué
   jiā;( liùé de wén xué shù
   shí quán néng zhù měi guó rén
  ( shǐ zuì de guó jiā quán néng de zhù;( èr shǐ zhèng zhì huó
   dòng jiājūn shì jiā;( sānměi jiān mín xìng ;( měi guó rén zài xué
   yán jiū shàng chéng gōng de yuán yīn;( měi guó de xiǎng jiè rén wén xué jiè
  ( liù rán xué jiè míng rén bǎng;( wén jiè jiàng
   shí wén míngmín
wèishénme shì qióng rén
Gu Guyuèdòu
   rén bìng guāng róngqióng rén bìng chǐxiàn dài rén wán quán zhì biāo zhǔn píng pàn rén de jià zhíér qiě rén de shēng huó fāng shì fēng duō cǎibìng fēi rén jiù shì kuài deqióng rén jiù hěn tòng rén shēng de xìng hěn duō shí hòu qióng guān
   duō qióng cái shì qióng rénduō cái shì rényòu méi yòu de liàng huà biāo zhǔn
   tàn tǎo qióng wèn hěn duō shí hòu zhǐ shì zhǒng xīn fēn zài tóng yàng de shè huì huán jìng zhōngwèishénme shì qióng rén huò zhěwèishénme gǎn jué shì qióng rénshuídōu wèn wèn wèishénme shì qióng rénshuí hái zài wéi shí cāo xīnshuí jiù shì qióng rénshēng huó duì rén lái shuō cái shì shēng huóduì qióng rén lái shuō zhǐ shì shēng cún
   shì rén shì qióng rén shì qióng rén
   zhī dào wèishénme shì qióng rénshì shénme zào chéng liǎo de qióngqióng gěi shēn biān de rén dài lái liǎo shénmeqióng rén de qián zài qióng rén zěn yàng cái néng biàn chéng rén dào shénme chéng cái suàn gòurén shēng zěn yàng cái suàn xìng
   yòng zài de zhuī wèn gāi chàng xiāo xīn zuò yóu xué zhě zhuàn xiěguān zhù bìng fēn liǎo zhè xiē wèn wén jiǎn liànyōu měi fēng xìng qiáng
  běn shū shì sūn zhōng shān guān sān mín zhù de lùn zhù
  
   sān mín zhù bāo kuò mín zhù mín quán zhù mín shēng zhù mín zhù yào qiú zhōng guó mín jiě fàng mín píng děngfǎn duì guó zhù de zhí mín zhèng mín quán zhù yào qiú zhù quán zài mínjiàn zhì guó jiārén mín yōng yòu zhèng quánzhèng zhǐ yōng yòu zhì quánshí xíng xíng zhèngkǎo shìjiān chá quán fēn mín shēng zhù yào qiú píng jūn quángēng zhě yòu tiánjié zhì běnràng tōng mín zhòng chīde bǎo chuān nuǎn yòu shì zuò,“ mín shēng zhù jiù shì shè huì zhù jiù shì gòng chǎn zhù jiù shì tóng shì jiè”。
  jīng shè huì : zài zhì yuē shù rén zhī jiān
  
  《 jīng shè huìquán shū liǎng juàn。 1921~ 1922 nián chū bǎnyīng wén běn yóu duō wèi wéi yán jiū zhuān jiā zuò fān bìng jiā yòu cháng piān dǎo yán zhù shì 1968 nián chū bǎnwéi zài shū zhōng quán miàn 'ér tǒng biǎo shù liǎo de shè huì xué guān diǎn duì xiàn dài wén míng běn zhì de jiàn jiěshǒu xiān duì shè huì xué de dìng duì xiàngfāng xiē běn fàn chóu gài niàn zuò liǎo xiáng chǎn shìtǒng chēng wéi shè huì xué de chǔrán hòu fēn bié yòu yòu jiāo chā chǎn liǎo de jīng shè huì xué shè huì xuézhèng zhì shè huì xué zōng jiào shè huì xué xiǎngwéi zài shū zhōng guǎng fàn yuán yǐn shì jiè shǐ liào shēng zài tóng shí dài tóng wén míng tóng shè huì zhōng de jīng xíng shì xíng shìtǒng zhì xíng shì zōng jiào xíng shì de gài niàn fēn mén bié lèi zuò chū lèi xíng huà jiào yán jiū tǒng huà yīn guǒ fēn
   shì xiū xíng héng héng · wěi tuō shì jiè xìng
  
