běn shū shǒu xiān jiè shào liǎo yī gè guān yú guān xì de bā wéi dù de yán jiū, zhè shì běn shū de hé xīn。 jiē xià lái xiáng xì tǎo lùn guān xì zhè zhǒng xiàn xiàng zài xīn lǐ xué yǔ shè huì xué zhōng shì rú hé bèi duì dài de。 shū zhōng tí chū liǎo “ kě wǎng de nán rén( nǚ rén) ” mó xíng, yǔ fú luò yī dé de“ nèi jiù de rén” mó xíng xíng chéng duì bǐ。 zuò zhě zài suí hòu zhāng jié zhōng zhú yī jiè shào měi yī gè wéi dù, měi yī zhāng dū zhěng hé liǎo yī xiē xiāng guān de yán jiū yǔ lǐ lùn, bāo kuò zhè yī wéi dù zài rén men de shēng huó zhōng shì rú hé bèi biǎo dá chū lái de。 zài běn shū jié wěi, zuò zhě tàn suǒ liǎo nán nǚ zài jiàn lì guān xì tú jìng fāng miàn de chā yì, bìng yòng guān yú 'ài de zhěng hé xìng zhāng jié lái jié shù quán shū。
zài běn shū zhōng, zhū sè lín · qiáo sài 'ěr sēn bó shì bù jǐn jiù rú hé gǎi shàn hūn yīn guān xì huò qí tā làng màn yǐ liàn gěi chū liǎo yòu yì de jiàn yì, hái tí chū liǎo yī gè zài qíng gǎn shàng duì yǔ tā rén jiàn lì jǐn mì lián xì fēi cháng zhòng yào de bā wéi dù guān xì mó xíng:、 bào chí、 yǐ liàn、 jī qíng tǐ yàn、 tǎn chéng xiāng jiàn díquè rèn、 lǐ xiǎng huà yǔ rèn tóng、 gòng tóng xìng yǔ gòng míng、 qiàn rù、 zhào liào。
běn shū tè sè
fēi cháng zhòng shì rén jì zhī jiān xiāng hù de lián xì yǔ gòng shēng gòng cún。
duì nǚ xìng de xīn lǐ shì jiè jìn xíng liǎo fēi cháng xì nì de tàn suǒ、 yán jiū hé fēn xī。
shū zhōng suǒ yòu de 'àn lì dōulái zì shí jì shēng huó, zuò zhě jí qí xué shēng duì 67 gè jīng lì bù tóng、 shēng huó gè yì de rén jìn xíng liǎo xiàn chǎng fǎng tán。 yī xiē shòu fǎng zhě zài shēn dù fǎng tán zhōng qīng sù chū hěn duō tā men zì jǐ cóng wèi duì tā rén jiǎng shù huò nán yǐ duì tā rén jiǎng shù de wǎng shì yǔ qíng gǎn, dàn què lìng rén nán yǐ zhì xìn dì hěn zì rán dì dōuduì zuò zhě“ tǎn bái” liǎo。
zài běn shū zhōng, zhū sè lín · qiáo sài 'ěr sēn bó shì bù jǐn jiù rú hé gǎi shàn hūn yīn guān xì huò qí tā làng màn yǐ liàn gěi chū liǎo yòu yì de jiàn yì, hái tí chū liǎo yī gè zài qíng gǎn shàng duì yǔ tā rén jiàn lì jǐn mì lián xì fēi cháng zhòng yào de bā wéi dù guān xì mó xíng:、 bào chí、 yǐ liàn、 jī qíng tǐ yàn、 tǎn chéng xiāng jiàn díquè rèn、 lǐ xiǎng huà yǔ rèn tóng、 gòng tóng xìng yǔ gòng míng、 qiàn rù、 zhào liào。
běn shū tè sè
fēi cháng zhòng shì rén jì zhī jiān xiāng hù de lián xì yǔ gòng shēng gòng cún。
duì nǚ xìng de xīn lǐ shì jiè jìn xíng liǎo fēi cháng xì nì de tàn suǒ、 yán jiū hé fēn xī。
shū zhōng suǒ yòu de 'àn lì dōulái zì shí jì shēng huó, zuò zhě jí qí xué shēng duì 67 gè jīng lì bù tóng、 shēng huó gè yì de rén jìn xíng liǎo xiàn chǎng fǎng tán。 yī xiē shòu fǎng zhě zài shēn dù fǎng tán zhōng qīng sù chū hěn duō tā men zì jǐ cóng wèi duì tā rén jiǎng shù huò nán yǐ duì tā rén jiǎng shù de wǎng shì yǔ qíng gǎn, dàn què lìng rén nán yǐ zhì xìn dì hěn zì rán dì dōuduì zuò zhě“ tǎn bái” liǎo。
yī bù yǐ quán xīn de shì jiǎo pōu xī dāng xià shēng huó de lìng rén zhèn hàn zhī zuò。《 niǔ yuē shí bào》 chēng: " duì yú jiē shì yǎn cáng zài zhè gè shí dài bèi hòu de shè huì zhēn xiāng 'ér yán,《 xiǎo qū shì》 wú yí shì yī bù wán měi de shèng jīng。 " yǔ tuō fū lè de《 wèi lái de chōng jī》 hé nài sī bǐ tè de《 dà qū shì》 xiāng bǐ,《 xiǎo qū shì》 shì xīn shì jì shāng yè shè huì yù yán zhōng zuì mó dēng de huà tí。
sān hé huì、 hēi shǒu dǎng、 kǎ bā lā jiào、 gòng jì huì、 kū lóu huì、 guāng míng huì、 huán shān yǐn xiū huì、 shèng diàn qí shì tuán、 guāng míng huì、 gòng jì huì、 dé lǔ yī jiào、 nuò sī tì jiào、 méi guī shí zì huì …… cóng zhōng dōng zhì rè de hé dào liú làng 'ér lái, hòu dào jiā ná dà kuí běi kè xiāng cūn yī zuò yǔ shì gé jué de nóng shè, zài dào měi guó bèi fú lì shān rén tóu cuán dòng de jīng pǐn xiǎo diàn, yuē hàn láo lún sī léi nuò cí shì wèi shàn jiǎng gù shì de dà shī jí zuò jiā, bìng duō cì huò dé guò jiǎng xiàng, tā shěn shì liǎo lì shǐ shàng zuì wéi rén zhī de mì mì tuán tǐ, tàn jiū tā men de lái lóng qù mài hé huó dòng guò chéng, jiē shì liǎo jǐ bǎi nián lái yī zhí bèi rén men chuán chéng bìng qū jiě de mì mì。
běn shū cóng bù luò 'ǒu xiàng、 shēn tǐ、 míng zì、 yǔ yán、 zōng jiào、 mín zú、 lì shǐ qǐ yuán、 xīn duō yuán zhù yì 8 zhǒng jiǎo dù, tàn tǎo qún tǐ rèn tóng zài zhèng zhì biàn qiān yā lì xià de zì wǒ sù zào, duì yú mín zú zhù yì fāng xīng wèi 'ài, zhōng jiāng gǎi biàn shì jiè de zhèng zhì miàn mào, shuài xiān fā chū jǐng xùn。 zuò zhě fǎn huí yuán tóu, cóng rén xìng de jī běn miàn, kǎo chá qún tǐ rèn tóng de gè zhǒng yīn sù, rú hé yǐ bù tóng de fāng shì、 zài bù tóng de huán jìng, jiū chán niǔ jié, yǐ zhì wǒ men yǐ gè zì de xíng tài biàn chéng jīn tiān zhè fù mó yàng。
yī gè xiàn dài huà de guó jiā hé shè huì, jiàn lì zài rén mín duì fǎ zhì de xìn niàn shàng, bào lì zhī qì zhǐ shì“ rén zhì” shè huì cái yòu de chǎn wù。 fǎ yuàn hǎo xiàng yán fù,( zhù yì, bù shì fǎ guān xiàng yán fù, yǐ jīng yòu jǐng chá xiān shēng dāng wǒ men xiǎo mín de diē lā, fǎ guān xiān shēng zài chū lái dāng diē, zěn me shòu dé liǎo hū?) xiǎo mín nèi xīn yòu yī zhǒng xìn niàn, nà jiù shì, rén shì jiān yòu zuì gāo de tiān chèng, bù bì sù zhū zǔ zhòu、 shén xiān、 gé mìng、 huì lù, jiù kě yǐ dé dào gōng zhèng de cái pàn。 xiǎng dāng nián dé huáng fěi tè liè dà dì, zài bō cí tǎn gōng hòu miàn, xiū jiàn yī gè yù huā yuán, jiù zài dōng nán jiǎo shàng, yòu yī gè jì pò yòu làn de mó fáng zài yān, rú guǒ bù bǎ tā chú diào, bù dàn yù huā yuán chéng bù liǎo sì sì fāng fāng de, ér qiě hé jīn bì huī huáng de tíng tái lóu gé yī duì bǐ, jiǎn zhí chéng hé tǐ tǒng。
zuò zhě: CCTV《 duì huà》 lán mù zǔ
yī liáo, shè bǎo, jiào yù, jiù yè, xīn nóng cūn, lǜ sè GDP, zhī shí chǎn quán hǎi wài juélì; shénme shì rén mín qún zhòng zuì guān xīn、 zuì zhí jiē、 zuì xiàn shí de lì yì wèn tí? zhè lǐ de《 duì huà》 jié mù, yī gè gè wéi nín dǎ kāi liǎo zhè xiē wèn hào。《 duì huà》 jiān chí yǔ shí jù jìn, nǔ lì chéng wéi duì shè huì zé rèn yòu suǒ chéng dān、 duì mín zú mìng yùn yòu suǒ dān dāng de jīng shén diàn táng。 wǒ men bù néng bù bǎ zhè xiē nán wàng de huí yì juān kè zài zhè běn shū lǐ, yīn wéi wǒ men shǐ zhōng juéjiàng dì xiāng xìn: duì huà, duì biàn huà zhōng de zhōng guó lái shuō, tā jiù shì yī bù xīn líng de shǐ shī。
yī liáo, shè bǎo, jiào yù, jiù yè, xīn nóng cūn, lǜ sè GDP, zhī shí chǎn quán hǎi wài juélì; shénme shì rén mín qún zhòng zuì guān xīn、 zuì zhí jiē、 zuì xiàn shí de lì yì wèn tí? zhè lǐ de《 duì huà》 jié mù, yī gè gè wéi nín dǎ kāi liǎo zhè xiē wèn hào。《 duì huà》 jiān chí yǔ shí jù jìn, nǔ lì chéng wéi duì shè huì zé rèn yòu suǒ chéng dān、 duì mín zú mìng yùn yòu suǒ dān dāng de jīng shén diàn táng。 wǒ men bù néng bù bǎ zhè xiē nán wàng de huí yì juān kè zài zhè běn shū lǐ, yīn wéi wǒ men shǐ zhōng juéjiàng dì xiāng xìn: duì huà, duì biàn huà zhōng de zhōng guó lái shuō, tā jiù shì yī bù xīn líng de shǐ shī。
bāng zhù qióng rén jǐn jǐn shì sòng diǎn kǒu liáng yǐ yuǎn yuǎn bù gòu, yào shí xiàn kě chí xù fā zhǎn, gèng xū yào jīng shén shí liáng, bìng qiě shì jī fā tā men zhuǎn biàn guān niàn de jīng shén shí liáng。 qióng rén tiān shēng yī fù hǎo wèi kǒu, cóng bù jù pà rèn hé xīn là de shí wù。 yīn 'ér zhè běn zhí miàn xiàn shí、 yī zhēn jiàn xuè、 qiāo xǐng qióng rén de shū, néng dé dào rú cǐ guǎng fàn de xǐ 'ài hé bāo róng, zhè yě shì shí dài de jìn bù……
běn shū fēn xī liǎo shè huì cái fù de chuàng zào hé fēn pèi fāng shì, zhǐ chū pín fù bù jūn shì yī zhǒng kè guān xiàn shí, shì yī zhǒng bì rán de shè huì lì shǐ xiàn xiàng。 zài cǐ jī chǔ shàng, cóng shè huì huán jìng hé gè rén sù zhì děng fāng miàn rù shǒu, zhǐ chū liǎo qióng rén de jiān nán chǔjìng, fēn xī liǎo qióng rén wèishénme qióng de yuán yīn, ràng qióng rén rèn qīng zì jǐ de xiàn zhuàng, zhǎo dào bǎi tuō mìng yùn de tú jìng。 běn shū hái fēn xī liǎo qióng rén、 fù rén gè zì de yōu shì hé fán nǎo, ràng qióng rén kàn dào xī wàng, wéi fù rén qiāo xiǎng jǐng zhōng。 kàn qǐ lái xiàng bái lǐng de zhōng chǎn jiē jí, qí shí bù shì bìng bù shì zhēn zhèng yì yì shàng de fù rén, qióng rén quē de bù shì qián、 fáng、 chē, ér shì quē fù rén de sī wéi。
èr shí shì jì zhōng guó zuì yòu yǐng xiǎng lì de chǔshì xué: hòu hēi xué
běn shū yǐ“ tái běi tú shū guǎn” de zhèn guǎn jīng pǐn《 hòu hēi xué》 wéi dǐ běn, shǒu cì jiāng lǐ zōng wú de wán zhěng shǒu gǎo zhěng lǐ chū bǎn, cóng zì lǐ xíng jiān kě yǐ zhēn zhèng gǎn wù lǐ zōng wú yuán bǎn《 hòu hēi xué》 de jīng suǐ。 běn shū zēng jiā liǎo lín yǔ táng、 bǎi yáng、 nán huái jǐn suǒ xiě de xù yán, chá yuè liǎo dà liàng sān sì shí nián dài de bào kān, shōu lù liǎo lǐ zōng wú xiān shēng yòu guān“ hòu hēi xué” de quán bù jīng diǎn wén zhāng, shǐ rén men bù dàn kě yǐ liǎo jiě“ hòu hēi xué” de jīng suǐ, hái kě yǐ kàn dào lǐ zōng wú xiān shēng yùn yòng tā suǒ chuàng lì de xué shuō duì shè huì、 zhèng zhì wèn tí suǒ jìn xíng de shēn kè jīng bì de lùn shù。 běn shū jiāng yī bù fēn wén yán wén yì chéng liǎo xiàn dài wén, bìng duì yī xiē diǎn gù jiā yǐ zhù shì, ràng dú zhě zài yuè dú zhōng gèng jiā shēn rù、 quán miàn dì lǐ jiě zhè yī zài hǎi nèi wài yǐng xiǎng shēn yuǎn de xué shuō。
běn shū yǐ“ tái běi tú shū guǎn” de zhèn guǎn jīng pǐn《 hòu hēi xué》 wéi dǐ běn, shǒu cì jiāng lǐ zōng wú de wán zhěng shǒu gǎo zhěng lǐ chū bǎn, cóng zì lǐ xíng jiān kě yǐ zhēn zhèng gǎn wù lǐ zōng wú yuán bǎn《 hòu hēi xué》 de jīng suǐ。 běn shū zēng jiā liǎo lín yǔ táng、 bǎi yáng、 nán huái jǐn suǒ xiě de xù yán, chá yuè liǎo dà liàng sān sì shí nián dài de bào kān, shōu lù liǎo lǐ zōng wú xiān shēng yòu guān“ hòu hēi xué” de quán bù jīng diǎn wén zhāng, shǐ rén men bù dàn kě yǐ liǎo jiě“ hòu hēi xué” de jīng suǐ, hái kě yǐ kàn dào lǐ zōng wú xiān shēng yùn yòng tā suǒ chuàng lì de xué shuō duì shè huì、 zhèng zhì wèn tí suǒ jìn xíng de shēn kè jīng bì de lùn shù。 běn shū jiāng yī bù fēn wén yán wén yì chéng liǎo xiàn dài wén, bìng duì yī xiē diǎn gù jiā yǐ zhù shì, ràng dú zhě zài yuè dú zhōng gèng jiā shēn rù、 quán miàn dì lǐ jiě zhè yī zài hǎi nèi wài yǐng xiǎng shēn yuǎn de xué shuō。
lì yòng yōu mò de fāng fǎ lái jiào shòu zǔ zhì xué xí de lǐ lùn, dà wèi · hā chè sī rè zhōng yú yán jiū zǔ zhì zhōng gè zhǒng xīn de kě néng xìng jí zǔ zhì zhōng de rén, tā de zhù zuò hé yǎn jiǎng nèi róng zhù yào zài zǔ zhì xué xí hé zǔ zhì biàn gé děng lǐng yù。
běn shū tōng guò yuè dú lì shǐ、 diǎn píng shǐ liào chǎn xī wéi guān zhī dào, yī bān guān chǎng lèi shū dū cóng hēi hòu zhī xué kàn dài guān chǎng, zǒng jié chū zhòng duō duì qián guī zé, gěi wéi guān zhě jiàn, dàn shì běn shū fǎn qí dào 'ér xíng zhī, rèn wéi zuò guān zhī rén yī dìng yào tí gāo zì jǐ de xiū yǎng, tí shēng lǐng dǎo de jìng jiè, cái néng chéng wéi yī gè hǎo guān。 dāng rán, yào xiǎng chéng wéi yī gè hǎo guān bìng bù róng yì, zài guān chǎng zhōng hùn yě fēi yì shì, běn shū cóng“ zhī shū zhī lǐ”、“ yǎng shēng yǎng xìng”、“ wèi zūn wèi bēi”、“ shí rén shí shì”、“ jiè shē jiè tān”、“ guān zhēn guān dé” jǐ gè fāng miàn zhǎn kāi, zuò zhě shēn hòu de lì shǐ gōng dǐ zài diǎn píng zhōng biǎo xiàn dé lín lí jìn zhì
1847 nián 6 yuè, gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě tóng méng dì 1 cì dài biǎo dà huì shàng, tǎo lùn liǎo 'ēn gé sī cǎo nǐ de zhǔn bèi zuò wéi tóng méng gāng lǐng de《 gòng chǎn zhù yì xìn tiáo cǎo 'àn》, jué dìng jìn yī bù tǎo lùn xiū gǎi。 tóng nián 9 yuè, tóng méng lǐng dǎo rén K. shā pèi 'ěr、 H. bào wēi 'ěr hé J. mò 'ěr tí chū de tí wéi《 gòng chǎn zhù yì wèn dá》 de cǎo 'àn, dài yòu kōng xiǎng shè huì zhù yì de sè cǎi。 shāo hòu,“ zhēn zhèng de shè huì zhù yì zhě” M. hè sī zài bā lí tí chū yī gè xiū zhèng qián zhě de cǎo 'àn。 zài yī cì bā lí qū bù wěi yuán huì huì yì shàng, ēn gé sī duì zhè gè cǎo 'àn zuò liǎo jiān ruì pī píng。 huì yì wěi tuō 'ēn gé sī nǐ chū xīn cǎo 'àn。 ēn gé sī xiě liǎo zuò wéi gāng lǐng chū gǎo de《 gòng chǎn zhù yì yuán lǐ》。 1847 nián 11 yuè jǔ xíng de gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě tóng méng dì 2 cì dài biǎo dà huì, jīng guò jī liè biàn lùn jiē shòu mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī de guān diǎn, wěi tuō tā men qǐ cǎo yī gè zhōu xiáng de lǐ lùn hé shí jiàn de dǎng gāng。 mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī zài lún dūn hé bù lǔ sài 'ěr jiù rú hé qǐ cǎo xuān yán jiāo huàn yì jiàn, qǔ dé yī zhì rèn shí, bìng yán jiū liǎo xuān yán de zhěng gè nèi róng hé jié gòu, yóu mǎ kè sī zhí bǐ xiě chéng。 zhōng yāng wěi yuán huì jiē dào《 xuān yán》 shǒu gǎo hòu jí fù yìn chū bǎn。 1848 nián 2 yuè ,《 xuān yán》 zài lún dūn dì 1 cì yǐ dān xíng běn wèn shì。 zhōng guó zuì zǎo de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 zhōng yì běn fā xiàn yú shān dōng shěng guǎng ráo xiàn dà wáng zhèn, xiàn cún yú dōng yíng shì lì shǐ bó wù guǎn( guǎng ráo xiàn)。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - hé xīn nèi róng
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》( yòu bèi yì wéi《 gòng chǎn zhù yì xuān yán》) shì kǎ 'ěr · mǎ kè sī hé fú lǐ dé lǐ xī · ēn gé sī wéi gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě tóng méng qǐ cǎo de gāng lǐng, guó jì gòng chǎn zhù yì yùn dòng dì yī gè gāng lǐng xìng wén xiàn, mǎ kè sī zhù yì dàn shēng de zhòng yào biāo zhì。 1847 nián 11 yuè gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě tóng méng dì 'èr cì dài biǎo dà huì wěi tuō mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī qǐ cǎo yī gè zhōu xiáng de lǐ lùn hé shí jiàn de dǎng gāng。 mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī qǔ dé yī zhì rèn shí, bìng yán jiū liǎo xuān yán de zhěng gè nèi róng hé jié gòu, yóu mǎ kè sī zhí bǐ xiě chéng。 1848 nián 2 yuè,《 xuān yán》 zài lún dūn dì yī cì yǐ dān xíng běn wèn shì。
《 xuān yán》 dì yī cì quán miàn xì tǒng dì chǎn shù liǎo kē xué shè huì zhù yì lǐ lùn, zhǐ chū gòng chǎn zhù yì yùn dòng yǐ chéng wéi bù kě kàng jù de lì shǐ cháo liú。 quán wén bāo kuò jiǎn duǎn de yǐn lùn、 zī chǎn zhě hé wú chǎn zhě、 wú chǎn zhě hé gòng chǎn dǎng rén、 shè huì zhù yì de hé gòng chǎn zhù yì de wén xiàn、 gòng chǎn dǎng rén duì gè zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài dù děng jǐ gè bù fēn。 gòu chéng《 xuān yán》 hé xīn de jī běn yuán lǐ shì: měi yī lì shǐ shí dài zhù yào de shēng chǎn fāng shì yǔ jiāo huàn fāng shì yǐ jí bì rán yóu cǐ chǎn shēng de shè huì jié gòu, shì gāi shí dài zhèng zhì de hé jīng shén de lì shǐ suǒ lài yǐ què lì de jī chǔ, bìng qiě zhǐ yòu cóng zhè yī jī chǔ chū fā, lì shǐ cái néng dé dào shuō míng。 cóng yuán shǐ shè huì jiě tǐ yǐ lái rén lèi shè huì de quán bù lì shǐ dōushì jiē jí dǒu zhēng de lì shǐ; zhè gè lì shǐ bāo kuò yī xì liè fā zhǎn jiē duàn, xiàn zài yǐ jīng dá dào zhè yàng yī gè jiē duàn, jí wú chǎn jiē jí rú guǒ bù tóng shí shǐ zhěng gè shè huì bǎi tuō rèn hé bō xuē、 yā pò yǐ jí jiē jí huàfēn hé jiē jí dǒu zhēng, jiù bù néng shǐ zì jǐ cóng zī chǎn jiē jí de bō xuē tǒng zhì xià jiě fàng chū lái。
《 xuān yán》 yùn yòng biàn zhèng wéi wù zhù yì hé lì shǐ wéi wù zhù yì fēn xī shēng chǎn lì yǔ shēng chǎn guān xì、 jī chǔ yǔ shàng céng jiàn zhù de máo dùn, fēn xī jiē jí hé jiē jí dǒu zhēng, tè bié shì zī běn zhù yì shè huì jiē jí dǒu zhēng de chǎn shēng、 fā zhǎn guò chéng, lùn zhèng zī běn zhù yì bì rán miè wáng hé shè huì zhù yì bì rán shèng lì de kè guān guī lǜ, zuò wéi zī běn zhù yì jué mù rén de wú chǎn jiē jí jiān fù de shì jiè lì shǐ shǐ mìng。《 xuān yán》 gōng kāi xuān bù bì xū yòng gé mìng de bào lì tuī fān zī chǎn jiē jí de tǒng zhì, jiàn lì wú chǎn jiē jí de“ zhèng zhì tǒng zhì”, biǎo shù liǎo yǐ wú chǎn jiē jí zhuān zhèng dài tì zī chǎn jiē jí zhuān zhèng de sī xiǎng。《 xuān yán》 hái zhǐ chū wú chǎn jiē jí zài duó qǔ zhèng quán hòu, bì xū zài dà lì fā zhǎn shēng chǎn lì de jī chǔ shàng , zhú bù dì jìn xíng jù dà de shè huì gǎi zào , jìn 'ér dá dào xiāo miè jiē jí duì lì hé jiē jí běn shēn de cún zài tiáo jiàn。《 xuān yán》 pī pàn dāng shí gè zhǒng fǎn dòng de shè huì zhù yì sī cháo, duì“ kōng xiǎng de pī pàn de shè huì zhù yì” zuò liǎo kē xué de fēn xī hé píng jià。
《 xuān yán》 chǎn shù zuò wéi wú chǎn jiē jí xiān jìn duì wǔ de gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì、 tè diǎn hé dǒu zhēng cè lüè , zhǐ chū wéi dǎng de zuì jìn mùdì 'ér fèn dǒu yǔ zhēng qǔ shí xiàn gòng chǎn zhù yì zhōng jí mùdì zhī jiān de lián xì。《 xuān yán》 zuì hòu zhuāng yán xuān gào:“ wú chǎn zhě zài zhè gè gé mìng zhōng shī qù de zhǐ shì suǒ liàn。 tā men huò dé de jiāng shì zhěng gè shì jiè。” bìng fā chū guó jì zhù yì de zhàn dǒu hào zhào:“ quán shì jiè wú chǎn zhě, lián hé qǐ lái !”
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - shí jiàn hé yǐng xiǎng
《 xuān yán》 de jī běn yuán lǐ shì kè guān guī lǜ de kē xué zǒng jié。 mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī zhǐ chū:“ zhè xiē jī běn yuán lǐ de shí jì yùn yòng, zhèng rú《 xuān yán》 zhōng suǒ shuō de, suí shí suí dì dōuyào yǐ dāng shí de lì shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn yí。” tā men fēi cháng zhòng shì zài shí jiàn zhōng jiǎn yàn zì jǐ de lǐ lùn, yán jiū xīn de lì shǐ jīng yàn。 jí shí zǒng jié bā lí gōng shè (1792 ~ 1794) de jīng yàn bìng bǎ tā zuò wéi duì《 xuān yán》 de bǔ chōng hé xiū gǎi jiù shì yī gè fàn lì。 quán shì jiè wú chǎn jiē jí yī zhí bǎ《 xuān yán》 zuò wéi zhēng qǔ jiě fàng de sī xiǎng wǔ qì。
《 xuān yán》 zài 20 shì jì chū kāi shǐ chuán rù zhōng guó。 zì 1906 nián qǐ yī xiē bào kān shàng lù xù chū xiàn《 xuān yán》 de mǒu xiē nèi róng jiè shào hé piàn duàn yì wén。 1920 nián chū bǎn chén wàng dào fān yì de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》, shì《 xuān yán》 zài zhōng guó zuì zǎo de quán wén yì běn。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - lì shǐ bèi jǐng
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 yóu mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī、 xiě yú 1847 nián 12 yuè zhì 1848 nián 1 yuè, fā biǎo yú 1848 nián 2 yuè。
《 xuān yán》 shì wú chǎn jiē jí fǎn duì zī chǎn jiē jí de dǒu zhēng rì yì jiān ruì tiáo jiàn xià chǎn shēng de。
《 xuān yán》 shì mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī jìn xíng lǐ lùn yán jiū hé lǐ lùn dǒu zhēng zhēng qǔ dé jù dà chéng xiào de qíng kuàng xià chǎn shēng de。
《 xuān yán》 shì mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī wéi jiàn lì wú chǎn jiē jí zhèng dǎng 'ér dǒu zhēng de shí jiàn zhōng chǎn shēng de。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - nèi róng tí yào
1848 nián 2 yuè 24 rì, mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī hé zhù de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 zài lún dūn dì yī cì chū bǎn。 zhè gè xuān yán shì gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě tóng méng dì 'èr cì dài biǎo dà huì wěi tuō mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī qǐ cǎo de tóng méng gāng lǐng。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 bāo kuò yǐn yán hé zhèng wén sì zhāng。 1872 nián héng 1893 nián, mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī xiān hòu wéi《 xuān yán》 de dé wén、 é wén、 yīng wén、 bō lán wén、 yì dà lì wén bǎn zhuàn xiě liǎo qī piān xù yán。 qī piān xù yán jiǎn yào shuō míng liǎo《 xuān yán》 de jī běn sī xiǎng jí qí zài guó jì gòng chǎn zhù yì yùn dòng zhōng de lì shǐ dì wèi, zhǐ míng《 xuān yán》 de lǐ lùn yuán lǐ shì lì shǐ wéi wù zhù yì, bìng gēn jù wú chǎn jiē jí gé mìng de jīng yàn hé jiào xùn, duì《 xuān yán》 zuò liǎo bǔ chōng hé xiū gǎi。
yǐn yán bù fēn shuō míng xiě zuò《 xuān yán》 de bèi jǐng hé mùdì。
“ zī chǎn zhě hé wú chǎn zhě” zhè yī zhāng, mǎ kè sī, ēn gé sī yùn yòng lì shǐ wéi wù zhù yì de jī běn guān diǎn, fēn xī liǎo zī chǎn jiē jí hé wú chǎn jiē jí de chǎn shēng, fā zhǎn jí qí xiāng hù dǒu zhēng de guò chéng, jiē shì liǎo zī běn zhù yì bì rán miè wáng hé shè huì zhù yì bì rán shèng lì de kè guān guī lǜ, chǎn míng liǎo wú chǎn jiē jí de lì shǐ shǐ mìng, lùn shù liǎo mǎ kè sī zhù yì de jiē jí dǒu zhēng xué shuō。
jiē jí dǒu zhēng shì tuī dòng jiē jí shè huì fā zhǎn de zhí jiē dòng lì( dì 1--5 duàn)。
kǎo chá zī chǎn jiē jí de chǎn shēng hé fā zhǎn guò chéng, jiē shì zī běn zhù yì bì rán miè wáng de guī lǜ( dì 6-28 duàn)。
wú chǎn jiē jí de chǎn shēng hé fā zhǎn jí qí lì shǐ shǐ mìng( dì 29--54 duàn)。
“ wú chǎn zhě hé gòng chǎn dǎng rén” zhè yī zhāng, mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī chǎn míng liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì、 tè diǎn、 mù de hé rèn wù, yǐ jí gòng chǎn dǎng de lǐ lùn hé jī běn gāng lǐng, pī pàn liǎo zī chǎn jiē jí gōng jī gòng chǎn zhù yì de gè zhǒng miù lùn, chǎn shù liǎo wú chǎn jiē jí zhuān zhèng de jī běn sī xiǎng hé tōng xiàng gòng chǎn zhù yì de bì yóu zhī lù。
gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì、 tè diǎn hé jī běn gāng lǐng( dì 1--14 duàn)。
pī bó zī chǎn jiē jí gōng jī gòng chǎn zhù yì de gè zhǒng miù lùn( dì 15--68 duàn)。
wú chǎn jiē jí zhuān zhèng de jī běn sī xiǎng hé tōng xiàng gòng chǎn zhù yì de bì yóu zhī lù( dì 69--86 duàn)。
“ shè huì zhù yì hé gòng chǎn zhù yì de wén xiàn” zhè zhāng, fēn xī hé pī pàn liǎo dāng shí de gè zhǒng jiǎ shè huì zhù yì hé kōng xiǎng shè huì zhù yì, zhǐ chū tā men dài biǎo gè zì de jiē jí lì yì, dàn shì dǎzháo shè huì zhù yì de qí hào jìn xíng huó dòng, fēn xī liǎo gè zhǒng jiǎ shè huì zhù yì liú pài chǎn shēng de shè huì lì shǐ tiáo jiàn, bìng jiē lù liǎo tā men de jiē jí shí zhì。
fǎn dòng de shè huì zhù yì( dì 1--34 duàn)。
bǎo shǒu de huò zī chǎn jiē jí de shè huì zhù yì( dì 35--42 duàn)。
pī pàn de kōng xiǎng de shè huì zhù yì hé gòng chǎn zhù yì( dì 43--56 duàn)。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》
“ gòng chǎn dǎng rén duì gè zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài dù” zhè yī zhāng, zhù yào shì cóng gòng chǎn dǎng rén duì dài gè zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài dù shàng, chǎn shù liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng rén gé mìng dǒu zhēng de sī xiǎng cè lüè。
gòng chǎn dǎng rén zhèng zhì dǒu zhēng cè lüè de jī běn yuán zé( dì 1--4 duàn)。
gòng chǎn dǎng rén zài dé guó de dǒu zhēng cè lüè( dì 5--7 duàn)。
gòng chǎn dǎng rén yùn yòng dǒu zhēng cè lüè de mùdì( dì 8--12 duàn)。
《 xuān yán》 shì kē xué gòng chǎn zhù yì de dì yī gè gāng lǐng xìng wén xiàn, tā biāo zhì zhe mǎ kè sī zhù yì de dàn shēng。《 xuān yán》 gāng gāng fā biǎo, jiù yíng lái liǎo 'ōu zhōu 1848 nián de gé mìng fēng bào。
《 xuān yán》 wán zhěng、 xì tǒng 'ér yán mì dì chǎn shù liǎo mǎ kè sī zhù yì de zhù yào sī xiǎng; chǎn shù liǎo mǎ kè sī zhù yì de shì jiè guān, tè bié shì tā de jiē jí dǒu zhēng xué shuō; jiē shì liǎo zī běn zhù yì shè huì de nèi zài máo dùn hé fā zhǎn guī lǜ, lùn zhèng liǎo zī běn zhù yì miè wáng hé shè huì zhù yì shèng lì de bì rán xìng。《 xuān yán》 lùn shù liǎo wú chǎn jiē jí zuò wéi zī běn zhù yì jué mù rén de wěi dà lì shǐ shǐ mìng; chǎn shù liǎo mǎ kè sī zhù yì guān yú wú chǎn jiē jí zhuān zhèng de sī xiǎng; chǎn míng liǎo gòng chǎn zhù yì gé mìng bù jǐn yào tóng chuán tǒng de suǒ yòu zhì guān xì shí xíng zuì chè dǐ de jué liè, ér qiě yào tóng chuán tǒng guān niàn shí xíng zuì chè dǐ de jué liè; chǎn míng liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì hé rèn wù。 zhè bù zhù zuò cóng dàn shēng qǐ jiù gǔ wǔ hé tuī dòng zhe quán shì jiè wú chǎn jiē jí zhēng qǔ jiě fàng dǒu zhēng, chéng wéi wú chǎn jiē jí zuì ruì lì de zhàn dǒu wǔ qì。 ēn gé sī zhǐ chū: tā shì quán bù shè huì zhù yì wén xiàn zhōng chuán bō zuì guǎng hé zuì jù guó jì xìng de zhù zuò, shì shì jiè gè guó qiān bǎi wàn gōng rén gòng tóng de gāng lǐng。
《 xuān yán》 jié shù shí qiáng diào: gòng chǎn dǎng rén xiàng quán shì jiè xuān bù, yòng bào lì gé mìng tuī fān quán bù xiàn chéng de shè huì zhì dù shí xiàn gòng chǎn zhù yì。 ràng yī qiē fǎn dòng jiē jí zài gòng chǎn zhù yì gé mìng de miàn qián fā dǒu! wú chǎn jiē jí gé mìng zhōng shī qù de zhǐ shì suǒ liàn, tā jiāng huò dé zhěng gè shì jiè。《 xuān yán》 yòng xiǎng yún xiāo de zuì qiáng yīn, fā chū wú chǎn jiē jí guó jì zhù yì de wěi dà hào zhào: quán shì jiè wú chǎn zhě, lián hé qǐ lái!
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 -1872 nián dé wén bǎn xù yán
gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě tóng méng zhè gè zài dāng shí tiáo jiàn xià zì rán zhǐ néng shì mì mì tuán tǐ de guó jì gōng rén zǔ zhì, 1847 nián 11 yuè zài lún dūn dài biǎo dà huì shàng wěi tuō wǒ men liǎng rén qǐ cǎo yī gè zhǔn bèi gōng bù de zhōu xiáng de lǐ lùn hé shí jiàn de dǎng gāng。 jiēguǒ jiù chǎn shēng liǎo zhè gè《 xuān yán》,《 xuān yán》 yuán gǎo zài 'èr yuè gé mìng qián jǐ xīng qī jì dào lún dūn fù yìn。《 xuān yán》 zuì chū yòng dé wén chū bǎn, hòu lái yòu yòng dé wén zài dé guó、 yīng guó hé měi guó zhì shǎo fān yìn guò shí 'èr cì。 dì yī gè yīng yì běn shì yóu 'ài lín · mài kè fǎ lín nǚ shì fān yì de, yú 1850 nián zài lún dūn《 hóng sè gòng hé dǎng rén》 zá zhì shàng fā biǎo, hòu lái zài 1871 nián zhì shǎo yòu yòu sān zhǒng bù tóng de yīng yì běn zài měi guó chū bǎn。 fǎ yì běn yú 1848 nián liù yuè qǐ yì qián bù jiǔ dì yī cì zài bā lí yìn xíng, zuì jìn yòu zài niǔ yuē《 shè huì zhù yì zhě bào》 shàng dēngzǎi; xiàn zài yòu yòu rén zài zhǔn bèi xīn yì běn。 bō lán wén yì běn zài dé guó běn chū bǎn wèn shì hòu bù jiǔ jiù zài lún dūn chū xiàn。 é yì běn shì yú liù shí nián dài zài rì nèi wǎ chū bǎn de。 dān mài wén yì běn yě shì zài yuán shū wèn shì hòu bù jiǔ jiù chū bǎn liǎo。
bù guǎn zuì jìn 'èr shí wǔ nián lái de qíng kuàng fā shēng liǎo duō dà biàn huà, zhè gè《 xuān yán》 zhōng suǒ fā huī de yī bān jī běn yuán lǐ zhěng gè shuō lái zhí dào xiàn zài hái shì wán quán zhèng què de。 gè bié dì fāng běn lái kě yǐ zuò mǒu xiē xiū gǎi。 zhè xiē yuán lǐ de shí jì yùn yòng, zhèng rú《 xuān yán》 zhōng suǒ shuō de, suí shí suí dì dōuyào yǐ dāng shí de lì shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn yí, suǒ yǐ dì 'èr zhāng mò wěi tí chū de nà xiē gé mìng cuò shī bìng méi yòu shénme tè shū de yì yì。 xiàn zài zhè yī duàn zài xǔ duō fāng miàn dū yìng gāi yòu bù tóng de xiě fǎ liǎo。 yóu yú zuì jìn 'èr shí wǔ nián lái dà gōng yè yǐ yòu hěn dà fā zhǎn 'ér gōng rén jiē jí de zhèng dǎng zǔ zhì yě gēn zhe fā zhǎn qǐ lái, yóu yú shǒu xiān yòu liǎo 'èr yuè gé mìng de shí jì jīng yàn 'ér hòu lái yóu qí shì yòu liǎo wú chǎn jiē jí dì yī cì zhǎng wò zhèng quán dá liǎng yuè zhī jiǔ de bā lí gōng shè de shí jì jīng yàn, suǒ yǐ zhè gè gāng lǐng xiàn zài yòu xiē dì fāng yǐ jīng guò shí liǎo。 tè bié shì gōng shè yǐ jīng zhèng míng:“ gōng rén jiē jí bù néng jiǎn dān dì zhǎng wò xiàn chéng de guó jiā jī qì, bìng yùn yòng tā lái dá dào zì jǐ de mùdì。”( jiàn《 fǎ lán xī nèi zhàn。 guó jì gōng rén xié huì zǒng wěi yuán huì xuān yán》 dé wén bǎn dì shí jiǔ yè, nà lǐ bǎ zhè gè sī xiǎng fā huī dé gèng jiā wán bèi。) qí cì, hěn míng xiǎn, duì yú shè huì zhù yì wén xiàn suǒ zuò de pī pàn zài jīn tiān kàn lái shì bù wán quán de, yīn wéi zhè yī pī pàn zhǐ bāo kuò dào 1847 nián wéi zhǐ; tóng yàng yě hěn míng xiǎn, guān yú gòng chǎn dǎng rén duì gè zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài dù wèn tí suǒ tí chū de yì jiàn( dì sì zhāng) suī rán dà tǐ shàng zhì jīn hái shì zhèng què de, dàn shì yóu yú zhèng zhì xíng shì yǐ jīng wán quán gǎi biàn, ér dāng shí suǒ liè jǔ de nà xiē dǎng pài dà bù fēn yǐ bèi lì shǐ de fā zhǎn jìn chéng suǒ chè dǐ sǎo chú, suǒ yǐ zhè xiē yì jiàn zài shí jiàn fāng miàn bì jìng shì guò shí liǎo。
dàn shì《 xuān yán》 shì yī gè lì shǐ wén jiàn, wǒ men yǐ méi yòu quán lì lái jiā yǐ xiū gǎi。 xià cì zài bǎn shí yě xǔ néng jiā shàng yī piān bāo kuò cóng 1847 nián dào xiàn zài zhè duàn shí qī de dǎo yán。 zhè cì zài bǎn tài cāng zú liǎo, yǐ zhì wǒ men jìng lái bù jí zuò zhè jiàn gōng zuò。
kǎ 'ěr · mǎ kè sī fú lǐ dé lǐ xī · ēn gé sī 1872 nián 6 yuè 24 rì yú lún dūn
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 -1883 nián dé wén bǎn xù yán
běn bǎn xù yán bù xìng zhǐ néng yóu wǒ yī gè rén shǔ míng liǎo。 mǎ kè sī zhè wèi bǐ qí tā rèn hé réndōu gèng yìng shòu dào 'ōu měi zhěng gè gōng rén jiē jí gǎn xiè de rén wù, yǐ jīng cháng mián yú hǎi gé tè gōng mù, tā de mù shàng yǐ jīng chū cì cháng chū liǎo qīng cǎo。 zài tā shì shì yǐ hòu, jiù gèng tán bù shàng duì《 xuān yán》 zuò shénme xiū gǎi huò bǔ chōng liǎo。 yīn cǐ, wǒ rèn wéi gèng yòu bì yào zài zhè lǐ zài yī cì míng què dì shēn shù xià miàn zhè yī diǎn。
guàn chuān《 xuān yán》 de jī běn sī xiǎng: měi yī lì shǐ shí dài de jīng jì shēng chǎn yǐ jí bì rán yóu cǐ chǎn shēng de shè huì jié gòu, shì gāi shí dài zhèng zhì de hé jīng shén de lì shǐ de jī chǔ; yīn cǐ ( cóng yuán shǐ tǔ dì gōng yòu zhì jiě tǐ yǐ lái ) quán bù lì shǐ dōushì jiē jí dǒu zhēng de lì shǐ, jí shè huì fā zhǎn gè gè jiē duàn shàng bèi bō xuē jiē jí hé bō xuē jiē jí zhī jiān、 bèi tǒng zhì jiē jí hé tǒng zhì jiē jí zhī jiān dǒu zhēng de lì shǐ; ér zhè gè dǒu zhēng xiàn zài yǐ jīng dá dào zhè yàng yī gè jiē duàn, jí bèi bō xuē bèi yā pò de jiē jí ( wú chǎn jiē jí ), rú guǒ bù tóng shí shǐ zhěng gè shè huì yǒng yuǎn bǎi tuō bō xuē、 yā pò hé jiē jí dǒu zhēng, jiù bù zài néng shǐ zì jǐ cóng bō xuē tā yā pò tā de nà gè jiē jí ( zī chǎn jiē jí ) xià jiě fàng chū lái, héng héng zhè gè jī běn sī xiǎng wán quán shì shǔ yú mǎ kè sī yī gè rén de。
zhè yī diǎn wǒ yǐ jīng lǚ cì shuō guò, dàn zhèng shì xiàn zài bì xū zài《 xuān yán》 běn shēn de qián miàn yě xiě míng zhè yī diǎn。
fú · ēn gé sī 1883 nián 6 yuè 28 rì yú lún dūn
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - zhōng guó dì yī běn zhōng yì běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》
jiǎn jiè
zài dōng yíng shì guǎng ráo xiàn shōu cáng zhe 1920 nián 8 yuè chū bǎn de wǒ guó zuì zǎo de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 zhōng wén yì běn, zhè kàn sì píng cháng de yī běn shū, què bèi chēng wéi“ guó bǎo”, tā de bǎo cún yǔ liú chuán, jīng lì liǎo shì jì de fēng fēng yǔ yǔ。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 jié yì fā biǎo
1919 nián 4 yuè 6 rì,《 měi zhōu píng lùn》 dì shí liù hào zài“ míng zhù” lán nèi kānzǎi《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 ( jié yì ) dì 'èr zhāng《 wú chǎn zhě yǔ gòng chǎn dǎng rén》 hòu miàn shǔ yú gāng lǐng de yī duàn, bìng zài 'àn yǔ zhōng zhǐ chū:“ zhè gè xuān yán shì mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī zuì xiān zuì zhòng dà de yì jiàn。 ...... qí yào zhǐ zài zhù zhāng jiē duàn zhàn zhēng, yào qiú gè dì de láo gōng lián hé。 ...... shì biǎo shì xīn shí dài de wén shū。”
《 měi zhōu píng lùn》 dì shí liù hào hái fā biǎo liǎo chén dú xiù de duǎn wén《 gāng cháng míng jiào》, wén zhāng shuō:“ ōu zhōu gè guó shè huì zhù yì de xué shuō, yǐ jīng dà dà liú xíng liǎo, é、 dé hé xiōng yá lì, bìng qiě chéng liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng de shì jiè, zhè zhǒng fēng qì, kǒng pà mǎ shàng jiù yào lái dào dōng fāng。”
dì yī běn zhōng yì běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 de fā xiàn jí yì yì
guǎng ráo cáng běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 ( cún yú dōng yíng shì lì shǐ bó wù guǎn ) guǎng ráo cáng běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 ( cún yú dōng yíng shì lì shǐ bó wù guǎn )
1975 nián,《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 zhōng wén yì běn zài guǎng ráo de fā xiàn, kě wèi shí pò tiān jīng, tā tí chū liǎo xīn de qíng kuàng bìng zuò chū liǎo xīn de shuō míng。 guǎng ráo cáng běn, xì píng zhuāng běn, cháng 18 lí mǐ, kuān 12 lí mǐ, bǐ xiàn zài de 32 kāi běn lüè xiǎo yī diǎn。 shū miàn yìn yòu shuǐ hóng sè mǎ kè sī bàn shēn xiàng, shàng duān cóng yòu zhì zuǒ mó yìn zhe“ shè huì zhù yì yán jiū xiǎo cóng shū dì yī zhǒng”, shàng shǔ“ mǎ gé sī、 ān gé 'ěr sī hé zhù”、“ chén wàng dào yì”。 quán wén yòng 5 hào qiān zì shù pái, jì 56 yè。 fēng dǐ yìn yòu“ yī qiān jiǔ bǎi 'èr shí nián bā yuè chū bǎn”、“ dìng jià dà yáng yī jiǎo” zì yàng, yìn shuà jí fā xíng zhě shì“ shè huì zhù yì yán jiū shè”。 jīng diào chá hé yán jiū dé chū: dì yī, guǎng ráo cáng běn jiū zhèng liǎo guò qù zài shàng hǎi cáng běn bào dào zhōng de bù què zhī chù。 guǎng ráo cáng běn de fēng miàn biāo tí shì“ gòng dǎng chǎn xuān yán”, ér bù shì“ gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán”。《 dǎng shǐ zī liào cóng kān》 suǒ kānzǎi de shàng hǎi 8 yuè cáng běn de jiè shào wén zhāng hé zhào piàn, dū biāo míng shàng hǎi běn de fēng miàn biāo tí shì“ gòng dǎng chǎn xuān yán”。 jīng guò duì zhào, guǎng ráo běn hé shàng hǎi běn wán quán shì yī gè bǎn běn。 dì 'èr, guǎng ráo běn dǎ pò liǎo“ gū běn” hé“ gū zhèng” de jú miàn。 guò qù, rèn wéi《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 quán yì běn zài wǒ guó chū bǎn shì 1920 nián 8 yuè shuō, zhǐ yòu shàng hǎi dàng 'àn guǎn yī běn shí wù zuò zhèng, bèi chēng wéi“ gū běn”、“ gū zhèng”。 yòu liǎo guǎng ráo cáng běn( lìng shàng hǎi tú shū guǎn shàng yòu tóng běn), zài jiā shàng běi jīng tú shū guǎn bǎo cún de cán běn, zhì shǎo shì yòu liǎo 4 běn 8 yuè de bǎn běn。 xiàn zài kě yǐ zhèng míng,《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 quán yì běn shì 1920 nián 8 yuè chū bǎn de。 dì sān, jìn yī bù nòng qīng liǎo chū bǎn qíng kuàng。 cóng guǎng ráo cáng běn jí shàng hǎi dàng 'àn guǎn、 shàng hǎi tú shū guǎn de shōu cáng běn fēng miàn biāo tí dōushì“ gòng dǎng chǎn xuān yán” zhè yī qíng kuàng lái kàn, 8 yuè bǎn běn fēng miàn biāo tí zhī wù bìng fēi fā shēng zài gè bié yìn běn zhī shàng。 zhè gè fēng miàn biāo tí cuò wù, xiǎn rán shì yīn pái yìn huò jiàoduì shū hū suǒ zào chéng de, ér fēi shénme yì fǎ huò qí tā yuán yīn suǒ zào chéng de。 yīn wéi, fēi yè shàng shù pái de biāo tí qīng chǔ dì yìn zhe“ gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán” wǔ gè dà zì。 kě yǐ duàn dìng, zhèng shì yīn wéi fā shēng hé fā xiàn liǎo zhè yī bǎn fēng miàn biāo tí de xíng wén cí xù cuò wù, yòu jiā xīn shū shòu qìng, gù zài 9 yuè jiān jìn xíng“ zài bǎn” shí jiū zhèng liǎo fēng miàn biāo tí cuò wù。 cóng xiàn yòu yǐ fā xiàn de gè bǎn běn fēn xī, 1920 nián 8 yuè bǎn běn, jiù shì zuì zǎo de bǎn běn。 ér qiě 8 yuè bǎn běn fēng dǐ fēn míng yìn zhe“ chū bǎn”, 9 yuè bǎn běn yìn zhe“ zài bǎn”, zhōng yāng dàng 'àn guǎn shōu cáng de 1924 nián 6 yuè bǎn běn yìn zhe“ dì sān bǎn” zì yàng, yě zú kě shuō míng。 jiǎ dìng 8 yuè bǎn běn zhī qián hái yòu yī gè bǎn běn de huà, zé 8 yuè běn jiù yìng wéi“ zài bǎn”, 9 yuè běn wéi“ sān bǎn”, 1924 nián 6 yuè běn chéng liǎo“ sì bǎn”, dàn zhè zhǒng qíng kuàng bìng bù cún zài。
qí shū de yóu lái yǔ chuán bō
guǎng ráo shōu cáng de zhè běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 xiān shì zài Jǐnán gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě shǒu zhōng, hòu yòu chuán dào liǎo guǎng ráo, bù céng xiǎng jīng lì liǎo yī fān màn cháng 'ér qū zhé de guò chéng。
yóu yú 1919 nián“ wǔ sì” yùn dòng bào fā de dǎo huǒ xiàn shì shān dōng wèn tí, gù 'ér,“ wǔ sì” shí qī shān dōng de 'ài guó fǎn dì dǒu zhēng tè bié gāo zhǎng yǔ guǎng fàn。 zhè jiù cù shǐ mǎ kè sī zhù zuò《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 zài shān dōng chuán bō kāi lái, nà shí《 měi zhōu píng lùn》 xiàng jǐ gè xué xiào jì shòu。 shì nián qiū, wáng jìn měi、 dèng 'ēn míng、 wáng xiáng qiān děng zài Jǐnán chéng lì mǎ kè sī xué shuō yán jiū huì, xué xí hé yán jiū de zhù yào wén xiàn yě shì《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 huì yuán mǎ fù táng huí yì shuō:“ dāng shí de zhù yào xué xí zī liào shì《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 wǒ bǎ《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》、《 xiàng dǎo》 dài huí jiā qù, wǒ fù qīn kàn liǎo, jí wéi chēng zàn, shuō mǎ kè sī shì shèng rén。” guǎng ráo shōu cáng de zhè běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 zuì chū jiù shì zài Jǐnán gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě zhōng liú chuán、 xué xí de。