  1918 niángāng gāng táo rén huò de 'ōu zhōu rényòu tān shàng liǎo tiān zāiyīcháng shǐ qián de liú xíng xìng gǎn mào xíjuǎn liǎo zhè chǎng wēn de rén shù shuō chāo guò liǎo qián 4 nián zhàn zhēng zhōng wáng rén shù de zǒng men xìng de zuò zhě gǎn shàng liǎo zhè chǎng wēn de wēi, 1920 nián xià chūwéi bìng dǎo liǎochí gāo shāo tuì zhōu hòuzhuǎn wéi fèi yán shēng shù shǒu tóng jīn tiān miàn duì wèi 'ái zhèng wǎn bìng rén yàng。 6 yuè 14 xīng huáng hūnjīng guò tòng zhēngzháwéi rán cháng shì liǎo jiān fáng zài hēi yīng guó gōng yuán bàng biān de jiē 3 hàojīn tiān gǎi chéng liǎo 16 hào shíwài miàn xià zhe léi dào dào shǎn diàn huá hūn 'ànzhào liàng liǎo de guī chéngqīn rén sòng huí hǎi bǎoràng 'ān zài xīn 'ài de shān shuǐ zhī jiān hēi xué de xué shēng menyǒng yuǎn shī liǎo wèi ruì zhì de liáng shī yuán lái dāyìng xià xué wèitā men kāi shè huì zhù què cōng cōng liǎo……
xīn jiào lún běn zhù jīng shén
· wéi Max Weberyuèdòu
  zàixīn jiào lún běn zhù jīng shén shū zhōngwéi zhù yào kǎo chá liǎo shì zōng jiào gǎi hòu de jiào xīn jiào de zōng jiào lún xiàn dài běn zhù de qīn guān zài wéi kàn lái,“ běn zhù jǐn jǐn shì jīng xué zhèng zhì xué de fàn chóuér qiě hái shì shè huì xué wén huà xué de fàn chóu běn zhù dāng zuò zhǒng zhěng xìng de wén míng lái jiěrèn wéi shì18 shì lái zài 'ōu zhōu xué shùzhèng zhìjīng shùzōng jiào zhōng zhàn zhù dǎo wèi de xìng zhù jīng shén zhǎn de jiēguǒshì xiàn dài fāng wén míng de běn zhì xiànzài zhè yàng zhǒng wén míng zhōng kào qín miǎn yòng jiàn quán de kuàijì zhì jīng xīn pán suàn běn tóu shēng chǎn liú tōng guò chéngcóng 'ér huò de rùnsuǒ yòu zhè qiē gòu chéng liǎo jīng xìng de guān niànzhè zhǒng xìng guān niàn hái biǎo xiàn zài shè huì de lǐng xíng chéng wéi zhǒng dài yòu biàn xìng de shè huì jīng shén zhì huò shè huì xīn tài màn jìn dài 'ōu zhōuzhè jiù shì wéi suǒ shuō de běn zhù jīng shén”。 zuò wéi jìn dài 'ōu zhōu suǒ de jià zhí dòng zhe rén men 'àn zhào huà yuán jìn xíng shè huì xíng dòngzuì zhōng dǎo zhì liǎo běn zhù de chǎn shēng
  
   zài wéi kàn lái běn zhù jīng shén de chǎn shēng shì xīn jiào lún fēn kāi dexīn jiào jiā 'ěr wén jiào pài suǒ xìn fèng de dìng lùnrèn wéishàng suǒ yào jiù shú de bìng fēi quán shì rénér zhǐ shì zhōng dexuǎn mín”。 shuí jiāng yào chéng wéixuǎn mínér dào jiù shú huò shuí jiāng bèi juédōushì shàng xiān què dìng liǎo de rén de xíng wéi duì jiě jiù néng wéi cóng biǎo miàn shàng kàn,“ dìng lùnde luó ji jiēguǒ rán dǎo zhì mìng lùndàn zài wéi kàn lái,“ dìng lùnrèn wéi rén duì gǎi biàn de mìng yùn néng wéi zhè jiù zài xīn jiào de nèi xīn shēn chù chǎn shēng liǎo qiáng liè de jǐn zhāng jiāo jiào zhǐ néng shì zhí shàng de chéng jiù lái què dìng shàng duì de 'ēn chǒng bìng zhèng míng shàng de cún zài shì chuàng zào chū chéng liǎo zhǒng shén shèng de tiān zhíshì jīng xíng wéi de chéng gōng shì wèile chuàng zào gōng xiǎng shòu huī huò de cái ér shì wèile zhèng shí shàng duì de 'ēn chǒngcóng 'ér,“ dìng lùnde zōng jiào lún jiù dǎo zhì liǎo qín miǎn chuàng zào cái shì wéi zhuāng yán shì de běn zhù jīng shénzhè jiù shì wéi zài běn shū zhōng de zhù yào lùn diǎn
  
   wéi zhè zhǒng jīng shén xiǎng de yīn lái jiě shì shǐ jìn chéng de fāng rán shì jiǎo xīn yíng 'ér xìngdàn zài gēn běn shàng shì de wéi xīn shǐ guān de fǎn yìng
  
  【 zuò zhě jiǎn jiè · wéi (1846-1920), guó zhù míng shè huì xué jiāběn shì fāng zuì yòu yǐng xiǎng de shè huì xué jiā zhī xiàn dài wén huà jiào yán jiū de xiān rén shēng zhì kǎo cháshì jiè zōng jiào de jīng lún ”, shì cóng jiào de jiǎo tàn tǎo shì jiè zhù yào mín de jīng shén wén huà zhì gāi mín de shè huì jīng zhǎn zhī jiān de nèi zài guān 。 1920 nián zhèng shì chū bǎn dexīn jiào lún běn zhù jīng shénshì wéi zuì shèng míng de dài biǎo zuòsān lián shū diàn 1987 nián chū bǎn liǎo xiǎo děng rén de zhōng běn
  
   dǎo lùn
  
   shàng piān wèn
  
   zhāng zōng jiào pài bié shè huì fēn céng
  
   'èr zhāng běn zhù jīng shén
  
   sān zhāng dezhí gài niànběn shū de yán jiū rèn
  
   xià piān jìn zhù xīn jiào zhū fēn zhī de shí jiàn lún guān
  
   zhāng shì jìn zhù de zōng jiào chǔ
  
   zhāng jìn zhù běn zhù jīng shén
yǐn quán zhōng guó shǐ de hòu tuī
gōu Wu Gouyuèdòu
  shí quán = zhèng shì quán + yǐn quán
  
   yǐn quán de shì xiàquán shì quán de xuán
  
  《 yǐn quán shì gōu xiān shēng shuài xiān chūyǐn quán gài niàn bìng jìn xíng tǒng chǎn shù de zhù zuòwén zhāng duō cái míng qīng guān chǎng xiǎo shuō shēng dòng de wén shìtàn tǎo zhǒng yǐn cáng zài shǐ huī 'àn chù què yòu fēi cháng qiáng de liàng
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