zài guǎng ráo cáng běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 de shǒu yè yòu xià jiǎo gài yòu yī fāng“ bǎo chén” zhū hóng yìn hén。 ér zhè wèi“ bǎo chén” shì shuí ní? jīng diào chá, tā shì Jǐnán de zǎo qī tuán yuán hé dǎng yuán zhāng bǎo chén。 zhōng yāng dàng 'àn guǎn bǎo cún de 1923 nián 12 yuè 15 rì《 Jǐnán dì qū tuán yuán diào chá biǎo》 biǎo míng, zhāng bǎo chén shì jiāng sū wú xī rén, 1922 nián 1 yuè 1 rì rù tuán, hòu dào Jǐnán gōng zuò, cóng shì qīng nián yùn dòng。 zhōng yāng dàng 'àn guǎn hái yòu dàng 'àn shuō míng tā shì Jǐnán tuán de zhù yào fù zé rén zhī yī, zhù guǎn“ jiào yù jiān fā xíng” gōng zuò。 jù 1922 nián céng rèn Jǐnán dǎng de dài lǐ shū jì de mǎ kè xiān huí yì, zhāng bǎo chén shì dāng shí zài Jǐnán de qī míng dǎng yuán zhī yī。 jù wáng biàn、 liú zǐ jiǔ děng Jǐnán dì qū de zǎo qī dǎng yuán huí yì, zhāng bǎo chén dāng shí zài dào shēng yínháng zuò zhí yuán, zài dǎng nèi guǎn dǎng、 tuán kān wù de fā xíng gōng zuò。 dào shēng yínháng shì shā 'é zài zhōng guó kāi shè de yínháng, zǒng xíng shè zài shàng hǎi, shí yuè gé mìng hòu réng jì xù kāi bàn。 zhāng bǎo chén shì gāi xíng Jǐnán fēn xíng de zhí yuán, cháng lái wǎng yú shàng hǎi、 Jǐnán zhī jiān, yòu zài dǎng nèi fù zé dǎng tuán kān wù、 mǎ liè shū jí de fā xíng gōng zuò, yīn cǐ, tā néng shōu cún zhè gè zuì zǎo bǎn běn de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 nà me, tā yòu shì zěn yàng chuán dào guǎng ráo xiàn liú jí cūn de ní? yuán lái shì tōng guò lìng yī míng zǎo qī nǚ gòng chǎn dǎng yuán liú yǔ huī。
liú yǔ huī shì guǎng ráo xiàn liú jí cūn rén, céng xiān hòu jiù dú yú jì nán nǚ zǐ yǎng cán jiǎng xí suǒ hé sū zhōu nǚ zǐ chǎn yè xué xiào, 1925 nián xià bì yè hòu huí Jǐnán nǚ zǐ zhí yè xué xiào rèn jiào。 zài Jǐnán qī jiān, tā jié shí liǎo Jǐnán nǚ shī de wáng biàn、 hóu yù lán、 yú pèi zhēn、 liú shū qín、 wáng lán yīng děng xǔ duō gòng chǎn dǎng yuán, tóng nián yóu yú pèi zhēn jiè shào jiā rù zhōng guó gòng chǎn dǎng。 tā men cháng hé yán bó zhēn、 liú zǐ jiǔ、 lǐ yún shēng、 zhāng bǎo chén děng nán tóng zhì yī qǐ xué xí hé huó dòng。 zhè yàng, nà běn gài yòu“ bǎo chén” yìn hén de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 jiù niǎn zhuǎn dào liǎo liú yǔ huī de shǒu zhōng。 1926 nián chūn jié, tā hé tóng xiāng yán bó zhēn、 liú zǐ jiǔ yī tóng huí jiā xǐngqīn shí, jiù bǎ zhè běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 hé qí tā xǔ duō mǎ kè sī zhù yì shū jí、 dǎng de xuān chuán cái liào dài huí liǎo guǎng ráo xiàn liú jí cūn。 cóng cǐ, zhè běn gé mìng wén xiàn biàn zài zhè gè piān pì de nóng cūn jīng lì liǎo bù píng fán de 50 gè chūn qiū。
guǎng ráo liú jí dǎng zhī bù shì zài 1925 nián chūn jiàn lì de。 liú zǐ jiǔ zài bāng zhù zǔ jiàn liú jí dǎng zhī bù shí, yě céng cóng wài dì dài huí guò yī běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 hé qí tā mǎ liè zhù zuò、 dǎng de xuān chuán wén jiàn。
zhè běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 dāng shí yóu zhī bù shū jì liú liáng cái bǎo cún。 qí hòu, 1926 nián chūn jié qī jiān, liú yǔ huī yòu gěi liú jí zhī bù dài lái liǎo nà běn gài yòu“ bǎo chén” yìn hén de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 zhè yàng, liú jí zhī bù liù qī gè dǎng yuán, jiù yōng yòu liǎo liǎng běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 zhè zài dāng shí yī gè pǔ tōng de nóng cūn dǎng zhī bù lái shuō, wěi shí nán néng kě guì。 zhī bù shū jì liú liáng cái jīng cháng zài wǎn shàng zhào jí dǎng yuán men, zài tā jiā de sān jiān běi wū lǐ, yú méi yóu dēng xià xué xí《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 hé qí tā wén jiàn。 rù dōng nóng xián jì jié, dǎng zhī bù hái jǔ bàn nóng mín yè xiào, yóu liú liáng cái huò qí tā dǎng yuán xuān jiǎng gé mìng dào lǐ hé wén huà zhī shí。《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 yòu chéng liǎo liú liáng cái děng tóng zhì bèi kè de hǎo cái liào。 cóng xiàn cún《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 kě yǐ kàn chū, yóu yú zhè běn shū dāng nián jīng cháng bèi fān yuè, yǐ zhì yú zài shū de zuǒ xià jiǎo liú xià liǎo míng xiǎn de zhǐ zì hén jì hé pò sǔn。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 shì mǎ kè sī zhù yì zhù zuò zài zhōng guó chuán bō dé zuì zǎo、 zuì guǎng fàn de yī bù bǎo shū。 tā zài dà chéng shì, zài zhī shí fènzǐ zhōng, zài gé mìng de xiān zhī xiān jué zhě nà lǐ fā huī liǎo jí wéi zhòng yào de zuò yòng。 dàn shì xiàng guǎng ráo cáng běn zhè yàng de chuán bō qíng kuàng, zé shì bù duō jiàn de。 tā zài dāng shí shān dōng zhè yàng zhǐ yòu bǎi hù rén jiā de xiǎo cūn, zài pín kǔ nóng mín dāng zhōng chuán bō, fā huī zhuóshí shí zài zài de zuò yòng, zhè duì rèn shí“ wǔ sì” hòu mǎ kè sī zhù yì zài zhōng guó chuán bō de guǎng dù hé shēn dù, bù néng bù shuō shì yī gè tū pò。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - zhǐ dǎo sī xiǎng
guàn chuān《 xuān yán》 quán piān de jī běn sī xiǎng huò zhǐ dǎo shì wéi wù zhù yì lì shǐ guān,《 xuān yán》 de zhōng xīn sī xiǎng shì guān yú“ liǎng gè bì rán xìng” de yuán lǐ。 jí yùn yòng wéi wù shǐ guān lùn zhèng bìng chǎn míng wú chǎn jiē jí jiě fàng de xìng zhì、 tiáo jiàn hé yī bān mùdì, yóu qí shì guān yú xiàn dài gōng rén jiē jí de wěi dà lì shǐ zuò yòng hé lì shǐ shǐ mìng, gōng rén jiē jí xiān jìn zhèng dǎng dé lì shǐ dì wèi、 lì shǐ shǐ mìng zhǐ dǎo sī xiǎng hé tā de xiān jìn xìng、 yù jiàn xìng、 zhàn dǒu xìng、 yuán zé xìng、 cè lüè xìng děng tè zhēng, cóng 'ér wéi gōng rén jiē jí hé quán rén lèi de chè dǐ jiě fàng zhǐ míng liǎo kē xué de tú jìng。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - zhù yào tè diǎn
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 shì mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī quán bù chéng shú zhù zuò de gāng lǐng hé hóng xiàn, shì lǐ jiě shénme shì mǎ kè sī zhù yì de guān jiàn。 mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī de quán bù zhù zuò, jiù shì wéi shí xiàn《 xuān yán》 zhōng de“ liǎng gè bì rán xìng”, wéi shí xiàn wú chǎn jiē jí de chè dǐ jiě fàng 'ér jìn xíng de lǐ lùn yán jiū。 bù duàn wán shàn、 fā zhǎn kē xué shè huì zhù yì lǐ lùn, bìng shǐ lǐ lùn biàn wéi gāng lǐng, shǐ gāng lǐng fù zhū shí shī, shì lǐ lùn tóng shí jiàn xiāng jié hé, shǐ kē xué shè huì zhù yì tóng gōng rén yùn dòng xiāng jié hé zhè jiù shì mǎ kè sī zhù yì de kē xué shè huì zhù yì, yǔ qí tā xíng xíng sè sè de shè huì zhù yì xiāng qū bié de zhù yào tè diǎn。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - yì yì
( yī)《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 què lì liǎo kē xué shè huì zhù yì de jī běn yuán lǐ
dì yī、 kē xué dì lùn zhèng liǎo gòng chǎn zhù yì de lì shǐ bì rán xìng。
dì 'èr、 míng què zhǐ chū liǎo wú chǎn jiē jí gé mìng de jī běn lù xiàn hé zhù yào rèn wù。
dì sān、 ě yào dì chǎn míng liǎo wú chǎn jiē jí de jiàn dǎng xué shuō hé cè lüè yuán zé。
( èr)《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 shì gōng rén jiē jí jiě fàng de wěi dà qí zhì。
gōng rén jiē jí yùn hán zhe zì jǐ jiě fàng zì jǐ de zuì qiáng dà de lì liàng yuán quán, shì tuī dòng lì shǐ qián jìn de huǒ chē tóu。 gōng rén jiē jí shì zài gǎi zào jiù shì jiè、 jiàn shè xīn shè huì de yǐ kào lì liàng hé lǐng dǎo lì liàng。 zhè zhǒng lì liàng de fā xiàn chéng liǎo kē xué shè huì zhù yì lǐ lùn de dì yī kuài zhù yào de“ jī shí”。 yóu yú mǎ kè sī zhù yì shì gōng rén jiē jí lì yì de lǐ lùn biǎo xiàn, jí wú chǎn jiē jí jiě fàng tiáo jiàn de lǐ lùn gài kuò。 yīn cǐ, tā yī dàn chǎn shēng chū lái, bìng xiàng gōng rén jiē jí jìn xíng guàn shū hòu, tā jiù néng zhǎng wò qiān bǎi wàn wú chǎn zhě de xīn líng bèi jué wù de gōng rén suǒ jiē shòu, chéng wéi gōng rén jiē jí de shì jiè guān, dǎo zhì gōng rén jiē jí zhèng dǎng de chǎn shēng, cóng 'ér shǐ wú chǎn jiē jí yóu zì zài jiē jí xiàng zì wéi jiē jí zhuǎn biàn。
《 xuān yán》 chǎn míng liǎo gōng rén jiē jí de lì shǐ zuò yòng、 lì shǐ shǐ mìng hé wú chǎn jiē jí jiě fàng de xìng zhì、 tiáo jiàn yǔ mùdì。
《 xuān yán》 shì wú chǎn jiē jí gēn běn lì yì de lǐ lùn biǎo xiàn。
mǎ kè sī zhù yì lǐ lùn yī jīng zhǎng wò qún zhòng, jiù huì wéi bù kě zhàn shèng de wù zhì lì liàng。
( sān)《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 jǐyǔ zhōng guó gòng chǎn dǎng rén、 zhōng guó gé mìng hé shè huì zhù yì shì yè de wěi dà yǐng xiǎng hé guāng huī zhǐ dǎo。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》( yǐ xià jiǎn chēng《 xuān yán》) shì mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī wéi gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě tóng méng qǐ cǎo de dǎng gāng, shì kē xué shè huì zhù yì de gāng lǐng xìng wén xiàn。《 xuān yán》 jiē shì liǎo rén lèi shè huì fā zhǎn de kè guān guī lǜ, duì zhōng guó shè huì de fā zhǎn chǎn shēng liǎo shēn yuǎn de yǐng xiǎng。 yī gè duō shì jì yǐ lái, zhōng guó chǎn shēng liǎo sān wèi zhàn zài shí dài qián liè de dài biǎo rén wù: sūn zhōng shān、 máo zé dōng、 lǐ dà zhāo, tā mendōu shòu dào《 xuān yán》 de zhí jiē yǐng xiǎng hé jiào yù。
1896 nián, zhōng guó gé mìng de xiān xíng zhě sūn zhōng shān liú jū yīng guó qī jiān, jiù zài dà yīng bó wù guǎn dú dào《 xuān yán》 děng mǎ kè sī zhù yì lùn zhù。 tā céng dūn cù liú xué shēng yán jiū mǎ kè sī de《 zī běn lùn》 hé《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 1899 nián 3 yuè shàng hǎi《 wàn guó gōng bào》 kānzǎi jié yì de yīng guó shè huì xué jiā jié dé de《 dà tóng xué》 yī wén jiù shè jí dào《 xuān yán》 de yòu guān nèi róng。 1905 nián dǐ, zī chǎn jiē jí gé mìng pài zhū zhí xìn zài tóng méng huì jī guān bào《 mín bào》 dì 'èr hào shàng fā biǎo de《 dé yì zhì shè huì gé mìng jiā xiǎozhuàn》 yī wén, jì shù liǎo mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī de shēng píng hé xué shuō, bìng dì yī cì jiǎn yào jiè shào liǎo《 xuān yán》 de xiě zuò bèi jǐng、 jī běn sī xiǎng hé lì shǐ yì yì, hái yǐ jù《 xuān yán》 de rì wén běn bìng cān zhào yīng wén běn zhāi yì liǎo gāi shū de jǐ duàn wén zì hé dì 'èr zhāng de shí dà gāng lǐng quán wén, bìng zuò liǎo jiě shì。 zuò zhě jiāng gāi shū de shū míng yì wéi《 gòng chǎn zhù yì xuān yán》。 1908 nián 3 yuè 15 rì, liú shī péi( shǔ míng shēn shū) zài《 tiān yì bào》 fā biǎo liǎo《 〈 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán 〉 xù》。 zhè shì zhōng guó rén dì yī cì wéi《 xuān yán》 zuò xù。 cǐ hòu, yòu guān《 xuān yán》 de wén zhāng bù duàn jiàn zhū bào duān。
1917 nián 'é guó shí yuè gé mìng de shèng lì, jìn yī bù huàn xǐng liǎo zhōng guó de xiān jìn fènzǐ。“ wǔ sì yùn dòng” qián hòu, zhōng guó chū xiàn liǎo xǔ duō jiè shào hé tǎo lùn《 xuān yán》 de wén zhāng, mǎ kè sī zhù yì zài zhōng guó dé dào guǎng fàn de chuán bō。 1920 nián 3 yuè, lǐ dà zhāo chàng dǎo chéng lì de“ běi jīng dà xué mǎ kè sī( jí mǎ kè sī héng héng biān ji zhù) xué yán jiū huì” jí tǐ fān yì liǎo dé wén bǎn《 xuān yán》 de quán wén, yìn fā liǎo shǎo liàng yóu yìn běn zài dāng shí de xiān jìn fènzǐ zhōng chuán yuè。 1920 nián 8 yuè, yóu chén wàng dào gēn jù rì wén hé yīng wén bǎn běn fān yì de《 xuān yán》 de dì yī gè zhōng wén yì běn zài gòng chǎn guó jì de zī zhù xià yóu shàng hǎi shè huì zhù yì yán jiū shè zhèng shì chū bǎn。 chén wàng dào yì běn zài yǐ hòu de 20 nián zhōng, duō cì chóngyìn, guǎng wéi liú chuán。 máo zé dōng zài 1920 nián dì yī cì yuè dú liǎo kǎo cí jī zhù de《 jiē jí dǒu zhēng》、 chén wàng dào fān yì de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 hé yī gè yīng guó rén zuò de《 shè huì zhù yì shǐ》。 zhōu 'ēn lái duì chén wàng dào jiù shuō guò:“ wǒ mendōu shì nǐ jiào yù chū lái de。”
《 xuān yán》 duì dāng shí zài guó wài qín gōng jiǎn xué de qīng nián yě chǎn shēng liǎo zhòng yào de yǐng xiǎng。 1920 nián chū, cài hé sēn zài fǎ guó xiān hòu fān yì chū《 xuān yán》、《 shè huì zhù yì cóng kōng xiǎng dào kē xué de fā zhǎn》 děng zhù zuò de zhòng yào duàn luò, zài fù fǎ qín gōng jiǎn xué de xué shēng zhōng guǎng wéi liú chuán。 dèng xiǎo píng yě shì zài fǎ guó qín gōng jiǎn xué shí dú dào《 xuān yán》 de。 tā hòu lái shuō, wǒ de rù mén lǎo shī shì《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 hé《 gòng chǎn zhù yì A B C》。
suí zhe zhōng guó gé mìng xíng shì de fā zhǎn, duì《 xuān yán》 de xū qiú yǔ rì jù zēng。《 xuān yán》 de dì yī gè zhōng wén yì běn chū bǎn hòu dào 1949 nián zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó chéng lì, yòu yòu 5 gè zhōng wén yì běn lù xù wèn shì, yì wén zhì liàng bù duàn tí gāo, suǒ shōu xù yán bù duàn zēng jiā, fā xíng shù liàng rì yì kuò dà。
xīn zhōng guó chéng lì hòu, 1949 nián 11 yuè zài běi jīng yìn liǎo sū lián wài jiāo chū bǎn jú chū bǎn de shōu yòu mǎ kè sī 'ēn gé sī xiě de quán bù 7 piān xù yán de《 xuān yán》 bǎi zhōu nián jì niàn běn。 1958 nián zhōng gòng zhōng yāng biān yì jú jiàodìng liǎo《 xuān yán》 de zhōng yì běn, shōu rù《 mǎ kè sī 'ēn gé sī quán jí》 dì sì juàn。 1964 nián gēn jù dé wén bìng cān kǎo yīng fǎ 'é děng wén běn zài cì zuò liǎo jiàodìng, chū bǎn liǎo dān xíng běn, shì zhōng guó liú chuán zuì guǎng de bǎn běn。 1972 nián 5 yuè, xīn biān de sì juàn běn《 mǎ kè sī 'ēn gé sī xuǎn jí》 zhèng shì chū bǎn, qí zhōng shōu rù liǎo《 xuān yán》 de zhèng wén hé mǎ kè sī 'ēn gé sī xiě de 7 piān xù yán。 1995 nián 6 yuè, yòu biān ji chū bǎn liǎo dì 'èr bǎn。 zhè bǎn《 mǎ kè sī 'ēn gé sī xuǎn jí》 duì shōu zài de wén xiàn zuò liǎo jiào dà tiáozhěng, bìng 'àn yuán zhù wén zì duì yì wén chóngxīn zuò liǎo jiàodìng。 1997 nián 8 yuè rén mín chū bǎn shè yòu gēn jù《 mǎ kè sī 'ēn gé sī xuǎn jí》 zhōng wén dì 'èr bǎn dì yī juàn zhōng de《 xuān yán》 de xīn yì wén chū bǎn liǎo dān xíng běn, bìng zuò wéi mǎ liè zhù zuò de xì liè shū《 mǎ kè sī liè níng zhù yì wén kù》 zhī yī zhǒng chū bǎn fā xíng。 zhè shì《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 qì jīn zài wǒ guó chū bǎn de zuì xīn bǎn běn。
jiāng zé mín tóng zhì zài dǎng de shí wǔ dà bào gào zhōng zhǐ chū:“ jìn 20 nián lái gǎi gé kāi fàng hé xiàn dài huà jiàn shè qǔ dé chéng gōng de gēn běn yuán yīn zhī yī, jiù shì kè fú liǎo nà xiē chāo yuè jiē duàn de cuò wù guān niàn hé zhèng cè, yòu dǐ zhì liǎo pāo qì shè huì zhù yì jī běn zhì dù de cuò wù zhù zhāng”。 zhè jiù qīng chǔ dì gào sù wǒ men, bì xū wán zhěng dì、 zhǔn què dì lǐ jiě guān yú shè huì zhù yì chū jí jiē duàn, zhè jiù jué dìng liǎo wǒ men xiàn jiē duàn de fèn dǒu mù biāo shì jiàn shè zhōng guó tè sè de shè huì zhù yì, wǒ men yào wèicǐ 'ér gòng xiàn zì jǐ de yī qiē, shè cǐ 'ér kōng tán gòng chǎn zhù yì, nà jiù shì yòu yì wú yì dì、 huò duō huò shǎo dì bèi pàn liǎo gòng chǎn zhù yì。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - xué xí tài dù hé fāng fǎ
( yī) duì jī běn yuán lǐ de shí jì yùn yòng, suí shí suí dì dōuyào yǐ dāng shí de lì shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn yí。
zài《 xuān yán》 de chū bǎn xù yán zhōng duō cì shuō míng, duì jī běn yuán lǐ de shí jì yùn yòng, suí shí suí dì dōuyào yǐ dāng shí de lì shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn yí, duì gè bié yuán lǐ hé jù tǐ yuán lǐ gèng yào gēn jù cǐ shí cǐ dì de shí jì qíng kuàng jìn xíng jù tǐ de fēn xī。 zhè lǐ guān jiàn shì zhǔn què bǎ wò jī běn yuán lǐ hé jù tǐ yuán lǐ de kē xué jiè xiàn, yīn wéi duì jī běn yuán lǐ shì bù néng wéi bèi de, wéi bèi liǎo jī běn yuán lǐ jiù huì zǒu xiàng mǎ kè sī zhù yì de fǎn miàn, zàng sòng gé mìng chéng guǒ, cóng 'ér kě néng chéng wéi mǎ kè sī zhù yì de kě chǐ pàn tú。
( èr) yào shí shì qiú shì dì jiān chí mǎ kè sī zhù yì de wéi wù biàn zhèng guān diǎn
cóng cháng yuǎn kàn, shè huì zhù yì zhōng jiāng chè dǐ zhàn shèng zī běn zhù yì, zhōng jiāng zài quán shì jiè fàn wéi nèi qǔ dé wán quán shèng lì。 ér zài cǐ zhī qián, shè huì zhù yì zài měi gè guó jiā de shí jiàn yòu kě néng fā shēng yī cì shèn zhì duō cì de zàn shí shī bài huò cuò zhé, guó jì shè huì zhù yì yùn dòng hái kě néng jīng lì ruò gān gè gāo cháo jiāo tì de shí qī。 yīn cǐ, duì shè huì zhù yì de qián tú hé mìng yùn, jì yào mǎn huái xìn xīn yòu bù kě diào yǐ qīng xīn, rèn hé bēi guān de lùn tiáohé máng mù lè guān、 má bì dà yì jiǎo xìng xīn lǐ, dōushì jí qí cuò wù hé shí fēn yòu hài de。
( sān) mǎ kè sī zhù yì bù shì yī chéng bù biàn de jiào tiáo, tā bì xū suí zhe shí dài de fā zhǎn 'ér bù duàn dì dé dào fēng fù hé fā zhǎn。
dèng xiǎo píng tóng zhì shuō guò:“ zhēn zhèng de mǎ kè sī liè níng zhù yì zhě bì xū gēn jù xiàn zài de qíng kuàng, rèn shí、 jì chéng hé fā zhǎn mǎ kè sī liè níng zhù yì。 ..... bù yǐ xīn de sī xiǎng、 guān diǎn qù jì chéng、 fā zhǎn mǎ kè sī zhù yì, bù shì zhēn zhèng de mǎ kè sī zhù yì zhě。” bì xū fèi chú jìng zhǐ dì gū lì dì xué xí yán jiū mǎ kè sī zhù yì de fāng fǎ。 lí kāi běn guó de shí jì hé shí dài fā zhǎn lái tán mǎ kè sī zhù yì, méi yòu chū lù, yě méi yòu yì yì。 zhèng rú dǎng de shí wǔ dà bào gào zhǐ chū de nà yàng:“ yī dìng yào yǐ wǒ guó gǎi gé kāi fàng hé xiàn dài huà jiàn shè de shí jì wèn tí, yǐ wǒ men zhèng zài zuò de shì qíng wéi zhōng xīn, zhuóyǎn yú mǎ kè sī zhù yì lǐ lùn de yùn yòng, zhuóyǎn yú duì shí jì wèn tí de lǐ lùn sī kǎo, zhuóyǎn yú xīn de shí jiàn hé xīn fā zhǎn。”
( sì) yào zhèng què rèn shí cóng《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 dào dèng xiǎo píng lǐ lùn de jì chéng fā zhǎn guān xì。
dèng xiǎo píng lǐ lùn de jī běn guān diǎn tóng《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 de jī běn yuán lǐ hé jīng shén shí zhì shì yī zhì de。 bāo kuò《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 zài nèi de mǎ liè zhù yì、 máo zé dōng sī xiǎng shì dèng xiǎo píng lǐ lùn de shēn hòu gēn jī hé zhù yào lái yuán, dèng xiǎo píng lǐ lùn shì bāo kuò《 xuān yán》 zài nèi de mǎ liè zhù yì、 máo zé dōng sī xiǎng de jī běn yuán lǐ yuán zé de jì chéng hé fā zhǎn, èr zhě tóng chù yú yī gè kē xué tǐ xì zhī zhōng, shì bù kě fēn gē de tǒng yī tǐ, bù yìng rén wéi dì bǎ 'èr zhě duì lì qǐ lái huò gē liè kāi lái。 suǒ yǐ, duì nà xiē shì guān zhòng dà yuán zé de shì fēi wèn tí bì xū yú yǐ chéng qīng, duì yǐ jīng zào chéng hěn dà de bù liáng yǐng xiǎng de yòu xiē fēi mǎ kè sī zhù yì de cuò wù sī xiǎng guān diǎn yīngdāng rèn zhēn jiā yǐ jiū zhèng hé kè fú。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - jié yǔ
zài guò qù bù dào yī gè bàn shì jì zhōng, shè huì zhù yì de shí jiàn yǐ jīng jīng lì sān cì gāo cháo。 dì yī cì gāo cháo shì bā lí gōng shè de chuàng lì; dì 'èr cì gāo cháo shì 'é guó shí yuè gé mìng de shèng lì hé shǒu xiān zài sū lián jiàn shè shè huì zhù yì guó jiā; dì sān cì gāo cháo shì dì 'èr cì shì jiè dà zhàn hòu zhì 70 nián dài, shè huì zhù yì gé mìng hé jiàn shè zài yī xì liè guó jiā tè bié shì zài zhōng guó qǔ dé shèng lì。
shè huì zhù yì de shí jiàn biǎo míng, shí xiàn shè huì zhù yì hé gòng chǎn zhù yì jué bù shì shénme kōng xiǎng, ér shì yǐ jīng huò jiāng yào biàn chéng huó shēng shēng de xiàn shí, zhè shì jīng guò gé mìng zhèng dǎng hé rén mín chí jiǔ fèn dǒu zhōng jiāng qǔ dé zuì hòu shèng lì de chóng gāo lǐ xiǎng。 tóng shí biǎo míng, shí xiàn shè huì zhù yì de dào lù shì hěn qū zhé de, tā yào jīng guò duō cì de chéng gōng yǔ shī bài、 gāo cháo yǔ dī cháo, zhè yàng yū huí qū zhé de lì chéng。
yī bù mǎ kè sī zhù yì fā zhǎn shǐ jiù shì bù duàn chuàng zào xìng fā zhǎn hé yòng xīn de yuán lǐ dài tì gè bié jiù de yuán lǐ de guò chéng。 jiù mǎ kè sī zhù yì zuò wéi kē xué lǐ lùn 'ér yán yǒng yuǎn bù huì guò shí。 yīn wéi tā yǐ shí jiàn wéi yuán tóu huó shuǐ, bù duàn yǔ shí jù jìn。 huì guò shí de shì gè bié yuán lǐ, ér gè bié de yuán lǐ de guò shí, zhèng shì zhěng gè mǎ kè sī zhù yì kē xué xué shuō yǒng jù huó lì de bǎo zhèng。 qì jīn wéi zhǐ, hái méi yòu yī zhǒng lǐ lùn hé xué shuō, zài zǒng tǐ shàng néng xiàng mǎ kè sī zhù yì zhè yàng wéi rén men rèn shí hé gǎi zào shì jiè tí gōng kē xué de jī běn lǐ lùn hé fāng fǎ, yě jiù yòu yī zhǒng lǐ lùn hé xué shuō xiàng mǎ kè sī zhù yì zhè yàng qiáng diào lǐ lùn de yùn yòng bì xū lián xì shí jì, bì xū jù yòu chuàng zào xìng。
Friedrich Engels has often been credited in composing the first drafts, which led to The Communist Manifesto. In July 1847, Engels was elected into the Communist League, where he was assigned to draw up a catechism. This became the Draft of a Communist Confession of Faith. The draft contained almost two dozen questions that helped express the ideas of both Engels and Karl Marx at the time. In October 1847, Engels composed his second draft for the Communist League entitled, The Principles of Communism. The text remained unpublished until 1914, despite its basis for The Manifesto. From Engels's drafts Marx was able to write, once commissioned by the Communist League, The Communist Manifesto, where he combined more of his ideas along with Engels's drafts and work, The Condition of the Working Class in England.
Although the names of both Engels and Karl Marx appear on the title page alongside the "persistent assumption of joint-authorship", Engels, in the preface introduction to the 1883 German edition of the Manifesto, said that the Manifesto was "essentially Marx's work" and that "the basic thought... belongs solely and exclusively to Marx."
Engels wrote after Marx's death,
"I cannot deny that both before and during my forty years' collaboration with Marx I had a certain independent share in laying the foundations of the theory, but the greater part of its leading basic principles belong to Marx....Marx was a genius; we others were at best talented. Without him the theory would not be by far what it is today. It therefore rightly bears his name."
Textual history
The Communist Manifesto was first published (in German) in London by a group of German political refugees in 1848. It was also serialised at around the same time in a German-language London newspaper, the Deutsche Londoner Zeitung. The first English translation was produced by Helen Macfarlane in 1850. The Manifesto went through a number of editions from 1872 to 1890; notable new prefaces were written by Marx and Engels for the 1872 German edition, the 1882 Russian edition, the 1883 French edition, and the 1888 English edition. This edition, translated by Samuel Moore with the assistance of Engels, has been the most commonly used English text since.
However, some recent English editions, such as Phil Gasper's annotated "road map" (Haymarket Books, 2006), have used a slightly modified text in response to criticisms of the Moore translation made by Hal Draper in his 1994 history of the Manifesto, The Adventures of the "Communist Manifesto" (Center for Socialist History, 1994).
Contents
The Manifesto is divided into an introduction, three substantive sections, and a conclusion.
Preamble
The introduction begins with the notable comparison of communism to a "spectre", claiming that across Europe communism is feared, but not understood, and thus communists ought to make their views known with a manifesto:
A spectre is haunting Europe—the spectre of Communism. All the Powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre: Pope and Czar, Metternich and Guizot, French Radicals and German police-spies.
Where is the opposition party that has not been decried as Communist by its opponents in power? Where is the opposition party that has not hurled back the branding reproach of Communism, against the more advanced opposition parties, as well as against its reactionary adversaries?
I. Bourgeois and Proletarians
The first section, "Bourgeois and Proletarians", puts forward Marx's neo-Hegelian version of history, historical materialism, claiming that
The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.
Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, have stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.
The section goes on to argue that the class struggle under capitalism is between those who own the means of production, the ruling class or bourgeoisie, and those who labour for a wage, the working class or proletariat.
The bourgeoisie, wherever it has got the upper hand, has put an end to all feudal, patriarchal, idyllic relations. It ... has left remaining no other nexus between man and man than naked self-interest, than callous “payment in cash” ... for exploitation, veiled by religious and political illusions, it has substituted naked, shameless, direct, brutal exploitation ... Constant revolutionizing of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones ... All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned, and man is at last compelled to face with sober senses, his real conditions of life, and his relations with his kind.
However:
The essential condition for the existence and rule of the bourgeois class is the accumulation of wealth in private hands, the formation and increase of capital; the essential condition of capital is wage-labour. Wage-labour rests entirely on the competition among the workers.
This section further explains that the proletarians will eventually rise to power through class struggle: the bourgeoisie constantly exploits the proletariat for its manual labour and cheap wages, ultimately to create profit for the bourgeois; the proletariat rise to power through revolution against the bourgeoisie such as riots or creation of unions. The Communist Manifesto states that while there is still class struggle amongst society, capitalism will be overthrown by the proletariat only to start again in the near future; ultimately communism is the key to class equality amongst the citizens of Europe.
II. Proletarians and Communists
The second section, "Proletarians and Communists," starts by outlining the relationship of conscious communists to the rest of the working class:
The Communists do not form a separate party opposed to other working-class parties.
They have no interests separate and apart from those of the proletariat as a whole.
They do not set up any sectarian principles of their own, by which to shape and mould the proletarian movement.
The Communists are distinguished from the other working-class parties by this only: 1. In the national struggles of the proletarians of the different countries, they point out and bring to the front the common interests of the entire proletariat, independently of all nationality. 2. In the various stages of development which the struggle of the working class against the bourgeoisie has to pass through, they always and everywhere represent the interests of the movement as a whole.
It goes on to defend communism from various objections, such as the claim that communists advocate "free love", and the claim that people will not perform labor in a communist society because they have no incentive to work.
The section ends by outlining a set of short-term demands. These included, among others, the abolition of both private land ownership and of the right to inheritance, a progressive income tax, universal education, centralization of the means of communication and transport under state management, and the expansion of the means of production owned by the state. The implementation of these policies, would, the authors believed, be a precursor to the stateless and classless society.
One particularly controversial passage deals with this transitional period:
When, in the course of development, class distinctions have disappeared, and all production has been concentrated in the hands of a vast association of the whole nation, the public power will lose its political character. Political power, properly so called, is merely the organized power of one class for oppressing another. If the proletariat during its contest with the bourgeoisie is compelled, by the force of circumstances, to organize itself as a class, if, by means of a revolution, it makes itself the ruling class, and, as such, sweeps away by force the old conditions of production, then it will, along with these conditions, have swept away the conditions for the existence of class antagonisms and of classes generally, and will thereby have abolished its own supremacy as a class.
It is this concept of the transition from socialism to communism which many critics of the Manifesto, particularly during and after the Soviet era, have highlighted. Anarchists, liberals, and conservatives have all asked how an organization such as the revolutionary state could ever (as Engels put it elsewhere) "wither away."
In a related dispute, later Marxists make a separation between "socialism", a society ruled by workers, and "communism", a classless society. Engels wrote little and Marx wrote less on the specifics of the transition to communism, so the authenticity of this distinction remains a matter of dispute.
10 point program of Communism
1. Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes.
2. A heavy progressive or graduated income tax.
3. Abolition of all right of inheritance.
4. Confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels.
5. Centralisation of credit in the hands of the State, by means of a national bank with State capital and an exclusive monopoly.
6. Centralisation of the means of communication and transport in the hands of the State.
7. Extension of factories and instruments of production owned by the State; the bringing into cultivation of waste-lands, and the improvement of the soil generally in accordance with a common plan.
8. Equal liability of all to labour. Establishment of industrial armies, especially for agriculture.
9. Combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries; gradual abolition of the distinction between town and country, by a more equitable distribution of the population over the country.
10. Free education for all children in public schools. Abolition of children's factory labour in its present form. Combination of education with industrial production.
According to the Communist Manifesto, all these were prior conditions for a transition from capitalism to communism, but Marx and Engels later expressed a desire to modernize this passage.
III. Socialist and Communist Literature
The third section, "Socialist and Communist Literature," distinguishes communism from other socialist doctrines prevalent at the time the Manifesto was written. While the degree of reproach of Marx and Engels toward rival perspectives varies, all are eventually dismissed for advocating reformism and failing to recognize the preeminent role of the working class. Partly because of Marx's critique, most of the specific ideologies described in this section became politically negligible by the end of the nineteenth century.
IV. Position of the Communists in Relation to the Various Opposition Parties
The concluding section, "Position of the Communists in Relation to the Various Opposition Parties," briefly discusses the communist position on struggles in specific countries in the mid-nineteenth century such as France, Switzerland, Poland, and Germany. It then ends with a declaration of support for other communist revolutions and a call to action:
In short, the Communists everywhere support every revolutionary movement against the existing social and political order of things.
The Communists disdain to conceal their views and aims. They openly declare that their ends can be attained only by the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win.
Workers of the world, unite!
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - hé xīn nèi róng
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》( yòu bèi yì wéi《 gòng chǎn zhù yì xuān yán》) shì kǎ 'ěr · mǎ kè sī hé fú lǐ dé lǐ xī · ēn gé sī wéi gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě tóng méng qǐ cǎo de gāng lǐng, guó jì gòng chǎn zhù yì yùn dòng dì yī gè gāng lǐng xìng wén xiàn, mǎ kè sī zhù yì dàn shēng de zhòng yào biāo zhì。 1847 nián 11 yuè gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě tóng méng dì 'èr cì dài biǎo dà huì wěi tuō mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī qǐ cǎo yī gè zhōu xiáng de lǐ lùn hé shí jiàn de dǎng gāng。 mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī qǔ dé yī zhì rèn shí, bìng yán jiū liǎo xuān yán de zhěng gè nèi róng hé jié gòu, yóu mǎ kè sī zhí bǐ xiě chéng。 1848 nián 2 yuè,《 xuān yán》 zài lún dūn dì yī cì yǐ dān xíng běn wèn shì。
《 xuān yán》 dì yī cì quán miàn xì tǒng dì chǎn shù liǎo kē xué shè huì zhù yì lǐ lùn, zhǐ chū gòng chǎn zhù yì yùn dòng yǐ chéng wéi bù kě kàng jù de lì shǐ cháo liú。 quán wén bāo kuò jiǎn duǎn de yǐn lùn、 zī chǎn zhě hé wú chǎn zhě、 wú chǎn zhě hé gòng chǎn dǎng rén、 shè huì zhù yì de hé gòng chǎn zhù yì de wén xiàn、 gòng chǎn dǎng rén duì gè zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài dù děng jǐ gè bù fēn。 gòu chéng《 xuān yán》 hé xīn de jī běn yuán lǐ shì: měi yī lì shǐ shí dài zhù yào de shēng chǎn fāng shì yǔ jiāo huàn fāng shì yǐ jí bì rán yóu cǐ chǎn shēng de shè huì jié gòu, shì gāi shí dài zhèng zhì de hé jīng shén de lì shǐ suǒ lài yǐ què lì de jī chǔ, bìng qiě zhǐ yòu cóng zhè yī jī chǔ chū fā, lì shǐ cái néng dé dào shuō míng。 cóng yuán shǐ shè huì jiě tǐ yǐ lái rén lèi shè huì de quán bù lì shǐ dōushì jiē jí dǒu zhēng de lì shǐ; zhè gè lì shǐ bāo kuò yī xì liè fā zhǎn jiē duàn, xiàn zài yǐ jīng dá dào zhè yàng yī gè jiē duàn, jí wú chǎn jiē jí rú guǒ bù tóng shí shǐ zhěng gè shè huì bǎi tuō rèn hé bō xuē、 yā pò yǐ jí jiē jí huàfēn hé jiē jí dǒu zhēng, jiù bù néng shǐ zì jǐ cóng zī chǎn jiē jí de bō xuē tǒng zhì xià jiě fàng chū lái。
《 xuān yán》 yùn yòng biàn zhèng wéi wù zhù yì hé lì shǐ wéi wù zhù yì fēn xī shēng chǎn lì yǔ shēng chǎn guān xì、 jī chǔ yǔ shàng céng jiàn zhù de máo dùn, fēn xī jiē jí hé jiē jí dǒu zhēng, tè bié shì zī běn zhù yì shè huì jiē jí dǒu zhēng de chǎn shēng、 fā zhǎn guò chéng, lùn zhèng zī běn zhù yì bì rán miè wáng hé shè huì zhù yì bì rán shèng lì de kè guān guī lǜ, zuò wéi zī běn zhù yì jué mù rén de wú chǎn jiē jí jiān fù de shì jiè lì shǐ shǐ mìng。《 xuān yán》 gōng kāi xuān bù bì xū yòng gé mìng de bào lì tuī fān zī chǎn jiē jí de tǒng zhì, jiàn lì wú chǎn jiē jí de“ zhèng zhì tǒng zhì”, biǎo shù liǎo yǐ wú chǎn jiē jí zhuān zhèng dài tì zī chǎn jiē jí zhuān zhèng de sī xiǎng。《 xuān yán》 hái zhǐ chū wú chǎn jiē jí zài duó qǔ zhèng quán hòu, bì xū zài dà lì fā zhǎn shēng chǎn lì de jī chǔ shàng , zhú bù dì jìn xíng jù dà de shè huì gǎi zào , jìn 'ér dá dào xiāo miè jiē jí duì lì hé jiē jí běn shēn de cún zài tiáo jiàn。《 xuān yán》 pī pàn dāng shí gè zhǒng fǎn dòng de shè huì zhù yì sī cháo, duì“ kōng xiǎng de pī pàn de shè huì zhù yì” zuò liǎo kē xué de fēn xī hé píng jià。
《 xuān yán》 chǎn shù zuò wéi wú chǎn jiē jí xiān jìn duì wǔ de gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì、 tè diǎn hé dǒu zhēng cè lüè , zhǐ chū wéi dǎng de zuì jìn mùdì 'ér fèn dǒu yǔ zhēng qǔ shí xiàn gòng chǎn zhù yì zhōng jí mùdì zhī jiān de lián xì。《 xuān yán》 zuì hòu zhuāng yán xuān gào:“ wú chǎn zhě zài zhè gè gé mìng zhōng shī qù de zhǐ shì suǒ liàn。 tā men huò dé de jiāng shì zhěng gè shì jiè。” bìng fā chū guó jì zhù yì de zhàn dǒu hào zhào:“ quán shì jiè wú chǎn zhě, lián hé qǐ lái !”
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - shí jiàn hé yǐng xiǎng
《 xuān yán》 de jī běn yuán lǐ shì kè guān guī lǜ de kē xué zǒng jié。 mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī zhǐ chū:“ zhè xiē jī běn yuán lǐ de shí jì yùn yòng, zhèng rú《 xuān yán》 zhōng suǒ shuō de, suí shí suí dì dōuyào yǐ dāng shí de lì shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn yí。” tā men fēi cháng zhòng shì zài shí jiàn zhōng jiǎn yàn zì jǐ de lǐ lùn, yán jiū xīn de lì shǐ jīng yàn。 jí shí zǒng jié bā lí gōng shè (1792 ~ 1794) de jīng yàn bìng bǎ tā zuò wéi duì《 xuān yán》 de bǔ chōng hé xiū gǎi jiù shì yī gè fàn lì。 quán shì jiè wú chǎn jiē jí yī zhí bǎ《 xuān yán》 zuò wéi zhēng qǔ jiě fàng de sī xiǎng wǔ qì。
《 xuān yán》 zài 20 shì jì chū kāi shǐ chuán rù zhōng guó。 zì 1906 nián qǐ yī xiē bào kān shàng lù xù chū xiàn《 xuān yán》 de mǒu xiē nèi róng jiè shào hé piàn duàn yì wén。 1920 nián chū bǎn chén wàng dào fān yì de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》, shì《 xuān yán》 zài zhōng guó zuì zǎo de quán wén yì běn。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - lì shǐ bèi jǐng
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 yóu mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī、 xiě yú 1847 nián 12 yuè zhì 1848 nián 1 yuè, fā biǎo yú 1848 nián 2 yuè。
《 xuān yán》 shì wú chǎn jiē jí fǎn duì zī chǎn jiē jí de dǒu zhēng rì yì jiān ruì tiáo jiàn xià chǎn shēng de。
《 xuān yán》 shì mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī jìn xíng lǐ lùn yán jiū hé lǐ lùn dǒu zhēng zhēng qǔ dé jù dà chéng xiào de qíng kuàng xià chǎn shēng de。
《 xuān yán》 shì mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī wéi jiàn lì wú chǎn jiē jí zhèng dǎng 'ér dǒu zhēng de shí jiàn zhōng chǎn shēng de。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - nèi róng tí yào
1848 nián 2 yuè 24 rì, mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī hé zhù de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 zài lún dūn dì yī cì chū bǎn。 zhè gè xuān yán shì gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě tóng méng dì 'èr cì dài biǎo dà huì wěi tuō mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī qǐ cǎo de tóng méng gāng lǐng。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 bāo kuò yǐn yán hé zhèng wén sì zhāng。 1872 nián héng 1893 nián, mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī xiān hòu wéi《 xuān yán》 de dé wén、 é wén、 yīng wén、 bō lán wén、 yì dà lì wén bǎn zhuàn xiě liǎo qī piān xù yán。 qī piān xù yán jiǎn yào shuō míng liǎo《 xuān yán》 de jī běn sī xiǎng jí qí zài guó jì gòng chǎn zhù yì yùn dòng zhōng de lì shǐ dì wèi, zhǐ míng《 xuān yán》 de lǐ lùn yuán lǐ shì lì shǐ wéi wù zhù yì, bìng gēn jù wú chǎn jiē jí gé mìng de jīng yàn hé jiào xùn, duì《 xuān yán》 zuò liǎo bǔ chōng hé xiū gǎi。
yǐn yán bù fēn shuō míng xiě zuò《 xuān yán》 de bèi jǐng hé mùdì。
“ zī chǎn zhě hé wú chǎn zhě” zhè yī zhāng, mǎ kè sī, ēn gé sī yùn yòng lì shǐ wéi wù zhù yì de jī běn guān diǎn, fēn xī liǎo zī chǎn jiē jí hé wú chǎn jiē jí de chǎn shēng, fā zhǎn jí qí xiāng hù dǒu zhēng de guò chéng, jiē shì liǎo zī běn zhù yì bì rán miè wáng hé shè huì zhù yì bì rán shèng lì de kè guān guī lǜ, chǎn míng liǎo wú chǎn jiē jí de lì shǐ shǐ mìng, lùn shù liǎo mǎ kè sī zhù yì de jiē jí dǒu zhēng xué shuō。
jiē jí dǒu zhēng shì tuī dòng jiē jí shè huì fā zhǎn de zhí jiē dòng lì( dì 1--5 duàn)。
kǎo chá zī chǎn jiē jí de chǎn shēng hé fā zhǎn guò chéng, jiē shì zī běn zhù yì bì rán miè wáng de guī lǜ( dì 6-28 duàn)。
wú chǎn jiē jí de chǎn shēng hé fā zhǎn jí qí lì shǐ shǐ mìng( dì 29--54 duàn)。
“ wú chǎn zhě hé gòng chǎn dǎng rén” zhè yī zhāng, mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī chǎn míng liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì、 tè diǎn、 mù de hé rèn wù, yǐ jí gòng chǎn dǎng de lǐ lùn hé jī běn gāng lǐng, pī pàn liǎo zī chǎn jiē jí gōng jī gòng chǎn zhù yì de gè zhǒng miù lùn, chǎn shù liǎo wú chǎn jiē jí zhuān zhèng de jī běn sī xiǎng hé tōng xiàng gòng chǎn zhù yì de bì yóu zhī lù。
gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì、 tè diǎn hé jī běn gāng lǐng( dì 1--14 duàn)。
pī bó zī chǎn jiē jí gōng jī gòng chǎn zhù yì de gè zhǒng miù lùn( dì 15--68 duàn)。
wú chǎn jiē jí zhuān zhèng de jī běn sī xiǎng hé tōng xiàng gòng chǎn zhù yì de bì yóu zhī lù( dì 69--86 duàn)。
“ shè huì zhù yì hé gòng chǎn zhù yì de wén xiàn” zhè zhāng, fēn xī hé pī pàn liǎo dāng shí de gè zhǒng jiǎ shè huì zhù yì hé kōng xiǎng shè huì zhù yì, zhǐ chū tā men dài biǎo gè zì de jiē jí lì yì, dàn shì dǎzháo shè huì zhù yì de qí hào jìn xíng huó dòng, fēn xī liǎo gè zhǒng jiǎ shè huì zhù yì liú pài chǎn shēng de shè huì lì shǐ tiáo jiàn, bìng jiē lù liǎo tā men de jiē jí shí zhì。
fǎn dòng de shè huì zhù yì( dì 1--34 duàn)。
bǎo shǒu de huò zī chǎn jiē jí de shè huì zhù yì( dì 35--42 duàn)。
pī pàn de kōng xiǎng de shè huì zhù yì hé gòng chǎn zhù yì( dì 43--56 duàn)。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》
“ gòng chǎn dǎng rén duì gè zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài dù” zhè yī zhāng, zhù yào shì cóng gòng chǎn dǎng rén duì dài gè zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài dù shàng, chǎn shù liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng rén gé mìng dǒu zhēng de sī xiǎng cè lüè。
gòng chǎn dǎng rén zhèng zhì dǒu zhēng cè lüè de jī běn yuán zé( dì 1--4 duàn)。
gòng chǎn dǎng rén zài dé guó de dǒu zhēng cè lüè( dì 5--7 duàn)。
gòng chǎn dǎng rén yùn yòng dǒu zhēng cè lüè de mùdì( dì 8--12 duàn)。
《 xuān yán》 shì kē xué gòng chǎn zhù yì de dì yī gè gāng lǐng xìng wén xiàn, tā biāo zhì zhe mǎ kè sī zhù yì de dàn shēng。《 xuān yán》 gāng gāng fā biǎo, jiù yíng lái liǎo 'ōu zhōu 1848 nián de gé mìng fēng bào。
《 xuān yán》 wán zhěng、 xì tǒng 'ér yán mì dì chǎn shù liǎo mǎ kè sī zhù yì de zhù yào sī xiǎng; chǎn shù liǎo mǎ kè sī zhù yì de shì jiè guān, tè bié shì tā de jiē jí dǒu zhēng xué shuō; jiē shì liǎo zī běn zhù yì shè huì de nèi zài máo dùn hé fā zhǎn guī lǜ, lùn zhèng liǎo zī běn zhù yì miè wáng hé shè huì zhù yì shèng lì de bì rán xìng。《 xuān yán》 lùn shù liǎo wú chǎn jiē jí zuò wéi zī běn zhù yì jué mù rén de wěi dà lì shǐ shǐ mìng; chǎn shù liǎo mǎ kè sī zhù yì guān yú wú chǎn jiē jí zhuān zhèng de sī xiǎng; chǎn míng liǎo gòng chǎn zhù yì gé mìng bù jǐn yào tóng chuán tǒng de suǒ yòu zhì guān xì shí xíng zuì chè dǐ de jué liè, ér qiě yào tóng chuán tǒng guān niàn shí xíng zuì chè dǐ de jué liè; chǎn míng liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì hé rèn wù。 zhè bù zhù zuò cóng dàn shēng qǐ jiù gǔ wǔ hé tuī dòng zhe quán shì jiè wú chǎn jiē jí zhēng qǔ jiě fàng dǒu zhēng, chéng wéi wú chǎn jiē jí zuì ruì lì de zhàn dǒu wǔ qì。 ēn gé sī zhǐ chū: tā shì quán bù shè huì zhù yì wén xiàn zhōng chuán bō zuì guǎng hé zuì jù guó jì xìng de zhù zuò, shì shì jiè gè guó qiān bǎi wàn gōng rén gòng tóng de gāng lǐng。
《 xuān yán》 jié shù shí qiáng diào: gòng chǎn dǎng rén xiàng quán shì jiè xuān bù, yòng bào lì gé mìng tuī fān quán bù xiàn chéng de shè huì zhì dù shí xiàn gòng chǎn zhù yì。 ràng yī qiē fǎn dòng jiē jí zài gòng chǎn zhù yì gé mìng de miàn qián fā dǒu! wú chǎn jiē jí gé mìng zhōng shī qù de zhǐ shì suǒ liàn, tā jiāng huò dé zhěng gè shì jiè。《 xuān yán》 yòng xiǎng yún xiāo de zuì qiáng yīn, fā chū wú chǎn jiē jí guó jì zhù yì de wěi dà hào zhào: quán shì jiè wú chǎn zhě, lián hé qǐ lái!
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 -1872 nián dé wén bǎn xù yán
gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě tóng méng zhè gè zài dāng shí tiáo jiàn xià zì rán zhǐ néng shì mì mì tuán tǐ de guó jì gōng rén zǔ zhì, 1847 nián 11 yuè zài lún dūn dài biǎo dà huì shàng wěi tuō wǒ men liǎng rén qǐ cǎo yī gè zhǔn bèi gōng bù de zhōu xiáng de lǐ lùn hé shí jiàn de dǎng gāng。 jiēguǒ jiù chǎn shēng liǎo zhè gè《 xuān yán》,《 xuān yán》 yuán gǎo zài 'èr yuè gé mìng qián jǐ xīng qī jì dào lún dūn fù yìn。《 xuān yán》 zuì chū yòng dé wén chū bǎn, hòu lái yòu yòng dé wén zài dé guó、 yīng guó hé měi guó zhì shǎo fān yìn guò shí 'èr cì。 dì yī gè yīng yì běn shì yóu 'ài lín · mài kè fǎ lín nǚ shì fān yì de, yú 1850 nián zài lún dūn《 hóng sè gòng hé dǎng rén》 zá zhì shàng fā biǎo, hòu lái zài 1871 nián zhì shǎo yòu yòu sān zhǒng bù tóng de yīng yì běn zài měi guó chū bǎn。 fǎ yì běn yú 1848 nián liù yuè qǐ yì qián bù jiǔ dì yī cì zài bā lí yìn xíng, zuì jìn yòu zài niǔ yuē《 shè huì zhù yì zhě bào》 shàng dēngzǎi; xiàn zài yòu yòu rén zài zhǔn bèi xīn yì běn。 bō lán wén yì běn zài dé guó běn chū bǎn wèn shì hòu bù jiǔ jiù zài lún dūn chū xiàn。 é yì běn shì yú liù shí nián dài zài rì nèi wǎ chū bǎn de。 dān mài wén yì běn yě shì zài yuán shū wèn shì hòu bù jiǔ jiù chū bǎn liǎo。
bù guǎn zuì jìn 'èr shí wǔ nián lái de qíng kuàng fā shēng liǎo duō dà biàn huà, zhè gè《 xuān yán》 zhōng suǒ fā huī de yī bān jī běn yuán lǐ zhěng gè shuō lái zhí dào xiàn zài hái shì wán quán zhèng què de。 gè bié dì fāng běn lái kě yǐ zuò mǒu xiē xiū gǎi。 zhè xiē yuán lǐ de shí jì yùn yòng, zhèng rú《 xuān yán》 zhōng suǒ shuō de, suí shí suí dì dōuyào yǐ dāng shí de lì shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn yí, suǒ yǐ dì 'èr zhāng mò wěi tí chū de nà xiē gé mìng cuò shī bìng méi yòu shénme tè shū de yì yì。 xiàn zài zhè yī duàn zài xǔ duō fāng miàn dū yìng gāi yòu bù tóng de xiě fǎ liǎo。 yóu yú zuì jìn 'èr shí wǔ nián lái dà gōng yè yǐ yòu hěn dà fā zhǎn 'ér gōng rén jiē jí de zhèng dǎng zǔ zhì yě gēn zhe fā zhǎn qǐ lái, yóu yú shǒu xiān yòu liǎo 'èr yuè gé mìng de shí jì jīng yàn 'ér hòu lái yóu qí shì yòu liǎo wú chǎn jiē jí dì yī cì zhǎng wò zhèng quán dá liǎng yuè zhī jiǔ de bā lí gōng shè de shí jì jīng yàn, suǒ yǐ zhè gè gāng lǐng xiàn zài yòu xiē dì fāng yǐ jīng guò shí liǎo。 tè bié shì gōng shè yǐ jīng zhèng míng:“ gōng rén jiē jí bù néng jiǎn dān dì zhǎng wò xiàn chéng de guó jiā jī qì, bìng yùn yòng tā lái dá dào zì jǐ de mùdì。”( jiàn《 fǎ lán xī nèi zhàn。 guó jì gōng rén xié huì zǒng wěi yuán huì xuān yán》 dé wén bǎn dì shí jiǔ yè, nà lǐ bǎ zhè gè sī xiǎng fā huī dé gèng jiā wán bèi。) qí cì, hěn míng xiǎn, duì yú shè huì zhù yì wén xiàn suǒ zuò de pī pàn zài jīn tiān kàn lái shì bù wán quán de, yīn wéi zhè yī pī pàn zhǐ bāo kuò dào 1847 nián wéi zhǐ; tóng yàng yě hěn míng xiǎn, guān yú gòng chǎn dǎng rén duì gè zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài dù wèn tí suǒ tí chū de yì jiàn( dì sì zhāng) suī rán dà tǐ shàng zhì jīn hái shì zhèng què de, dàn shì yóu yú zhèng zhì xíng shì yǐ jīng wán quán gǎi biàn, ér dāng shí suǒ liè jǔ de nà xiē dǎng pài dà bù fēn yǐ bèi lì shǐ de fā zhǎn jìn chéng suǒ chè dǐ sǎo chú, suǒ yǐ zhè xiē yì jiàn zài shí jiàn fāng miàn bì jìng shì guò shí liǎo。
dàn shì《 xuān yán》 shì yī gè lì shǐ wén jiàn, wǒ men yǐ méi yòu quán lì lái jiā yǐ xiū gǎi。 xià cì zài bǎn shí yě xǔ néng jiā shàng yī piān bāo kuò cóng 1847 nián dào xiàn zài zhè duàn shí qī de dǎo yán。 zhè cì zài bǎn tài cāng zú liǎo, yǐ zhì wǒ men jìng lái bù jí zuò zhè jiàn gōng zuò。
kǎ 'ěr · mǎ kè sī fú lǐ dé lǐ xī · ēn gé sī 1872 nián 6 yuè 24 rì yú lún dūn
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 -1883 nián dé wén bǎn xù yán
běn bǎn xù yán bù xìng zhǐ néng yóu wǒ yī gè rén shǔ míng liǎo。 mǎ kè sī zhè wèi bǐ qí tā rèn hé réndōu gèng yìng shòu dào 'ōu měi zhěng gè gōng rén jiē jí gǎn xiè de rén wù, yǐ jīng cháng mián yú hǎi gé tè gōng mù, tā de mù shàng yǐ jīng chū cì cháng chū liǎo qīng cǎo。 zài tā shì shì yǐ hòu, jiù gèng tán bù shàng duì《 xuān yán》 zuò shénme xiū gǎi huò bǔ chōng liǎo。 yīn cǐ, wǒ rèn wéi gèng yòu bì yào zài zhè lǐ zài yī cì míng què dì shēn shù xià miàn zhè yī diǎn。
guàn chuān《 xuān yán》 de jī běn sī xiǎng: měi yī lì shǐ shí dài de jīng jì shēng chǎn yǐ jí bì rán yóu cǐ chǎn shēng de shè huì jié gòu, shì gāi shí dài zhèng zhì de hé jīng shén de lì shǐ de jī chǔ; yīn cǐ ( cóng yuán shǐ tǔ dì gōng yòu zhì jiě tǐ yǐ lái ) quán bù lì shǐ dōushì jiē jí dǒu zhēng de lì shǐ, jí shè huì fā zhǎn gè gè jiē duàn shàng bèi bō xuē jiē jí hé bō xuē jiē jí zhī jiān、 bèi tǒng zhì jiē jí hé tǒng zhì jiē jí zhī jiān dǒu zhēng de lì shǐ; ér zhè gè dǒu zhēng xiàn zài yǐ jīng dá dào zhè yàng yī gè jiē duàn, jí bèi bō xuē bèi yā pò de jiē jí ( wú chǎn jiē jí ), rú guǒ bù tóng shí shǐ zhěng gè shè huì yǒng yuǎn bǎi tuō bō xuē、 yā pò hé jiē jí dǒu zhēng, jiù bù zài néng shǐ zì jǐ cóng bō xuē tā yā pò tā de nà gè jiē jí ( zī chǎn jiē jí ) xià jiě fàng chū lái, héng héng zhè gè jī běn sī xiǎng wán quán shì shǔ yú mǎ kè sī yī gè rén de。
zhè yī diǎn wǒ yǐ jīng lǚ cì shuō guò, dàn zhèng shì xiàn zài bì xū zài《 xuān yán》 běn shēn de qián miàn yě xiě míng zhè yī diǎn。
fú · ēn gé sī 1883 nián 6 yuè 28 rì yú lún dūn
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - zhōng guó dì yī běn zhōng yì běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》
jiǎn jiè
zài dōng yíng shì guǎng ráo xiàn shōu cáng zhe 1920 nián 8 yuè chū bǎn de wǒ guó zuì zǎo de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 zhōng wén yì běn, zhè kàn sì píng cháng de yī běn shū, què bèi chēng wéi“ guó bǎo”, tā de bǎo cún yǔ liú chuán, jīng lì liǎo shì jì de fēng fēng yǔ yǔ。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 jié yì fā biǎo
1919 nián 4 yuè 6 rì,《 měi zhōu píng lùn》 dì shí liù hào zài“ míng zhù” lán nèi kānzǎi《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 ( jié yì ) dì 'èr zhāng《 wú chǎn zhě yǔ gòng chǎn dǎng rén》 hòu miàn shǔ yú gāng lǐng de yī duàn, bìng zài 'àn yǔ zhōng zhǐ chū:“ zhè gè xuān yán shì mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī zuì xiān zuì zhòng dà de yì jiàn。 ...... qí yào zhǐ zài zhù zhāng jiē duàn zhàn zhēng, yào qiú gè dì de láo gōng lián hé。 ...... shì biǎo shì xīn shí dài de wén shū。”
《 měi zhōu píng lùn》 dì shí liù hào hái fā biǎo liǎo chén dú xiù de duǎn wén《 gāng cháng míng jiào》, wén zhāng shuō:“ ōu zhōu gè guó shè huì zhù yì de xué shuō, yǐ jīng dà dà liú xíng liǎo, é、 dé hé xiōng yá lì, bìng qiě chéng liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng de shì jiè, zhè zhǒng fēng qì, kǒng pà mǎ shàng jiù yào lái dào dōng fāng。”
dì yī běn zhōng yì běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 de fā xiàn jí yì yì
guǎng ráo cáng běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 ( cún yú dōng yíng shì lì shǐ bó wù guǎn ) guǎng ráo cáng běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 ( cún yú dōng yíng shì lì shǐ bó wù guǎn )
1975 nián,《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 zhōng wén yì běn zài guǎng ráo de fā xiàn, kě wèi shí pò tiān jīng, tā tí chū liǎo xīn de qíng kuàng bìng zuò chū liǎo xīn de shuō míng。 guǎng ráo cáng běn, xì píng zhuāng běn, cháng 18 lí mǐ, kuān 12 lí mǐ, bǐ xiàn zài de 32 kāi běn lüè xiǎo yī diǎn。 shū miàn yìn yòu shuǐ hóng sè mǎ kè sī bàn shēn xiàng, shàng duān cóng yòu zhì zuǒ mó yìn zhe“ shè huì zhù yì yán jiū xiǎo cóng shū dì yī zhǒng”, shàng shǔ“ mǎ gé sī、 ān gé 'ěr sī hé zhù”、“ chén wàng dào yì”。 quán wén yòng 5 hào qiān zì shù pái, jì 56 yè。 fēng dǐ yìn yòu“ yī qiān jiǔ bǎi 'èr shí nián bā yuè chū bǎn”、“ dìng jià dà yáng yī jiǎo” zì yàng, yìn shuà jí fā xíng zhě shì“ shè huì zhù yì yán jiū shè”。 jīng diào chá hé yán jiū dé chū: dì yī, guǎng ráo cáng běn jiū zhèng liǎo guò qù zài shàng hǎi cáng běn bào dào zhōng de bù què zhī chù。 guǎng ráo cáng běn de fēng miàn biāo tí shì“ gòng dǎng chǎn xuān yán”, ér bù shì“ gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán”。《 dǎng shǐ zī liào cóng kān》 suǒ kānzǎi de shàng hǎi 8 yuè cáng běn de jiè shào wén zhāng hé zhào piàn, dū biāo míng shàng hǎi běn de fēng miàn biāo tí shì“ gòng dǎng chǎn xuān yán”。 jīng guò duì zhào, guǎng ráo běn hé shàng hǎi běn wán quán shì yī gè bǎn běn。 dì 'èr, guǎng ráo běn dǎ pò liǎo“ gū běn” hé“ gū zhèng” de jú miàn。 guò qù, rèn wéi《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 quán yì běn zài wǒ guó chū bǎn shì 1920 nián 8 yuè shuō, zhǐ yòu shàng hǎi dàng 'àn guǎn yī běn shí wù zuò zhèng, bèi chēng wéi“ gū běn”、“ gū zhèng”。 yòu liǎo guǎng ráo cáng běn( lìng shàng hǎi tú shū guǎn shàng yòu tóng běn), zài jiā shàng běi jīng tú shū guǎn bǎo cún de cán běn, zhì shǎo shì yòu liǎo 4 běn 8 yuè de bǎn běn。 xiàn zài kě yǐ zhèng míng,《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 quán yì běn shì 1920 nián 8 yuè chū bǎn de。 dì sān, jìn yī bù nòng qīng liǎo chū bǎn qíng kuàng。 cóng guǎng ráo cáng běn jí shàng hǎi dàng 'àn guǎn、 shàng hǎi tú shū guǎn de shōu cáng běn fēng miàn biāo tí dōushì“ gòng dǎng chǎn xuān yán” zhè yī qíng kuàng lái kàn, 8 yuè bǎn běn fēng miàn biāo tí zhī wù bìng fēi fā shēng zài gè bié yìn běn zhī shàng。 zhè gè fēng miàn biāo tí cuò wù, xiǎn rán shì yīn pái yìn huò jiàoduì shū hū suǒ zào chéng de, ér fēi shénme yì fǎ huò qí tā yuán yīn suǒ zào chéng de。 yīn wéi, fēi yè shàng shù pái de biāo tí qīng chǔ dì yìn zhe“ gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán” wǔ gè dà zì。 kě yǐ duàn dìng, zhèng shì yīn wéi fā shēng hé fā xiàn liǎo zhè yī bǎn fēng miàn biāo tí de xíng wén cí xù cuò wù, yòu jiā xīn shū shòu qìng, gù zài 9 yuè jiān jìn xíng“ zài bǎn” shí jiū zhèng liǎo fēng miàn biāo tí cuò wù。 cóng xiàn yòu yǐ fā xiàn de gè bǎn běn fēn xī, 1920 nián 8 yuè bǎn běn, jiù shì zuì zǎo de bǎn běn。 ér qiě 8 yuè bǎn běn fēng dǐ fēn míng yìn zhe“ chū bǎn”, 9 yuè bǎn běn yìn zhe“ zài bǎn”, zhōng yāng dàng 'àn guǎn shōu cáng de 1924 nián 6 yuè bǎn běn yìn zhe“ dì sān bǎn” zì yàng, yě zú kě shuō míng。 jiǎ dìng 8 yuè bǎn běn zhī qián hái yòu yī gè bǎn běn de huà, zé 8 yuè běn jiù yìng wéi“ zài bǎn”, 9 yuè běn wéi“ sān bǎn”, 1924 nián 6 yuè běn chéng liǎo“ sì bǎn”, dàn zhè zhǒng qíng kuàng bìng bù cún zài。
qí shū de yóu lái yǔ chuán bō
guǎng ráo shōu cáng de zhè běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 xiān shì zài Jǐnán gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě shǒu zhōng, hòu yòu chuán dào liǎo guǎng ráo, bù céng xiǎng jīng lì liǎo yī fān màn cháng 'ér qū zhé de guò chéng。
yóu yú 1919 nián“ wǔ sì” yùn dòng bào fā de dǎo huǒ xiàn shì shān dōng wèn tí, gù 'ér,“ wǔ sì” shí qī shān dōng de 'ài guó fǎn dì dǒu zhēng tè bié gāo zhǎng yǔ guǎng fàn。 zhè jiù cù shǐ mǎ kè sī zhù zuò《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 zài shān dōng chuán bō kāi lái, nà shí《 měi zhōu píng lùn》 xiàng jǐ gè xué xiào jì shòu。 shì nián qiū, wáng jìn měi、 dèng 'ēn míng、 wáng xiáng qiān děng zài Jǐnán chéng lì mǎ kè sī xué shuō yán jiū huì, xué xí hé yán jiū de zhù yào wén xiàn yě shì《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 huì yuán mǎ fù táng huí yì shuō:“ dāng shí de zhù yào xué xí zī liào shì《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 wǒ bǎ《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》、《 xiàng dǎo》 dài huí jiā qù, wǒ fù qīn kàn liǎo, jí wéi chēng zàn, shuō mǎ kè sī shì shèng rén。” guǎng ráo shōu cáng de zhè běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 zuì chū jiù shì zài Jǐnán gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě zhōng liú chuán、 xué xí de。
zài guǎng ráo cáng běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 de shǒu yè yòu xià jiǎo gài yòu yī fāng“ bǎo chén” zhū hóng yìn hén。 ér zhè wèi“ bǎo chén” shì shuí ní? jīng diào chá, tā shì Jǐnán de zǎo qī tuán yuán hé dǎng yuán zhāng bǎo chén。 zhōng yāng dàng 'àn guǎn bǎo cún de 1923 nián 12 yuè 15 rì《 Jǐnán dì qū tuán yuán diào chá biǎo》 biǎo míng, zhāng bǎo chén shì jiāng sū wú xī rén, 1922 nián 1 yuè 1 rì rù tuán, hòu dào Jǐnán gōng zuò, cóng shì qīng nián yùn dòng。 zhōng yāng dàng 'àn guǎn hái yòu dàng 'àn shuō míng tā shì Jǐnán tuán de zhù yào fù zé rén zhī yī, zhù guǎn“ jiào yù jiān fā xíng” gōng zuò。 jù 1922 nián céng rèn Jǐnán dǎng de dài lǐ shū jì de mǎ kè xiān huí yì, zhāng bǎo chén shì dāng shí zài Jǐnán de qī míng dǎng yuán zhī yī。 jù wáng biàn、 liú zǐ jiǔ děng Jǐnán dì qū de zǎo qī dǎng yuán huí yì, zhāng bǎo chén dāng shí zài dào shēng yínháng zuò zhí yuán, zài dǎng nèi guǎn dǎng、 tuán kān wù de fā xíng gōng zuò。 dào shēng yínháng shì shā 'é zài zhōng guó kāi shè de yínháng, zǒng xíng shè zài shàng hǎi, shí yuè gé mìng hòu réng jì xù kāi bàn。 zhāng bǎo chén shì gāi xíng Jǐnán fēn xíng de zhí yuán, cháng lái wǎng yú shàng hǎi、 Jǐnán zhī jiān, yòu zài dǎng nèi fù zé dǎng tuán kān wù、 mǎ liè shū jí de fā xíng gōng zuò, yīn cǐ, tā néng shōu cún zhè gè zuì zǎo bǎn běn de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 nà me, tā yòu shì zěn yàng chuán dào guǎng ráo xiàn liú jí cūn de ní? yuán lái shì tōng guò lìng yī míng zǎo qī nǚ gòng chǎn dǎng yuán liú yǔ huī。
liú yǔ huī shì guǎng ráo xiàn liú jí cūn rén, céng xiān hòu jiù dú yú jì nán nǚ zǐ yǎng cán jiǎng xí suǒ hé sū zhōu nǚ zǐ chǎn yè xué xiào, 1925 nián xià bì yè hòu huí Jǐnán nǚ zǐ zhí yè xué xiào rèn jiào。 zài Jǐnán qī jiān, tā jié shí liǎo Jǐnán nǚ shī de wáng biàn、 hóu yù lán、 yú pèi zhēn、 liú shū qín、 wáng lán yīng děng xǔ duō gòng chǎn dǎng yuán, tóng nián yóu yú pèi zhēn jiè shào jiā rù zhōng guó gòng chǎn dǎng。 tā men cháng hé yán bó zhēn、 liú zǐ jiǔ、 lǐ yún shēng、 zhāng bǎo chén děng nán tóng zhì yī qǐ xué xí hé huó dòng。 zhè yàng, nà běn gài yòu“ bǎo chén” yìn hén de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 jiù niǎn zhuǎn dào liǎo liú yǔ huī de shǒu zhōng。 1926 nián chūn jié, tā hé tóng xiāng yán bó zhēn、 liú zǐ jiǔ yī tóng huí jiā xǐngqīn shí, jiù bǎ zhè běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 hé qí tā xǔ duō mǎ kè sī zhù yì shū jí、 dǎng de xuān chuán cái liào dài huí liǎo guǎng ráo xiàn liú jí cūn。 cóng cǐ, zhè běn gé mìng wén xiàn biàn zài zhè gè piān pì de nóng cūn jīng lì liǎo bù píng fán de 50 gè chūn qiū。
guǎng ráo liú jí dǎng zhī bù shì zài 1925 nián chūn jiàn lì de。 liú zǐ jiǔ zài bāng zhù zǔ jiàn liú jí dǎng zhī bù shí, yě céng cóng wài dì dài huí guò yī běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 hé qí tā mǎ liè zhù zuò、 dǎng de xuān chuán wén jiàn。
zhè běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 dāng shí yóu zhī bù shū jì liú liáng cái bǎo cún。 qí hòu, 1926 nián chūn jié qī jiān, liú yǔ huī yòu gěi liú jí zhī bù dài lái liǎo nà běn gài yòu“ bǎo chén” yìn hén de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 zhè yàng, liú jí zhī bù liù qī gè dǎng yuán, jiù yōng yòu liǎo liǎng běn《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 zhè zài dāng shí yī gè pǔ tōng de nóng cūn dǎng zhī bù lái shuō, wěi shí nán néng kě guì。 zhī bù shū jì liú liáng cái jīng cháng zài wǎn shàng zhào jí dǎng yuán men, zài tā jiā de sān jiān běi wū lǐ, yú méi yóu dēng xià xué xí《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 hé qí tā wén jiàn。 rù dōng nóng xián jì jié, dǎng zhī bù hái jǔ bàn nóng mín yè xiào, yóu liú liáng cái huò qí tā dǎng yuán xuān jiǎng gé mìng dào lǐ hé wén huà zhī shí。《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 yòu chéng liǎo liú liáng cái děng tóng zhì bèi kè de hǎo cái liào。 cóng xiàn cún《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 kě yǐ kàn chū, yóu yú zhè běn shū dāng nián jīng cháng bèi fān yuè, yǐ zhì yú zài shū de zuǒ xià jiǎo liú xià liǎo míng xiǎn de zhǐ zì hén jì hé pò sǔn。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 shì mǎ kè sī zhù yì zhù zuò zài zhōng guó chuán bō dé zuì zǎo、 zuì guǎng fàn de yī bù bǎo shū。 tā zài dà chéng shì, zài zhī shí fènzǐ zhōng, zài gé mìng de xiān zhī xiān jué zhě nà lǐ fā huī liǎo jí wéi zhòng yào de zuò yòng。 dàn shì xiàng guǎng ráo cáng běn zhè yàng de chuán bō qíng kuàng, zé shì bù duō jiàn de。 tā zài dāng shí shān dōng zhè yàng zhǐ yòu bǎi hù rén jiā de xiǎo cūn, zài pín kǔ nóng mín dāng zhōng chuán bō, fā huī zhuóshí shí zài zài de zuò yòng, zhè duì rèn shí“ wǔ sì” hòu mǎ kè sī zhù yì zài zhōng guó chuán bō de guǎng dù hé shēn dù, bù néng bù shuō shì yī gè tū pò。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - zhǐ dǎo sī xiǎng
guàn chuān《 xuān yán》 quán piān de jī běn sī xiǎng huò zhǐ dǎo shì wéi wù zhù yì lì shǐ guān,《 xuān yán》 de zhōng xīn sī xiǎng shì guān yú“ liǎng gè bì rán xìng” de yuán lǐ。 jí yùn yòng wéi wù shǐ guān lùn zhèng bìng chǎn míng wú chǎn jiē jí jiě fàng de xìng zhì、 tiáo jiàn hé yī bān mùdì, yóu qí shì guān yú xiàn dài gōng rén jiē jí de wěi dà lì shǐ zuò yòng hé lì shǐ shǐ mìng, gōng rén jiē jí xiān jìn zhèng dǎng dé lì shǐ dì wèi、 lì shǐ shǐ mìng zhǐ dǎo sī xiǎng hé tā de xiān jìn xìng、 yù jiàn xìng、 zhàn dǒu xìng、 yuán zé xìng、 cè lüè xìng děng tè zhēng, cóng 'ér wéi gōng rén jiē jí hé quán rén lèi de chè dǐ jiě fàng zhǐ míng liǎo kē xué de tú jìng。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - zhù yào tè diǎn
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 shì mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī quán bù chéng shú zhù zuò de gāng lǐng hé hóng xiàn, shì lǐ jiě shénme shì mǎ kè sī zhù yì de guān jiàn。 mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī de quán bù zhù zuò, jiù shì wéi shí xiàn《 xuān yán》 zhōng de“ liǎng gè bì rán xìng”, wéi shí xiàn wú chǎn jiē jí de chè dǐ jiě fàng 'ér jìn xíng de lǐ lùn yán jiū。 bù duàn wán shàn、 fā zhǎn kē xué shè huì zhù yì lǐ lùn, bìng shǐ lǐ lùn biàn wéi gāng lǐng, shǐ gāng lǐng fù zhū shí shī, shì lǐ lùn tóng shí jiàn xiāng jié hé, shǐ kē xué shè huì zhù yì tóng gōng rén yùn dòng xiāng jié hé zhè jiù shì mǎ kè sī zhù yì de kē xué shè huì zhù yì, yǔ qí tā xíng xíng sè sè de shè huì zhù yì xiāng qū bié de zhù yào tè diǎn。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - yì yì
( yī)《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 què lì liǎo kē xué shè huì zhù yì de jī běn yuán lǐ
dì yī、 kē xué dì lùn zhèng liǎo gòng chǎn zhù yì de lì shǐ bì rán xìng。
dì 'èr、 míng què zhǐ chū liǎo wú chǎn jiē jí gé mìng de jī běn lù xiàn hé zhù yào rèn wù。
dì sān、 ě yào dì chǎn míng liǎo wú chǎn jiē jí de jiàn dǎng xué shuō hé cè lüè yuán zé。
( èr)《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 shì gōng rén jiē jí jiě fàng de wěi dà qí zhì。
gōng rén jiē jí yùn hán zhe zì jǐ jiě fàng zì jǐ de zuì qiáng dà de lì liàng yuán quán, shì tuī dòng lì shǐ qián jìn de huǒ chē tóu。 gōng rén jiē jí shì zài gǎi zào jiù shì jiè、 jiàn shè xīn shè huì de yǐ kào lì liàng hé lǐng dǎo lì liàng。 zhè zhǒng lì liàng de fā xiàn chéng liǎo kē xué shè huì zhù yì lǐ lùn de dì yī kuài zhù yào de“ jī shí”。 yóu yú mǎ kè sī zhù yì shì gōng rén jiē jí lì yì de lǐ lùn biǎo xiàn, jí wú chǎn jiē jí jiě fàng tiáo jiàn de lǐ lùn gài kuò。 yīn cǐ, tā yī dàn chǎn shēng chū lái, bìng xiàng gōng rén jiē jí jìn xíng guàn shū hòu, tā jiù néng zhǎng wò qiān bǎi wàn wú chǎn zhě de xīn líng bèi jué wù de gōng rén suǒ jiē shòu, chéng wéi gōng rén jiē jí de shì jiè guān, dǎo zhì gōng rén jiē jí zhèng dǎng de chǎn shēng, cóng 'ér shǐ wú chǎn jiē jí yóu zì zài jiē jí xiàng zì wéi jiē jí zhuǎn biàn。
《 xuān yán》 chǎn míng liǎo gōng rén jiē jí de lì shǐ zuò yòng、 lì shǐ shǐ mìng hé wú chǎn jiē jí jiě fàng de xìng zhì、 tiáo jiàn yǔ mùdì。
《 xuān yán》 shì wú chǎn jiē jí gēn běn lì yì de lǐ lùn biǎo xiàn。
mǎ kè sī zhù yì lǐ lùn yī jīng zhǎng wò qún zhòng, jiù huì wéi bù kě zhàn shèng de wù zhì lì liàng。
( sān)《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 jǐyǔ zhōng guó gòng chǎn dǎng rén、 zhōng guó gé mìng hé shè huì zhù yì shì yè de wěi dà yǐng xiǎng hé guāng huī zhǐ dǎo。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》( yǐ xià jiǎn chēng《 xuān yán》) shì mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī wéi gòng chǎn zhù yì zhě tóng méng qǐ cǎo de dǎng gāng, shì kē xué shè huì zhù yì de gāng lǐng xìng wén xiàn。《 xuān yán》 jiē shì liǎo rén lèi shè huì fā zhǎn de kè guān guī lǜ, duì zhōng guó shè huì de fā zhǎn chǎn shēng liǎo shēn yuǎn de yǐng xiǎng。 yī gè duō shì jì yǐ lái, zhōng guó chǎn shēng liǎo sān wèi zhàn zài shí dài qián liè de dài biǎo rén wù: sūn zhōng shān、 máo zé dōng、 lǐ dà zhāo, tā mendōu shòu dào《 xuān yán》 de zhí jiē yǐng xiǎng hé jiào yù。
1896 nián, zhōng guó gé mìng de xiān xíng zhě sūn zhōng shān liú jū yīng guó qī jiān, jiù zài dà yīng bó wù guǎn dú dào《 xuān yán》 děng mǎ kè sī zhù yì lùn zhù。 tā céng dūn cù liú xué shēng yán jiū mǎ kè sī de《 zī běn lùn》 hé《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 1899 nián 3 yuè shàng hǎi《 wàn guó gōng bào》 kānzǎi jié yì de yīng guó shè huì xué jiā jié dé de《 dà tóng xué》 yī wén jiù shè jí dào《 xuān yán》 de yòu guān nèi róng。 1905 nián dǐ, zī chǎn jiē jí gé mìng pài zhū zhí xìn zài tóng méng huì jī guān bào《 mín bào》 dì 'èr hào shàng fā biǎo de《 dé yì zhì shè huì gé mìng jiā xiǎozhuàn》 yī wén, jì shù liǎo mǎ kè sī hé 'ēn gé sī de shēng píng hé xué shuō, bìng dì yī cì jiǎn yào jiè shào liǎo《 xuān yán》 de xiě zuò bèi jǐng、 jī běn sī xiǎng hé lì shǐ yì yì, hái yǐ jù《 xuān yán》 de rì wén běn bìng cān zhào yīng wén běn zhāi yì liǎo gāi shū de jǐ duàn wén zì hé dì 'èr zhāng de shí dà gāng lǐng quán wén, bìng zuò liǎo jiě shì。 zuò zhě jiāng gāi shū de shū míng yì wéi《 gòng chǎn zhù yì xuān yán》。 1908 nián 3 yuè 15 rì, liú shī péi( shǔ míng shēn shū) zài《 tiān yì bào》 fā biǎo liǎo《 〈 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán 〉 xù》。 zhè shì zhōng guó rén dì yī cì wéi《 xuān yán》 zuò xù。 cǐ hòu, yòu guān《 xuān yán》 de wén zhāng bù duàn jiàn zhū bào duān。
1917 nián 'é guó shí yuè gé mìng de shèng lì, jìn yī bù huàn xǐng liǎo zhōng guó de xiān jìn fènzǐ。“ wǔ sì yùn dòng” qián hòu, zhōng guó chū xiàn liǎo xǔ duō jiè shào hé tǎo lùn《 xuān yán》 de wén zhāng, mǎ kè sī zhù yì zài zhōng guó dé dào guǎng fàn de chuán bō。 1920 nián 3 yuè, lǐ dà zhāo chàng dǎo chéng lì de“ běi jīng dà xué mǎ kè sī( jí mǎ kè sī héng héng biān ji zhù) xué yán jiū huì” jí tǐ fān yì liǎo dé wén bǎn《 xuān yán》 de quán wén, yìn fā liǎo shǎo liàng yóu yìn běn zài dāng shí de xiān jìn fènzǐ zhōng chuán yuè。 1920 nián 8 yuè, yóu chén wàng dào gēn jù rì wén hé yīng wén bǎn běn fān yì de《 xuān yán》 de dì yī gè zhōng wén yì běn zài gòng chǎn guó jì de zī zhù xià yóu shàng hǎi shè huì zhù yì yán jiū shè zhèng shì chū bǎn。 chén wàng dào yì běn zài yǐ hòu de 20 nián zhōng, duō cì chóngyìn, guǎng wéi liú chuán。 máo zé dōng zài 1920 nián dì yī cì yuè dú liǎo kǎo cí jī zhù de《 jiē jí dǒu zhēng》、 chén wàng dào fān yì de《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 hé yī gè yīng guó rén zuò de《 shè huì zhù yì shǐ》。 zhōu 'ēn lái duì chén wàng dào jiù shuō guò:“ wǒ mendōu shì nǐ jiào yù chū lái de。”
《 xuān yán》 duì dāng shí zài guó wài qín gōng jiǎn xué de qīng nián yě chǎn shēng liǎo zhòng yào de yǐng xiǎng。 1920 nián chū, cài hé sēn zài fǎ guó xiān hòu fān yì chū《 xuān yán》、《 shè huì zhù yì cóng kōng xiǎng dào kē xué de fā zhǎn》 děng zhù zuò de zhòng yào duàn luò, zài fù fǎ qín gōng jiǎn xué de xué shēng zhōng guǎng wéi liú chuán。 dèng xiǎo píng yě shì zài fǎ guó qín gōng jiǎn xué shí dú dào《 xuān yán》 de。 tā hòu lái shuō, wǒ de rù mén lǎo shī shì《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 hé《 gòng chǎn zhù yì A B C》。
suí zhe zhōng guó gé mìng xíng shì de fā zhǎn, duì《 xuān yán》 de xū qiú yǔ rì jù zēng。《 xuān yán》 de dì yī gè zhōng wén yì běn chū bǎn hòu dào 1949 nián zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó chéng lì, yòu yòu 5 gè zhōng wén yì běn lù xù wèn shì, yì wén zhì liàng bù duàn tí gāo, suǒ shōu xù yán bù duàn zēng jiā, fā xíng shù liàng rì yì kuò dà。
xīn zhōng guó chéng lì hòu, 1949 nián 11 yuè zài běi jīng yìn liǎo sū lián wài jiāo chū bǎn jú chū bǎn de shōu yòu mǎ kè sī 'ēn gé sī xiě de quán bù 7 piān xù yán de《 xuān yán》 bǎi zhōu nián jì niàn běn。 1958 nián zhōng gòng zhōng yāng biān yì jú jiàodìng liǎo《 xuān yán》 de zhōng yì běn, shōu rù《 mǎ kè sī 'ēn gé sī quán jí》 dì sì juàn。 1964 nián gēn jù dé wén bìng cān kǎo yīng fǎ 'é děng wén běn zài cì zuò liǎo jiàodìng, chū bǎn liǎo dān xíng běn, shì zhōng guó liú chuán zuì guǎng de bǎn běn。 1972 nián 5 yuè, xīn biān de sì juàn běn《 mǎ kè sī 'ēn gé sī xuǎn jí》 zhèng shì chū bǎn, qí zhōng shōu rù liǎo《 xuān yán》 de zhèng wén hé mǎ kè sī 'ēn gé sī xiě de 7 piān xù yán。 1995 nián 6 yuè, yòu biān ji chū bǎn liǎo dì 'èr bǎn。 zhè bǎn《 mǎ kè sī 'ēn gé sī xuǎn jí》 duì shōu zài de wén xiàn zuò liǎo jiào dà tiáozhěng, bìng 'àn yuán zhù wén zì duì yì wén chóngxīn zuò liǎo jiàodìng。 1997 nián 8 yuè rén mín chū bǎn shè yòu gēn jù《 mǎ kè sī 'ēn gé sī xuǎn jí》 zhōng wén dì 'èr bǎn dì yī juàn zhōng de《 xuān yán》 de xīn yì wén chū bǎn liǎo dān xíng běn, bìng zuò wéi mǎ liè zhù zuò de xì liè shū《 mǎ kè sī liè níng zhù yì wén kù》 zhī yī zhǒng chū bǎn fā xíng。 zhè shì《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 qì jīn zài wǒ guó chū bǎn de zuì xīn bǎn běn。
jiāng zé mín tóng zhì zài dǎng de shí wǔ dà bào gào zhōng zhǐ chū:“ jìn 20 nián lái gǎi gé kāi fàng hé xiàn dài huà jiàn shè qǔ dé chéng gōng de gēn běn yuán yīn zhī yī, jiù shì kè fú liǎo nà xiē chāo yuè jiē duàn de cuò wù guān niàn hé zhèng cè, yòu dǐ zhì liǎo pāo qì shè huì zhù yì jī běn zhì dù de cuò wù zhù zhāng”。 zhè jiù qīng chǔ dì gào sù wǒ men, bì xū wán zhěng dì、 zhǔn què dì lǐ jiě guān yú shè huì zhù yì chū jí jiē duàn, zhè jiù jué dìng liǎo wǒ men xiàn jiē duàn de fèn dǒu mù biāo shì jiàn shè zhōng guó tè sè de shè huì zhù yì, wǒ men yào wèicǐ 'ér gòng xiàn zì jǐ de yī qiē, shè cǐ 'ér kōng tán gòng chǎn zhù yì, nà jiù shì yòu yì wú yì dì、 huò duō huò shǎo dì bèi pàn liǎo gòng chǎn zhù yì。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - xué xí tài dù hé fāng fǎ
( yī) duì jī běn yuán lǐ de shí jì yùn yòng, suí shí suí dì dōuyào yǐ dāng shí de lì shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn yí。
zài《 xuān yán》 de chū bǎn xù yán zhōng duō cì shuō míng, duì jī běn yuán lǐ de shí jì yùn yòng, suí shí suí dì dōuyào yǐ dāng shí de lì shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn yí, duì gè bié yuán lǐ hé jù tǐ yuán lǐ gèng yào gēn jù cǐ shí cǐ dì de shí jì qíng kuàng jìn xíng jù tǐ de fēn xī。 zhè lǐ guān jiàn shì zhǔn què bǎ wò jī běn yuán lǐ hé jù tǐ yuán lǐ de kē xué jiè xiàn, yīn wéi duì jī běn yuán lǐ shì bù néng wéi bèi de, wéi bèi liǎo jī běn yuán lǐ jiù huì zǒu xiàng mǎ kè sī zhù yì de fǎn miàn, zàng sòng gé mìng chéng guǒ, cóng 'ér kě néng chéng wéi mǎ kè sī zhù yì de kě chǐ pàn tú。
( èr) yào shí shì qiú shì dì jiān chí mǎ kè sī zhù yì de wéi wù biàn zhèng guān diǎn
cóng cháng yuǎn kàn, shè huì zhù yì zhōng jiāng chè dǐ zhàn shèng zī běn zhù yì, zhōng jiāng zài quán shì jiè fàn wéi nèi qǔ dé wán quán shèng lì。 ér zài cǐ zhī qián, shè huì zhù yì zài měi gè guó jiā de shí jiàn yòu kě néng fā shēng yī cì shèn zhì duō cì de zàn shí shī bài huò cuò zhé, guó jì shè huì zhù yì yùn dòng hái kě néng jīng lì ruò gān gè gāo cháo jiāo tì de shí qī。 yīn cǐ, duì shè huì zhù yì de qián tú hé mìng yùn, jì yào mǎn huái xìn xīn yòu bù kě diào yǐ qīng xīn, rèn hé bēi guān de lùn tiáohé máng mù lè guān、 má bì dà yì jiǎo xìng xīn lǐ, dōushì jí qí cuò wù hé shí fēn yòu hài de。
( sān) mǎ kè sī zhù yì bù shì yī chéng bù biàn de jiào tiáo, tā bì xū suí zhe shí dài de fā zhǎn 'ér bù duàn dì dé dào fēng fù hé fā zhǎn。
dèng xiǎo píng tóng zhì shuō guò:“ zhēn zhèng de mǎ kè sī liè níng zhù yì zhě bì xū gēn jù xiàn zài de qíng kuàng, rèn shí、 jì chéng hé fā zhǎn mǎ kè sī liè níng zhù yì。 ..... bù yǐ xīn de sī xiǎng、 guān diǎn qù jì chéng、 fā zhǎn mǎ kè sī zhù yì, bù shì zhēn zhèng de mǎ kè sī zhù yì zhě。” bì xū fèi chú jìng zhǐ dì gū lì dì xué xí yán jiū mǎ kè sī zhù yì de fāng fǎ。 lí kāi běn guó de shí jì hé shí dài fā zhǎn lái tán mǎ kè sī zhù yì, méi yòu chū lù, yě méi yòu yì yì。 zhèng rú dǎng de shí wǔ dà bào gào zhǐ chū de nà yàng:“ yī dìng yào yǐ wǒ guó gǎi gé kāi fàng hé xiàn dài huà jiàn shè de shí jì wèn tí, yǐ wǒ men zhèng zài zuò de shì qíng wéi zhōng xīn, zhuóyǎn yú mǎ kè sī zhù yì lǐ lùn de yùn yòng, zhuóyǎn yú duì shí jì wèn tí de lǐ lùn sī kǎo, zhuóyǎn yú xīn de shí jiàn hé xīn fā zhǎn。”
( sì) yào zhèng què rèn shí cóng《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 dào dèng xiǎo píng lǐ lùn de jì chéng fā zhǎn guān xì。
dèng xiǎo píng lǐ lùn de jī běn guān diǎn tóng《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 de jī běn yuán lǐ hé jīng shén shí zhì shì yī zhì de。 bāo kuò《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 zài nèi de mǎ liè zhù yì、 máo zé dōng sī xiǎng shì dèng xiǎo píng lǐ lùn de shēn hòu gēn jī hé zhù yào lái yuán, dèng xiǎo píng lǐ lùn shì bāo kuò《 xuān yán》 zài nèi de mǎ liè zhù yì、 máo zé dōng sī xiǎng de jī běn yuán lǐ yuán zé de jì chéng hé fā zhǎn, èr zhě tóng chù yú yī gè kē xué tǐ xì zhī zhōng, shì bù kě fēn gē de tǒng yī tǐ, bù yìng rén wéi dì bǎ 'èr zhě duì lì qǐ lái huò gē liè kāi lái。 suǒ yǐ, duì nà xiē shì guān zhòng dà yuán zé de shì fēi wèn tí bì xū yú yǐ chéng qīng, duì yǐ jīng zào chéng hěn dà de bù liáng yǐng xiǎng de yòu xiē fēi mǎ kè sī zhù yì de cuò wù sī xiǎng guān diǎn yīngdāng rèn zhēn jiā yǐ jiū zhèng hé kè fú。
《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - jié yǔ
zài guò qù bù dào yī gè bàn shì jì zhōng, shè huì zhù yì de shí jiàn yǐ jīng jīng lì sān cì gāo cháo。 dì yī cì gāo cháo shì bā lí gōng shè de chuàng lì; dì 'èr cì gāo cháo shì 'é guó shí yuè gé mìng de shèng lì hé shǒu xiān zài sū lián jiàn shè shè huì zhù yì guó jiā; dì sān cì gāo cháo shì dì 'èr cì shì jiè dà zhàn hòu zhì 70 nián dài, shè huì zhù yì gé mìng hé jiàn shè zài yī xì liè guó jiā tè bié shì zài zhōng guó qǔ dé shèng lì。
shè huì zhù yì de shí jiàn biǎo míng, shí xiàn shè huì zhù yì hé gòng chǎn zhù yì jué bù shì shénme kōng xiǎng, ér shì yǐ jīng huò jiāng yào biàn chéng huó shēng shēng de xiàn shí, zhè shì jīng guò gé mìng zhèng dǎng hé rén mín chí jiǔ fèn dǒu zhōng jiāng qǔ dé zuì hòu shèng lì de chóng gāo lǐ xiǎng。 tóng shí biǎo míng, shí xiàn shè huì zhù yì de dào lù shì hěn qū zhé de, tā yào jīng guò duō cì de chéng gōng yǔ shī bài、 gāo cháo yǔ dī cháo, zhè yàng yū huí qū zhé de lì chéng。
yī bù mǎ kè sī zhù yì fā zhǎn shǐ jiù shì bù duàn chuàng zào xìng fā zhǎn hé yòng xīn de yuán lǐ dài tì gè bié jiù de yuán lǐ de guò chéng。 jiù mǎ kè sī zhù yì zuò wéi kē xué lǐ lùn 'ér yán yǒng yuǎn bù huì guò shí。 yīn wéi tā yǐ shí jiàn wéi yuán tóu huó shuǐ, bù duàn yǔ shí jù jìn。 huì guò shí de shì gè bié yuán lǐ, ér gè bié de yuán lǐ de guò shí, zhèng shì zhěng gè mǎ kè sī zhù yì kē xué xué shuō yǒng jù huó lì de bǎo zhèng。 qì jīn wéi zhǐ, hái méi yòu yī zhǒng lǐ lùn hé xué shuō, zài zǒng tǐ shàng néng xiàng mǎ kè sī zhù yì zhè yàng wéi rén men rèn shí hé gǎi zào shì jiè tí gōng kē xué de jī běn lǐ lùn hé fāng fǎ, yě jiù yòu yī zhǒng lǐ lùn hé xué shuō xiàng mǎ kè sī zhù yì zhè yàng qiáng diào lǐ lùn de yùn yòng bì xū lián xì shí jì, bì xū jù yòu chuàng zào xìng。
Friedrich Engels has often been credited in composing the first drafts, which led to The Communist Manifesto. In July 1847, Engels was elected into the Communist League, where he was assigned to draw up a catechism. This became the Draft of a Communist Confession of Faith. The draft contained almost two dozen questions that helped express the ideas of both Engels and Karl Marx at the time. In October 1847, Engels composed his second draft for the Communist League entitled, The Principles of Communism. The text remained unpublished until 1914, despite its basis for The Manifesto. From Engels's drafts Marx was able to write, once commissioned by the Communist League, The Communist Manifesto, where he combined more of his ideas along with Engels's drafts and work, The Condition of the Working Class in England.
Although the names of both Engels and Karl Marx appear on the title page alongside the "persistent assumption of joint-authorship", Engels, in the preface introduction to the 1883 German edition of the Manifesto, said that the Manifesto was "essentially Marx's work" and that "the basic thought... belongs solely and exclusively to Marx."
Engels wrote after Marx's death,
"I cannot deny that both before and during my forty years' collaboration with Marx I had a certain independent share in laying the foundations of the theory, but the greater part of its leading basic principles belong to Marx....Marx was a genius; we others were at best talented. Without him the theory would not be by far what it is today. It therefore rightly bears his name."
Textual history
The Communist Manifesto was first published (in German) in London by a group of German political refugees in 1848. It was also serialised at around the same time in a German-language London newspaper, the Deutsche Londoner Zeitung. The first English translation was produced by Helen Macfarlane in 1850. The Manifesto went through a number of editions from 1872 to 1890; notable new prefaces were written by Marx and Engels for the 1872 German edition, the 1882 Russian edition, the 1883 French edition, and the 1888 English edition. This edition, translated by Samuel Moore with the assistance of Engels, has been the most commonly used English text since.
However, some recent English editions, such as Phil Gasper's annotated "road map" (Haymarket Books, 2006), have used a slightly modified text in response to criticisms of the Moore translation made by Hal Draper in his 1994 history of the Manifesto, The Adventures of the "Communist Manifesto" (Center for Socialist History, 1994).
Contents
The Manifesto is divided into an introduction, three substantive sections, and a conclusion.
Preamble
The introduction begins with the notable comparison of communism to a "spectre", claiming that across Europe communism is feared, but not understood, and thus communists ought to make their views known with a manifesto:
A spectre is haunting Europe—the spectre of Communism. All the Powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre: Pope and Czar, Metternich and Guizot, French Radicals and German police-spies.
Where is the opposition party that has not been decried as Communist by its opponents in power? Where is the opposition party that has not hurled back the branding reproach of Communism, against the more advanced opposition parties, as well as against its reactionary adversaries?
I. Bourgeois and Proletarians
The first section, "Bourgeois and Proletarians", puts forward Marx's neo-Hegelian version of history, historical materialism, claiming that
The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.
Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, have stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.
The section goes on to argue that the class struggle under capitalism is between those who own the means of production, the ruling class or bourgeoisie, and those who labour for a wage, the working class or proletariat.
The bourgeoisie, wherever it has got the upper hand, has put an end to all feudal, patriarchal, idyllic relations. It ... has left remaining no other nexus between man and man than naked self-interest, than callous “payment in cash” ... for exploitation, veiled by religious and political illusions, it has substituted naked, shameless, direct, brutal exploitation ... Constant revolutionizing of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones ... All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned, and man is at last compelled to face with sober senses, his real conditions of life, and his relations with his kind.
However:
The essential condition for the existence and rule of the bourgeois class is the accumulation of wealth in private hands, the formation and increase of capital; the essential condition of capital is wage-labour. Wage-labour rests entirely on the competition among the workers.
This section further explains that the proletarians will eventually rise to power through class struggle: the bourgeoisie constantly exploits the proletariat for its manual labour and cheap wages, ultimately to create profit for the bourgeois; the proletariat rise to power through revolution against the bourgeoisie such as riots or creation of unions. The Communist Manifesto states that while there is still class struggle amongst society, capitalism will be overthrown by the proletariat only to start again in the near future; ultimately communism is the key to class equality amongst the citizens of Europe.
II. Proletarians and Communists
The second section, "Proletarians and Communists," starts by outlining the relationship of conscious communists to the rest of the working class:
The Communists do not form a separate party opposed to other working-class parties.
They have no interests separate and apart from those of the proletariat as a whole.
They do not set up any sectarian principles of their own, by which to shape and mould the proletarian movement.
The Communists are distinguished from the other working-class parties by this only: 1. In the national struggles of the proletarians of the different countries, they point out and bring to the front the common interests of the entire proletariat, independently of all nationality. 2. In the various stages of development which the struggle of the working class against the bourgeoisie has to pass through, they always and everywhere represent the interests of the movement as a whole.
It goes on to defend communism from various objections, such as the claim that communists advocate "free love", and the claim that people will not perform labor in a communist society because they have no incentive to work.
The section ends by outlining a set of short-term demands. These included, among others, the abolition of both private land ownership and of the right to inheritance, a progressive income tax, universal education, centralization of the means of communication and transport under state management, and the expansion of the means of production owned by the state. The implementation of these policies, would, the authors believed, be a precursor to the stateless and classless society.
One particularly controversial passage deals with this transitional period:
When, in the course of development, class distinctions have disappeared, and all production has been concentrated in the hands of a vast association of the whole nation, the public power will lose its political character. Political power, properly so called, is merely the organized power of one class for oppressing another. If the proletariat during its contest with the bourgeoisie is compelled, by the force of circumstances, to organize itself as a class, if, by means of a revolution, it makes itself the ruling class, and, as such, sweeps away by force the old conditions of production, then it will, along with these conditions, have swept away the conditions for the existence of class antagonisms and of classes generally, and will thereby have abolished its own supremacy as a class.
It is this concept of the transition from socialism to communism which many critics of the Manifesto, particularly during and after the Soviet era, have highlighted. Anarchists, liberals, and conservatives have all asked how an organization such as the revolutionary state could ever (as Engels put it elsewhere) "wither away."
In a related dispute, later Marxists make a separation between "socialism", a society ruled by workers, and "communism", a classless society. Engels wrote little and Marx wrote less on the specifics of the transition to communism, so the authenticity of this distinction remains a matter of dispute.
10 point program of Communism
1. Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes.
2. A heavy progressive or graduated income tax.
3. Abolition of all right of inheritance.
4. Confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels.
5. Centralisation of credit in the hands of the State, by means of a national bank with State capital and an exclusive monopoly.
6. Centralisation of the means of communication and transport in the hands of the State.
7. Extension of factories and instruments of production owned by the State; the bringing into cultivation of waste-lands, and the improvement of the soil generally in accordance with a common plan.
8. Equal liability of all to labour. Establishment of industrial armies, especially for agriculture.
9. Combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries; gradual abolition of the distinction between town and country, by a more equitable distribution of the population over the country.
10. Free education for all children in public schools. Abolition of children's factory labour in its present form. Combination of education with industrial production.
According to the Communist Manifesto, all these were prior conditions for a transition from capitalism to communism, but Marx and Engels later expressed a desire to modernize this passage.
III. Socialist and Communist Literature
The third section, "Socialist and Communist Literature," distinguishes communism from other socialist doctrines prevalent at the time the Manifesto was written. While the degree of reproach of Marx and Engels toward rival perspectives varies, all are eventually dismissed for advocating reformism and failing to recognize the preeminent role of the working class. Partly because of Marx's critique, most of the specific ideologies described in this section became politically negligible by the end of the nineteenth century.
IV. Position of the Communists in Relation to the Various Opposition Parties
The concluding section, "Position of the Communists in Relation to the Various Opposition Parties," briefly discusses the communist position on struggles in specific countries in the mid-nineteenth century such as France, Switzerland, Poland, and Germany. It then ends with a declaration of support for other communist revolutions and a call to action:
In short, the Communists everywhere support every revolutionary movement against the existing social and political order of things.
The Communists disdain to conceal their views and aims. They openly declare that their ends can be attained only by the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win.
Workers of the world, unite!
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 - míng shū jiǎn jiè
zuò zhě:( fǎ guó) lú suō( 1712-1788 nián)
lèi xíng: zhèng zhì lǐ lùn zhù zuò
chéng shū shí jiān: 1762 nián
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 - bèi jǐng sōu suǒ
lú suō chū shēng yú ruì shì rì nèi wǎ yī gè zhōng biǎo jiàng jiā tíng, cóng xiǎo shī qù mǔ qīn, kào bié rén fǔ yǎng jiào yù zhǎngdà。 suī rán shēng huó tiáo jiàn jiān kǔ, dàn tā fā fèn tú qiáng, zì xué chéng cái。 16 suì lí jiā wài chū liú làng, dāng guò xué tú、 pú yì、 sī rén mì shū、 yuèpǔ chāo xiě yuán。 zài bā lí, tā zhǎn xiàn liǎo zì jǐ de cái huá, 1750 nián, lú suō yǐ zhēng wén《 lùn kē xué yǔ yì shù》 huò tóu děng jiǎng 'ér chū míng。 dé dào liǎo xǔ duō shàng liú shè huì guì fù rén de 'ài mù。 zhè xiē yōng jīn bǎi wàn de guì fù wèitā gōng yìng shū shì de shēng huó, gěi tā jiè shào suǒ xū yào rèn shí de rén, lú suō hěn kuài jiù jìn rù liǎo wán quán bù tóng de shēng huó juàn zǐ。
cóng 1762 nián qǐ, lú suō yóu yú xiě zhèng lùn wén zhāng, yǔ dāng jú fā shēng liǎo yán zhòng de jiū fēn。 tā de yī xiē tóng shì kāi shǐ shū yuǎn tā, dà yuē jiù zài zhè gè shí qī, tā huàn liǎo míng xiǎn de piān zhí kuáng zhèng。 suī rán yòu xiē rén duì tā biǎo shì yǒu hǎo, dàn tā què cǎi qǔ huái yí hé dí shì de tài dù, tóng tā men měi gè réndōu zhēng chǎo guò。 tā yī shēng de zuì hòu 20 nián jī běn shàng shì zài bēi cǎn tòng kǔ zhōng dù guò de, 1778 nián tā zài fǎ guó mài nóng wéi 'ěr qù shì。
tuī jiàn yuè dú bǎn běn: hé zhào wǔ yì, shāng wù yìn shū guǎn chū bǎn。
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 - nèi róng jīng yào
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 quán shū gòng fēn 4 juàn, dì yī juàn zhù yào lùn shù liǎo rén lèi shì zěn yàng yóu zì rán zhuàng tài guò dù dào zhèng zhì zhuàng tài de, qì yuē de gēn běn tiáo jiàn shì shénme; dì 'èr juàn zhù yào tǎo lùn guó jiā de lì fǎ wèn tí; dì sān juàn lùn shù de shì zhèng zhì fǎ jí zhèng fǔ de xíng chéng; dì sì juàn zài jì xù tǎo lùn zhèng zhì fǎ de tóng shí chǎn shù liǎo gǒng gù guó jiā tǐ zhì de fāng fǎ, cóng gǔ luó mǎ lì shǐ chū fā lùn shù liǎo zhù quán zhě yì zhì shí xiàn de mǒu xiē xì jié。
“ rén shì shēng 'ér zì yóu de, dàn què wú wǎng bù zài jiā suǒ zhī zhōng, zì yǐ wéi shì qí tā yī qiē de zhù rén, fǎn 'ér bǐ qí tā yī qiē gèng shì nú lì。”《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 de kāi piān dì yī jù huà jiù tí chū liǎo zhè gè zhèn lóng fā kuì de guān diǎn。 lú suō de zhè yī lùn duàn shì zài jūn zhù zhuān zhì zhì dù héng xíng 'ōu zhōu de shí dài, zhēn duì yīng guó wáng quán zhuān zhì lùn dài biǎo rén wù fèi 'ěr mǎ guān yú“ méi yòu rén shì shēng 'ér zì yóu de” zhè yī jué duì jūn zhù zhuān zhì zhì dù lài yǐ yǐ cún de lǐ lùn 'ér tí chū lái de。 zhè běn shū yǐ fǎn duì fēng jiàn zhuān zhì、 chàng yán mín zhù gòng hé、 zhù zhāng rén mín zhù quán wéi qí zhù tí hé zhōng xīn nèi róng, tí chū liǎo fù yú gé mìng xìng de xiàn zhèng lǐ lùn。
lú suō rèn wéi, zì yóu de rén men zuì chū shēng huó zài zì rán zhuàng tài, rén men de xíng wéi shòu zì rán fǎ zhī pèi。 zì rán fǎ yǐ lǐ xìng wéi jī chǔ, fù yú rén lèi yī xì liè pǔ biàn de、 yǒng héng de zì rán quán lì, jí shēng cún、 zì yóu、 píng děng、 zhuī qiú xìng fú、 huò dé cái chǎn hé rén shēn、 cái chǎn bù shòu qīn fàn de quán lì。 yóu yú zì rán zhuàng tài cún zài zhǒng zhǒng bì duān, zì yóu de rén men yǐ píng děng de zī gé dìng lì qì yuē, cóng zì rán zhuàng tài xià bǎi tuō chū lái, xún zhǎo chū yī zhǒng jié hé de xíng shì, shǐ tā néng yǐ quán bù gòng tóng de lì liàng lái wèi hù hé bǎo zhàng měi gè jié hé zhě de rén shēn hé cái fù, bìng qiě yóu yú zhè yī jié hé 'ér shǐ měi yī gè yǔ quán tǐxiàng lián hé de gè rén yòu zhǐ bù guò shì zài fú cóng zì jǐ běn rén, bìng qiě réng rán xiàng yǐ wǎng yī yàng dì zì yóu。 zhè zhǒng jié hé de xíng shì jiù shì guó jiā。 yóu yú guó jiā shì zì yóu de rén men yǐ píng děng de zī gé dìng lì qì yuē chǎn shēng de, rén men zhǐ shì bǎ zì rán quán lì zhuǎn ràng gěi zhěng gè shè huì 'ér bìng bù shì fèng xiàn gěi rèn hé gè rén, yīn cǐ rén mín zài guó jiā zhōng réng shì zì yóu de, guó jiā de zhù quán zhǐ néng shǔ yú rén mín。
rán hòu, lú suō jìn yī bù chǎn shù liǎo rén mín zhù quán de yuán zé: zhù quán shì bù kě zhuǎn ràng de, yīn wéi guó jiā yóu zhù quán zhě gòu chéng, zhǐ yòu zhù quán zhě cái néng xíng shǐ zhù quán; zhù quán shì bù kě fēn gē de, yīn wéi dài biǎo zhù quán de yì zhì shì yī gè zhěng tǐ; zhù quán shì bù kě dài biǎo de, yīn wéi“ zhù quán zài běn zhì shàng shì yóu gōng yì suǒ gòu chéng de, ér yì zhì yòu shì jué bù kě yǐ dài biǎo de; tā zhǐ néng shì tóng yī gè yì zhì, huò zhě shì lìng yī gè yì zhì, ér jué bù néng yòu shénme zhōng jiān de dōng xī。 yīn cǐ rén mín de yì yuán jiù bù shì、 yě bù kě néng shì rén mín de dài biǎo, tā men zhǐ bù guò shì rén mín de bàn shì yuán bà liǎo; tā men bìng bù néng zuò chū rèn hé kěn dìng de jué dìng”。 tóng shí, zhù quán shì jué duì de、 zhì gāo wú shàng hé bù kě qīn fàn de, yīn wéi zhù quán shì gōng yì de tǐ xiàn, shì guó jiā de líng hún。 jī yú zhè yàng de lǐ lùn, lú suō fǎn duì jūn zhù lì xiàn 'ér jiān jué zhù zhāng mín zhù gòng hé。
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 hái lùn shù liǎo yī xì liè fǎ lǜ jī běn lǐ lùn, zài qí zhōng guàn chuānzhuó yǐ rén mín zhù quán wéi zhōng xīn nèi róng de zī chǎn jiē jí mín zhù zhù yì jīng shén。 lú suō zhǐ chū fǎ lǜ shì rén mín gōng gòng yì zhì de tǐ xiàn, shì rén mín zì jǐ yì zhì de jì lù hé quán tǐ rén mín wéi zì jǐ suǒ zuò de guī dìng。 fǎ lǜ de tè diǎn zài yú yì zhì de pǔ biàn xìng hé duì xiàng de pǔ biàn xìng, qián zhě zhǐ fǎ lǜ shì rén mín gōng yì de tǐ xiàn, hòu zhě zhǐ fǎ lǜ kǎo lǜ de duì xiàng shì quán tǐ de xíng wéi 'ér fēi gè bié rén。
tóng shí, tā chǎn shù liǎo fǎ lǜ yǔ zì yóu de guān xì: shǒu xiān, fǎ lǜ yǔ zì yóu shì yī zhì de, rén mín fú cóng fǎ lǜ jiù shì fú cóng zì jǐ de yì zhì, jiù yì wèi zhe zì yóu。 qí cì, fǎ lǜ shì zì yóu de bǎo zhàng。 yī fāng miàn, rén rén zūn shǒu fǎ lǜ, cái néng gěi rén men yǐ xiǎng shòu zì yóu quán lì de 'ān quán bǎo zhàng; lìng yī fāng miàn, fǎ lǜ kě yǐ qiǎngpò rén men zì yóu。
cǐ wài, lú suō hái xì tǒng dì tí chū liǎo lì fǎ lǐ lùn。 tā rèn wéi yào yǐ fǎ zhì guó jiù yào yòu lǐ xiǎng de fǎ lǜ, zài zhì dìng fǎ lǜ shí bì xū zūn xún xià liè yuán zé: lì fǎ bì xū yǐ móu qǔ rén mín zuì dà xìng fú wéi yuán zé; lì fǎ quán bì xū yóu rén mín zhǎng wò; yóu xián míng zhě jù tǐ chéng dān lì fǎ de zé rèn; lì fǎ yào zhù yì gè zhǒng zì rán de shè huì tiáo jiàn, fǎ lǜ zhǐ bù guò shì bǎo zhàng、 zūn xún hé jiáo zhèng zì rán de guān xì 'ér yǐ; jì yào bǎo chí fǎ lǜ de wěn dìng xìng, yòu yào shì shí xiū gǎi、 fèi chú bù hǎo de fǎ lǜ。
“ rén shì shēng 'ér zì yóu píng děng de, zhè shì tiān fù de quán lì”,《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 zhōng de zhè yī lǐ lùn, kāi chuàng liǎo 'ōu zhōu jí quán shì jiè mín zhù píng děng sī xiǎng zhī xiān hé, tā de“ rén quán tiān fù“, zhù quán zài mín” de xīn xué shuō xiàng“ jūn quán shén shòu” de chuán tǒng guān niàn fā qǐ liǎo tiǎo zhàn。 tā suǒ jiē shì de“ rén quán zì yóu、 quán lì píng děng” de yuán zé, zhì jīn réng zuò wéi xī fāng zhèng zhì de jī chǔ。
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 - zhuān jiā diǎn píng
lú suō shì 18 shì jì fǎ guó qǐ méng yùn dòng jié chū de zhèng zhì sī xiǎng jiā、 wén xué jiā。 tā de cái sī wén zǎo fēngmǐ liǎo dāng shí de zhěng gè 'ōu zhōu, bìng wéi hòu rén liú xià liǎo yī xì liè huàshídài de jù zhù。 hěn shǎo yòu jǐ gè zhé xué jiā néng dài lái lú suō zhù zuò nà yàng de zhèn hàn。 tā de《 yì shù yǔ kē xué tán》 huò fǎ guó dì róng jiǎng, shǐ tā róng huò 'ōu zhōu zhé xué dà shī chēng hào。 tā de wén xué míng zhù《 xīn 'ài luò yī sī》 zài shì jiè wén xué shǐ shàng yòu zhe hěn gāo dì wèi, shǐ tā jī shēn yú qǐ méng shí qī zhù míng wén xué jiā de hángliè。《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 yòu yì zuò《 mín yuē lùn》 shì tā zuì wéi jié chū de dài biǎo zuò zhī yī, bèi yù wéi“ rén lèi jiě fàng de dì yī gè hū shēng, shì jiè dà gé mìng de dì yī gè shān dòng zhě”。 lú suō shì 'ōu zhōu qǐ méng yùn dòng zhōng zhòng yào de sī xiǎng jiā, yǔ fú 'ěr tài qí míng。 tā de zhù yào zuò pǐn yòu《 chàn huǐ lù》、《 ài mí 'ér》、《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》、《 xīn 'ài luò yī sī》。 tā de zhù yào sī xiǎng: tiān fù rén quán xué shuō, tí chū“ rén mín zhù quán” de kǒu hào。 qí sī xiǎng shì fǎ guó dà gé mìng zhōng yǎ gè bīn pài de qí zhì, duì 'ōu měi gè guó de zī chǎn jiē jí gé mìng chǎn shēng liǎo shēn kè yǐng xiǎng。
tā de《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 zhōng de“ zhù quán zài mín” yī shuō, jiù huàfēn liǎo yī gè shí dài。
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 lú suō jiāng yě huā sòng gěi wèi nǎi de mǔ qīn
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 dì yī cì tí chū liǎo“ tiān fù rén quán hé zhù quán zài mín de sī xiǎng”。 tā gāng yī wèn shì jiù zāo dào liǎo jìn zhǐ。 lú suō běn rén yě bèi pò liú wáng dào yīng guó。 dàn《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 suǒ tí chàng de mín zhù lǐ lùn què hěn kuài fēngmǐ quán shì jiè。 tā yǐn fā liǎo zhèn jīng shì jiè de fǎ guó dà gé mìng。 fǎ guó guó jiā gé yán“ zì yóu、 píng děng、 bó 'ài” biàn lái zì《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》。 1789 nián fǎ guó guó mín dài biǎo dà huì tōng guò de《 rén quán xuān yán》 zhōng“ shè huì de mùdì shì wéi dà zhòng móu fú lì de”、“ tǒng zhì quán shǔ yú rén mín” děng nèi róng chōng fēn tǐ xiàn liǎo《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 de jīng shén。《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 hái duì měi guó de《 dú lì xuān yán》 chǎn shēng liǎo zhòng yào yǐng xiǎng, cóng luó bó sī bì 'ěr dào liè níng dū céng yòng《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 wéi zì jǐ de zhèng quán zuò jiě shì。 1978 nián, zài jì niàn lú suō shì shì 200 zhōu nián de huó dòng zhōng, zhuān mén zhào kāi liǎo guó jì yán tǎo huì, yán jiū lú suō de sī xiǎng, chū bǎn tā de xīn chuán, tuī chū yǐ tā wéi tí cái de diàn shì jù。 tā de yí hái bèi 'ān fàng zài fǎ guó de wěi rén cí nèi。 lú suō zài《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 zhōng yù jiàn de“ xiāo fèi zhě de gè zhǒng xiàn jǐng, dà chéng shì de sāo luàn yǐ jí huǐ miè xìng de jūn fèi fù dān” děng děng, dōuyǐ chéng wéi dāng dài shè huì de xiàn shí wèn tí。 mù qián, dān zài fǎ guó jiù yòu 150 duō wèi xué zhě zài zhuān mén yán jiū lú suō de sī xiǎng。
yòu shuō lú suō de zhèng zhì lǐ lùn shēn shòu bólātú de《 lǐ xiǎng guó》 de yǐng xiǎng。《 lǐ xiǎng guó》 de gài niàn, jiàn lì yú rén xìng shàn de lǐ niàn jī chǔ shàng, bólātú bǐ xià de sū gé lā dǐ shuō,“ zhǐ yòu zhèng zhí de rén cái huì xìng fú”,“ shàn de yì zhì” chéng wéi tā de lǐ xiǎng guó de jī chǔ。 lú suō yě xiāng xìn rén xìng shàn, tā tí chàng kuān róng lǐ xìng, jiān dìng dì fǎn duì rèn hé zhèng zhì bào lì。 tóng shì lùn shù lǐ xiǎng guó de yuán zé, bù tóng yú bólātú, lú suō jiāng qí lǐ lùn kuàng jià wán quán jiàn lì zài“ rén shēng 'ér zì yóu” de jī chǔ zhī shàng, yě jiù shì shuō“ zì yóu yì zhì”。 zhè gè jī chǔ jiù shí zài duō liǎo。 hěn zǎo yǐ qián, rén men yòu yī gè gèng hǎo de dàn wén yán de shuō fǎ:“ tiān fù rén quán。” yóu tiān fù rén quán zuò wéi dì yī yuán lǐ, tā suǒ gòu zào de bù zài zhǐ shì lǐ xiǎng, ér shì xiàn dài gōng mín shè huì de jī běn yuán zé。 gōng mín shè huì zhōng, gōng mín shī qù liǎo zì yóu rén wú suǒ bùwèi de zì yóu, ér dé dào gōng mín de zhèng zhì quán lì、 zhèng zhì zì yóu。 tā de《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》( yòu yì《 mín yuē lùn》) suǒ yào jiě jué de shì rén quán hé fǎ lǜ de yòu jī jié hé。 cóng cǐ, hé fǎ xìng zhǐ néng lái zì rén mín, chéng liǎo lú suō de jì chéng zhě hé bèi pàn zhě de gòng tóng de lǐ niàn。 qián zhě chǎn shēng liǎo měi guó gé mìng hé mín zhù de jiàn lì, hòu zhě yǐ rén mín zhī míng zhuān quán tú shā。 lú suō, zuò wéi“ zhù quán zài mín” de gòu huà zhě, jiù shì zài 200 nián hòu hái chǔyú zhēng lùn de zhōng xīn: tā de lǐ lùn dào dǐ shì zài tí chàng mín zhù zì yóu, hái shì zài tí chàng jí quán bào zhèng?
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 zhé xué jiā lú suō dà bù tóu zhù zuò
rén quán shì shǔ yú gè tǐ de, fǎ lǜ shì shǔ yú guó jiā de。 gè tǐ yuē dìng 'ér chéng guó jiā de hé lǐ xìng, shì fǎ lǜ yòu xiào xìng hé zhèng quán hé fǎ xìng de zhōng jí pàn duàn。 zì yóu, bù shì lái zì fǎ lǜ duì gè rén de bǎo hù, ér shì lái zì gè tǐ duì lì fǎ de chè dǐ cānyù。 zhè shì qièshí bǎo zhàng gè tǐ zì yóu de xiān jué tiáo jiàn。 zài zhè yī guò chéng lǐ, gè tǐ lì yì de“ jiāo jí” ér fēi“ bìng jí”( bù wán quán shì shù xué shàng de nà zhǒng) xíng chéng gōng mín yì zhì héng héng zhù quán zhě de yì zhì héng héng yī bān yì zhì, ér zhè zhǒng zhù quán zhě yīn wéi gè tǐ de bù duàn cānyù, qí nèi róng shì cháng xīn de, qí lì yì yǔ gè tǐ lì yì gòng róng de。 cóng zhè yī diǎn chū fā, duō shù rén shuō liǎo suàn de yuē fǎ sān zhāng bì rán chéng wéi zhù quán zài mín de dào dé de tǐ xiàn fāng shì。
lú suō bǎ zhèng quán míng bái dì fēn chéng liǎo lì fǎ hé xíng zhèng liǎng gè bù fēn, qián zhě shǔ yú shè huì qì yuē de fàn chóu, ér hòu zhě bù shì qì yuē de nèi róng( yīn cǐ shì kě biàn kě tuī fān de)。 zhè gè lǐ niàn duì hòu lái mín zhù zhèng zhì de fā zhǎn yòu zhe bù kě mó miè de gòng xiàn。 zài lú suō zhī qián, mèng dé sī jiū de《 lùn fǎ de jīng shén》 duì fǎ lǜ de lǐ jiě gèng jiā shēn kè, wéi quē lú suō de“ zhù quán zài mín” de dòng lì。《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 zì shǐ zhì zhōng zhǐ yáng qì liǎo yī zhǒng tǐ zhì: zhuān zhì zhèng fǔ。 àn lú suō de huà, zhè jiù shì nà zhǒng miè shì fǎ lǜ bǎ gè tǐ de quán lì gāo yú zhù quán zhě zhī shàng de tǐ zhì。 qí tā de tǐ zhì, lú suō jǐn jǐn lùn shù liǎo tā men hé fǎ de zì rán yǐ jù。 cóng zhí jiē mín zhù zhì、 guì zú dài yì zhì dào jūn zhù lì xiàn zhì, tǒng zhì de gēn jù bì xū shì rén mín zhù quán héng héng héng qí zhēn zhèng biǎo dá jiù shì fǎ lǜ。 lú suō bìng jìn 'ér bǎ rèn hé zhēn zhèng yǐ fǎ 'ér zhì de zhèng tǐ tǒng chēng wéi gòng hé zhèng tǐ。 zài lú suō kàn lái, tā nà gè shí dài de zhèng zhì shè huì xíng tài shì fǔ xiǔ de, tā yào dào gǔ xī là shí dài cái néng zhǎo dào hé lǐ de huí guī。
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 shì shì jiè zhèng zhì fǎ lǜ xué shuō shǐ shàng zuì zhòng yào de jīng diǎn zhī yī, shì zhèn hàn shì jiè de 1789 nián fǎ guó dà gé mìng de hào jiǎo hé fú yīn shū。 tā chǎn shù de xǔ duō yuán zé yuán lǐ bù jǐn zài gé mìng zhī chū bèi zài rù fǎ guó《 rén quán xuān yán》 děng zhòng yào wén xiàn zhōng, zài gé mìng hòu de cháng shí qī lǐ chéng wéi zī chǎn jiē jí de zhèng zhì fǎ lǜ zhì dù de jī shí。 lú suō de sī xiǎng duì hòu shì sī xiǎng jiā men lǐ lùn de xíng chéng yòu zhòng dà yǐng xiǎng。
lú suō de zhèng zhì zhù zuò zhōng yòu xǔ duō sī xiǎng dú tè xīn yíng, yǐn rén rù shèng。 dàn shì zǒng tǐ shuō lái jiù shì yī zhǒng zhuī qiú píng děng de qiáng liè yù wàng hé yī zhǒng tóng yàng qiáng liè de gǎn shòu: xiàn cún shè huì zhì dù de bù hé lǐ yǐ jīng dá dào liǎo lìng rén bù néng róng rěn de chéng dù, rén shēng xià lái běn lái shì zì yóu de, dàn shì wú lùn zǒu dào nǎ lǐ dōuyào dài shàng jiā suǒ。 lú suō zì jǐ kě néng bìng bù xǐ huān bào lì xíng wéi, dàn shì tā wú yí jī lì liǎo qí tā rén shí xíng bào lì gé mìng, zhú bù gǎi gé shè huì zhì dù。
yòu rén pī píng lú suō shì yī gè jí qí shén jīng zhì de rén, shì yī gè dà nán zǐ zhù yì zhě, shì yī gè sī xiǎng bùqiè shí jì de、 hú tú de sī xiǎng jiā, zhè yàng de pī píng dà tǐ shàng shì zhèng què de。 dàn shì yuǎn bǐ tā de quē diǎn gèng zhòng yào de shì tā de dòng chá lì hé jié chū de chuàng zào jīng shén suǒ shǎn xiàn chū lái de sī xiǎng huǒ huā, liǎng gè duō shì jì yǐ lái, bù duàn dì yǐng xiǎng zhe xiàn dài sī xiǎng。
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 - miào yǔ jiā jù
wǒ kàn dào liǎo lìng yī gè shì jiè, wǒ de quán bù jī qíng dōubèi duì zhēn lǐ、 duì zì yóu、 duì dào dé de rè 'ài zhì xī diào liǎo。
shuí dì yī gè bǎ yī kuài tǔ dì juàn qǐ lái bìng xiǎng dào zhè shì zì jǐ de, ér qiě bèi tóu nǎo jiǎn dān de rén suǒ xiāng xìn de huà, nà tā jiù shì wén míng de diàn jī zhě。
Social contract theory formed a central pillar in the historically important notion that legitimate state authority must be derived from the consent of the governed. The starting point for most of these theories is a heuristic examination of the human condition absent from any structured social order, usually termed the “state of nature”. In this condition, an individual’s actions are bound only by his or her personal power, constrained by conscience. From this common starting point, the various proponents of social contract theory attempt to explain, in different ways, why it is in an individual’s rational self-interest to voluntarily give up the freedom one has in the state of nature in order to obtain the benefits of political order.
Thomas Hobbes (1651), John Locke (1689) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762) are the most famous philosophers of contractarianism. However, they drew quite different conclusions from this starting-point. Hobbes advocated an authoritarian monarchy, Locke advocated a liberal monarchy, while Rousseau advocated liberal republicanism. Their work provided theoretical groundwork of constitutional monarchy, liberal democracy and republicanism. The Social Contract was used in the Declaration of Independence as a sign of enforcing Democracy, and more recently has been revived by thinkers such as John Rawls.
Overview
According to Thomas Hobbes, human life would be "nasty, brutish, and short" without political authority. In its absence, we would live in a state of nature, where we each have unlimited natural freedoms, including the "right to all things" and thus the freedom to harm all who threaten our own self-preservation; there would be an endless "war of all against all" (Bellum omnium contra omnes). To avoid this, free men establish political community i.e. civil society through a social contract in which each gain civil rights in return for subjecting himself to civil law or to political authority.
Alternatively, some have argued that we gain civil rights in return for accepting the obligation to respect and defend the rights of others, giving up some freedoms to do so; this alternative formulation of the duty arising from the social contract is often identified with arguments about military service.
Violations of the contract
The social contract and the civil rights it gives us are neither "natural rights" nor permanently fixed. Rather, the contract itself is the means towards an end — the benefit of all — and (according to some philosophers such as Locke or Rousseau), is only legitimate to the extent that it meets the general interest ("general will" in Rousseau). Therefore, when failings are found in the contract, we renegotiate to change the terms, using methods such as elections and legislature. Locke theorized the right of rebellion in case of the contract leading to tyranny.
Since civil rights come from agreeing to the contract, those who choose to violate their contractual obligations, such as by committing crimes, abdicate their rights, and the rest of society can be expected to protect itself against the actions of such outlaws. To be a member of society is to accept responsibility for following its rules, along with the threat of punishment for violating them. In this way, society works by "mutual coercion, mutually agreed upon" (Hardin 1968).
History
Classical thought
Many have argued that Plato's dialog Crito expresses a Greek version of social contract theory. In this dialog, Socrates refuses to escape from jail to avoid being put to death. He argues that since he has willingly remained in Athens all of his life despite opportunities to go elsewhere, he has accepted the social contract i.e. the burden of the local laws, and he cannot violate these laws even when they are against his self-interest.
Epicurus seems to have had a strong sense of social contract, with justice and law being rooted in mutual agreement and advantage, as evidenced by these lines, among others, from his Principal Doctrines:
31. Natural justice is a pledge of reciprocal benefit, to prevent one man from harming or being harmed by another. 32. Those animals which are incapable of making binding agreements with one another not to inflict nor suffer harm are without either justice or injustice; and likewise for those peoples who either could not or would not form binding agreements not to inflict nor suffer harm. 33. There never was such a thing as absolute justice, but only agreements made in mutual dealings among men in whatever places at various times providing against the infliction or suffering of harm. 34. Injustice is not an evil in itself, but only in consequence of the fear which is associated with the apprehension of being discovered by those appointed to punish such actions.
Also see Epicurean ethics
Renaissance developments
Quentin Skinner has argued that several critical modern innovations in contract theory are found in the writings from French Calvinists and Huguenots, whose work in turn was invoked by writers in the Low Countries who objected to their subjection to Spain and, later still, by Catholics in England. Among these, Francisco Suárez (1548–1617), from the School of Salamanca, might be considered as an early theorist of the social contract, theorizing natural law in an attempt to limit the divine right of absolute monarchy. All of these groups were led to articulate notions of popular sovereignty by means of a social covenant or contract: all of these arguments began with proto-“state of nature” arguments, to the effect that the basis of politics is that everyone is by nature free of subjection to any government.
However, these arguments relied on a corporatist theory found in Roman Law, according to which "a populus" can exist as a distinct legal entity. Therefore these arguments held that a community of people can join a government because they have the capacity to exercise a single will and make decisions with a single voice in the absence of sovereign authority — a notion rejected by Hobbes and later contract theorists.
Philosophers
Hugo Grotius
In the early 17th century, Grotius (1583–1645) introduced the modern idea of natural rights of individuals. Grotius says that we each have natural rights which we have in order to preserve ourselves. He uses this idea to try to establish a basis for moral consensus in the face of religious diversity and the rise of natural science and to find a minimal basis for a moral beginning for society, a kind of natural law that everyone could potentially accept. He goes so far as to say even if we were to concede what we cannot concede without the utmost wickedness, that there is no God, these laws would still hold. The idea was considered incendiary, since it suggests that power can ultimately go back to the individuals if the political society that they have set up forfeits the purpose for which it was originally established, which is to preserve themselves. In other words, the people i.e. the individual people, are sovereign. Grotius says that the people are sui juris - under their own jurisdiction. People have rights as human beings but there is a delineation of those rights because of what is possible for everyone to accept morally - everyone has to accept that each person is entitled to try to preserve themselves and therefore they shouldn't try to do harm to others or to interfere with them and they should punish any breach of someone else's rights that arises.
Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan (1651)
The first modern philosopher to articulate a detailed contract theory was Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). According to Hobbes, the lives of individuals in the state of nature were "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short", a state where self-interest and the absence of rights and contracts prevented the 'social', or society. Life was 'anarchic' (without leadership/ the concept of sovereignty). Individuals in the state of nature were apolitical and asocial. This state of nature is followed by the social contract.
The social contract was an 'occurrence' during which individuals came together and ceded some of their individual rights so that others would cede theirs (e.g. person A gives up his/her right to kill person B if person B does the same). This resulted in the establishment of society, and by extension, the state, a sovereign entity (like the individuals, now under its rule, used to be) which was to protect these new rights which were now to regulate societal interactions. Society was thus no longer anarchic.
But the state system, which grew out of the social contract, was anarchic (without leadership). Just as the individuals in the state of nature had been sovereigns and thus guided by self-interest and the absence of rights, so states now acted in their self-interest in competition with each other. Just like the state of nature, states were thus bound to be in conflict because there was no sovereign over and above the state (i.e. more powerful) capable of imposing social-contract laws. Indeed, Hobbes' work helped to serve as a basis for the realism theories of international relations, advanced by E.H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau.
John Locke's Second Treatise of Government (1689)
John Locke's conception of the social contract differed from Hobbes' in several ways, but retained the central notion that persons in a state of nature would willingly come together to form a state. Locke believed that individuals in a state of nature would have stronger moral limits on their action than accepted by Hobbes, but recognized that people would still live in fear of one another. Locke argued that individuals would agree to form a state that would provide a "neutral judge", and that could therefore protect the lives, liberty, and property of those who lived within it. While Hobbes argued for near-absolute authority, Locke argued that laws could only be legitimate if they sought to achieve the common good. Locke also believed that people will do the right thing as a group, and that all people have natural rights.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Du contrat social (1762)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), in his influential 1762 treatise The Social Contract, outlined a different version of social contract theory, based on popular sovereignty. Although Rousseau wrote that the British were perhaps at the time the freest people on earth, he did not approve of their representative government. Rousseau believed that liberty was possible only where there was direct rule by the people as a whole in lawmaking, where popular sovereignty was indivisible and inalienable. Citizens must, in at least some circumstances, be able to choose together the fundamental rules by which they would live, and be able to revise those rules on later occasions if they choose to do so - something the British people as a whole were unable to do.
Rousseau's political theory has some points in common with Locke's individualism, but departs from it in his development of the "luminous conception" (which he credited to Diderot) of the general will. Rousseau argues a citizen can be an egoist and decide that his personal interest should override the collective interest. However, as part of a collective body, the individual citizen puts aside his egoism to create a "general will", which is popular sovereignty itself. Popular sovereignty (i.e., the rule of law), thus decides what is good for society as a whole, and the individual (including the administrative head of state, who could be a monarch) must bow to it, or be forced to bow to it:
[The social contract] can be reduced to the following terms: Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will; and in a body we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.
Rousseau's striking phrase that man must "be forced to be free" should be understood this way: since the indivisible and inalienable popular sovereignty decides what is good for the whole, then if an individual lapses back into his ordinary egoism and breaks the law, he will be forced to listen to what they decided as a member of the collectivity (i.e. as citizens). Thus, the law, inasmuch as it is voted by the people's representatives, is not a limitation of individual freedom, but its expression; and enforcement of law, including criminal law, is not a restriction on individual liberty, as the individual, as a citizen, explicitly agreed to be constrained if, as a private individual, he did not respect his own will as formulated in the general will. Because laws represent the restraints of civil freedom, they represent the leap made from humans in the state of nature into civil society. In this sense, the law is a civilizing force, and therefore Rousseau believed that the laws that govern a people helped to mold their character.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's individualist social contract (1851)
While Rousseau's social contract is based on popular sovereignty and not on individual sovereignty, there are other theories espoused by individualists, libertarians and anarchists, which do not involve agreeing to anything more than negative rights and creates only a limited state, if any.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) advocated a conception of social contract which didn't involve an individual surrendering sovereignty to others. According to him, the social contract was not between individuals and the state, but rather between individuals themselves refraining from coercing or governing each other, each one maintaining complete sovereignty upon oneself:
What really is the Social Contract? An agreement of the citizen with the government? No, that would mean but the continuation of [Rousseau’s] idea. The social contract is an agreement of man with man; an agreement from which must result what we call society. In this, the notion of commutative justice, first brought forward by the primitive fact of exchange, …is substituted for that of distributive justice … Translating these words, contract, commutative justice, which are the language of the law, into the language of business, and you have commerce, that is to say, in its highest significance, the act by which man and man declare themselves essentially producers, and abdicate all pretension to govern each other.
—Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century (1851)
John Rawls' Theory of Justice (1971)
John Rawls (1921–2002) proposed a contractarian approach that has a decidedly Kantian flavour, in A Theory of Justice (1971), whereby rational people in a hypothetical "original position", setting aside their individual preferences and capacities under a "veil of ignorance", would agree to certain general principles of justice. This idea is also used as a game-theoretical formalization of the notion of fairness.
Philip Pettit's Republicanism (1997)
Philip Pettit (b. 1945) has argued, in Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government (1997), that the theory of social contract, classically based on the consent of the governed (as it is assumed that the contract is valid as long as the people consent to being governed by its representatives, who exercise sovereignty), should be modified, in order to avoid dispute. Instead of arguing that an explicit consent, which can always be manufactured, should justify the validity of social contract, Philip Pettit argues that the absence of an effective rebellion against the contract is the only legitimacy of it.
Criticism
David Hume
An early critic of social contract theory was Rousseau's friend, the philosopher David Hume, who in 1742 published an essay "On Civil Liberty", in whose second part, entitled, "Of the Original Contract ", he stressed that the concept of a "social contract" was a convenient fiction:
AS no party, in the present age can well support itself without a philosophical or speculative system of principles annexed to its political or practical one; we accordingly find that each of the factions into which this nation is divided has reared up a fabric of the former kind, in order to protect and cover that scheme of actions which it pursues. . . . The one party [defenders of the absolute and divine right of kings, or Tories], by tracing up government to the DEITY, endeavor to render it so sacred and inviolate that it must be little less than sacrilege, however tyrannical it may become, to touch or invade it in the smallest article. The other party [the Whigs, or believers in constitutional monarchy], by founding government altogether on the consent of the PEOPLE suppose that there is a kind of original contract by which the subjects have tacitly reserved the power of resisting their sovereign, whenever they find themselves aggrieved by that authority with which they have for certain purposes voluntarily entrusted him. --David Hume, "On Civil Liberty" [II.XII.1]
However, Hume did agree that, no matter how a government is founded, the consent of the governed is the only legitimate foundation on which a government can rest.
My intention here is not to exclude the consent of the people from being one just foundation of government where it has place. It is surely the best and most sacred of any. I only pretend that it has very seldom had place in any degree and never almost in its full extent. And that therefore some other foundation of government must also be admitted. --Ibid II.XII.20
Logic of contracting
According to the will theory of contract, which was dominant in the 19th century and still exerts a strong influence, a contract is not presumed valid unless all parties agree to it voluntarily, either tacitly or explicitly, without coercion. Lysander Spooner, a 19th century lawyer and staunch supporter of a right of contract between individuals, in his essay No Treason, argues that a supposed social contract cannot be used to justify governmental actions such as taxation, because government will initiate force against anyone who does not wish to enter into such a contract. As a result, he maintains that such an agreement is not voluntary and therefore cannot be considered a legitimate contract at all.
Modern Anglo-American law, like European civil law, is based on a will theory of contract, according to which all terms of a contract are binding on the parties because they chose those terms for themselves. This was less true when Hobbes wrote Leviathan; then, more importance was attached to consideration, meaning a mutual exchange of benefits necessary to the formation of a valid contract, and most contracts had implicit terms that arose from the nature of the contractual relationship rather than from the choices made by the parties. Accordingly, it has been argued that social contract theory is more consistent with the contract law of the time of Hobbes and Locke than with the contract law of our time, and that features in the social contract which seem anomalous to us, such as the belief that we are bound by a contract formulated by our distant ancestors, would not have seemed as strange to Hobbes' contemporaries as they do to us.
Multiple contracts
Legal scholar Randy Barnett has argued, that, while presence in the territory of a society may be necessary for consent, it is not consent to any rules the society might make regardless of their content. A second condition of consent is that the rules be consistent with underlying principles of justice and the protection of natural and social rights, and have procedures for effective protection of those rights (or liberties). This has also been discussed by O.A. Brownson, who argued that there are, in a sense, three "constitutions" involved: The first the constitution of nature that includes all of what the Founders called "natural law". The second would be the constitution of society, an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it does establish the third, a constitution of government. To consent, a necessary condition is that the rules be constitutional in that sense.
Tacit consent
The theory of an implicit social contract holds that by remaining in the territory controlled by some government, people give consent to be governed. This consent is what gives legitimacy to the government. Philosopher Roderick Long argues that this is a case of question begging, because the argument has to presuppose its conclusion:
I think that the person who makes this argument is already assuming that the government has some legitimate jurisdiction over this territory. And then they say, well, now, anyone who is in the territory is therefore agreeing to the prevailing rules. But they’re assuming the very thing they're trying to prove – namely that this jurisdiction over the territory is legitimate. If it's not, then the government is just one more group of people living in this broad general geographical territory. But I've got my property, and exactly what their arrangements are I don't know, but here I am in my property and they don't own it – at least they haven't given me any argument that they do – and so, the fact that I am living in "this country" means I am living in a certain geographical region that they have certain pretensions over – but the question is whether those pretensions are legitimate. You can’t assume it as a means to proving it.
Criticisms of natural rights
Contractualism is based on the notion that rights are agreed upon in order to further our interests: each individual subject is accorded individual rights, which may or may not be inalienable, and form the basis of civil rights, as in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. It must be underlined, however, as Hannah Arendt did on her book on imperialism, that the 1789 Declarations, in this agreeing with the social contract theory, bases the natural rights of the human-being on the civil rights of the citizen, instead of the reverse as the contractualist theory does. This criticism derives from a long tradition going back to St. Augustine of Hippo, who in The City of God (book) envisioned a unified Christian society presided over by a king who was responsible for the welfare of his subjects. Political Augustinianism with its insistence on divine sovereignty and on the two separate spheres of a heavenly and an earthly community, has indeed been regarded as incompatible with social contract theories. This raises the question of whether social contractarianism, as a central plank of liberal thought, is reconcilable with the Christian religion, and particularly with Catholicism and Catholic social teaching. The individualist and liberal approach has also been criticized since the 19th century by thinkers such as Marx, Nietzsche & Freud, and afterward by structuralist and post-structuralist thinkers, such as Lacan, Althusser, Foucault, Deleuze or Derrida
zuò zhě:( fǎ guó) lú suō( 1712-1788 nián)
lèi xíng: zhèng zhì lǐ lùn zhù zuò
chéng shū shí jiān: 1762 nián
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 - bèi jǐng sōu suǒ
lú suō chū shēng yú ruì shì rì nèi wǎ yī gè zhōng biǎo jiàng jiā tíng, cóng xiǎo shī qù mǔ qīn, kào bié rén fǔ yǎng jiào yù zhǎngdà。 suī rán shēng huó tiáo jiàn jiān kǔ, dàn tā fā fèn tú qiáng, zì xué chéng cái。 16 suì lí jiā wài chū liú làng, dāng guò xué tú、 pú yì、 sī rén mì shū、 yuèpǔ chāo xiě yuán。 zài bā lí, tā zhǎn xiàn liǎo zì jǐ de cái huá, 1750 nián, lú suō yǐ zhēng wén《 lùn kē xué yǔ yì shù》 huò tóu děng jiǎng 'ér chū míng。 dé dào liǎo xǔ duō shàng liú shè huì guì fù rén de 'ài mù。 zhè xiē yōng jīn bǎi wàn de guì fù wèitā gōng yìng shū shì de shēng huó, gěi tā jiè shào suǒ xū yào rèn shí de rén, lú suō hěn kuài jiù jìn rù liǎo wán quán bù tóng de shēng huó juàn zǐ。
cóng 1762 nián qǐ, lú suō yóu yú xiě zhèng lùn wén zhāng, yǔ dāng jú fā shēng liǎo yán zhòng de jiū fēn。 tā de yī xiē tóng shì kāi shǐ shū yuǎn tā, dà yuē jiù zài zhè gè shí qī, tā huàn liǎo míng xiǎn de piān zhí kuáng zhèng。 suī rán yòu xiē rén duì tā biǎo shì yǒu hǎo, dàn tā què cǎi qǔ huái yí hé dí shì de tài dù, tóng tā men měi gè réndōu zhēng chǎo guò。 tā yī shēng de zuì hòu 20 nián jī běn shàng shì zài bēi cǎn tòng kǔ zhōng dù guò de, 1778 nián tā zài fǎ guó mài nóng wéi 'ěr qù shì。
tuī jiàn yuè dú bǎn běn: hé zhào wǔ yì, shāng wù yìn shū guǎn chū bǎn。
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 - nèi róng jīng yào
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 quán shū gòng fēn 4 juàn, dì yī juàn zhù yào lùn shù liǎo rén lèi shì zěn yàng yóu zì rán zhuàng tài guò dù dào zhèng zhì zhuàng tài de, qì yuē de gēn běn tiáo jiàn shì shénme; dì 'èr juàn zhù yào tǎo lùn guó jiā de lì fǎ wèn tí; dì sān juàn lùn shù de shì zhèng zhì fǎ jí zhèng fǔ de xíng chéng; dì sì juàn zài jì xù tǎo lùn zhèng zhì fǎ de tóng shí chǎn shù liǎo gǒng gù guó jiā tǐ zhì de fāng fǎ, cóng gǔ luó mǎ lì shǐ chū fā lùn shù liǎo zhù quán zhě yì zhì shí xiàn de mǒu xiē xì jié。
“ rén shì shēng 'ér zì yóu de, dàn què wú wǎng bù zài jiā suǒ zhī zhōng, zì yǐ wéi shì qí tā yī qiē de zhù rén, fǎn 'ér bǐ qí tā yī qiē gèng shì nú lì。”《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 de kāi piān dì yī jù huà jiù tí chū liǎo zhè gè zhèn lóng fā kuì de guān diǎn。 lú suō de zhè yī lùn duàn shì zài jūn zhù zhuān zhì zhì dù héng xíng 'ōu zhōu de shí dài, zhēn duì yīng guó wáng quán zhuān zhì lùn dài biǎo rén wù fèi 'ěr mǎ guān yú“ méi yòu rén shì shēng 'ér zì yóu de” zhè yī jué duì jūn zhù zhuān zhì zhì dù lài yǐ yǐ cún de lǐ lùn 'ér tí chū lái de。 zhè běn shū yǐ fǎn duì fēng jiàn zhuān zhì、 chàng yán mín zhù gòng hé、 zhù zhāng rén mín zhù quán wéi qí zhù tí hé zhōng xīn nèi róng, tí chū liǎo fù yú gé mìng xìng de xiàn zhèng lǐ lùn。
lú suō rèn wéi, zì yóu de rén men zuì chū shēng huó zài zì rán zhuàng tài, rén men de xíng wéi shòu zì rán fǎ zhī pèi。 zì rán fǎ yǐ lǐ xìng wéi jī chǔ, fù yú rén lèi yī xì liè pǔ biàn de、 yǒng héng de zì rán quán lì, jí shēng cún、 zì yóu、 píng děng、 zhuī qiú xìng fú、 huò dé cái chǎn hé rén shēn、 cái chǎn bù shòu qīn fàn de quán lì。 yóu yú zì rán zhuàng tài cún zài zhǒng zhǒng bì duān, zì yóu de rén men yǐ píng děng de zī gé dìng lì qì yuē, cóng zì rán zhuàng tài xià bǎi tuō chū lái, xún zhǎo chū yī zhǒng jié hé de xíng shì, shǐ tā néng yǐ quán bù gòng tóng de lì liàng lái wèi hù hé bǎo zhàng měi gè jié hé zhě de rén shēn hé cái fù, bìng qiě yóu yú zhè yī jié hé 'ér shǐ měi yī gè yǔ quán tǐxiàng lián hé de gè rén yòu zhǐ bù guò shì zài fú cóng zì jǐ běn rén, bìng qiě réng rán xiàng yǐ wǎng yī yàng dì zì yóu。 zhè zhǒng jié hé de xíng shì jiù shì guó jiā。 yóu yú guó jiā shì zì yóu de rén men yǐ píng děng de zī gé dìng lì qì yuē chǎn shēng de, rén men zhǐ shì bǎ zì rán quán lì zhuǎn ràng gěi zhěng gè shè huì 'ér bìng bù shì fèng xiàn gěi rèn hé gè rén, yīn cǐ rén mín zài guó jiā zhōng réng shì zì yóu de, guó jiā de zhù quán zhǐ néng shǔ yú rén mín。
rán hòu, lú suō jìn yī bù chǎn shù liǎo rén mín zhù quán de yuán zé: zhù quán shì bù kě zhuǎn ràng de, yīn wéi guó jiā yóu zhù quán zhě gòu chéng, zhǐ yòu zhù quán zhě cái néng xíng shǐ zhù quán; zhù quán shì bù kě fēn gē de, yīn wéi dài biǎo zhù quán de yì zhì shì yī gè zhěng tǐ; zhù quán shì bù kě dài biǎo de, yīn wéi“ zhù quán zài běn zhì shàng shì yóu gōng yì suǒ gòu chéng de, ér yì zhì yòu shì jué bù kě yǐ dài biǎo de; tā zhǐ néng shì tóng yī gè yì zhì, huò zhě shì lìng yī gè yì zhì, ér jué bù néng yòu shénme zhōng jiān de dōng xī。 yīn cǐ rén mín de yì yuán jiù bù shì、 yě bù kě néng shì rén mín de dài biǎo, tā men zhǐ bù guò shì rén mín de bàn shì yuán bà liǎo; tā men bìng bù néng zuò chū rèn hé kěn dìng de jué dìng”。 tóng shí, zhù quán shì jué duì de、 zhì gāo wú shàng hé bù kě qīn fàn de, yīn wéi zhù quán shì gōng yì de tǐ xiàn, shì guó jiā de líng hún。 jī yú zhè yàng de lǐ lùn, lú suō fǎn duì jūn zhù lì xiàn 'ér jiān jué zhù zhāng mín zhù gòng hé。
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 hái lùn shù liǎo yī xì liè fǎ lǜ jī běn lǐ lùn, zài qí zhōng guàn chuānzhuó yǐ rén mín zhù quán wéi zhōng xīn nèi róng de zī chǎn jiē jí mín zhù zhù yì jīng shén。 lú suō zhǐ chū fǎ lǜ shì rén mín gōng gòng yì zhì de tǐ xiàn, shì rén mín zì jǐ yì zhì de jì lù hé quán tǐ rén mín wéi zì jǐ suǒ zuò de guī dìng。 fǎ lǜ de tè diǎn zài yú yì zhì de pǔ biàn xìng hé duì xiàng de pǔ biàn xìng, qián zhě zhǐ fǎ lǜ shì rén mín gōng yì de tǐ xiàn, hòu zhě zhǐ fǎ lǜ kǎo lǜ de duì xiàng shì quán tǐ de xíng wéi 'ér fēi gè bié rén。
tóng shí, tā chǎn shù liǎo fǎ lǜ yǔ zì yóu de guān xì: shǒu xiān, fǎ lǜ yǔ zì yóu shì yī zhì de, rén mín fú cóng fǎ lǜ jiù shì fú cóng zì jǐ de yì zhì, jiù yì wèi zhe zì yóu。 qí cì, fǎ lǜ shì zì yóu de bǎo zhàng。 yī fāng miàn, rén rén zūn shǒu fǎ lǜ, cái néng gěi rén men yǐ xiǎng shòu zì yóu quán lì de 'ān quán bǎo zhàng; lìng yī fāng miàn, fǎ lǜ kě yǐ qiǎngpò rén men zì yóu。
cǐ wài, lú suō hái xì tǒng dì tí chū liǎo lì fǎ lǐ lùn。 tā rèn wéi yào yǐ fǎ zhì guó jiù yào yòu lǐ xiǎng de fǎ lǜ, zài zhì dìng fǎ lǜ shí bì xū zūn xún xià liè yuán zé: lì fǎ bì xū yǐ móu qǔ rén mín zuì dà xìng fú wéi yuán zé; lì fǎ quán bì xū yóu rén mín zhǎng wò; yóu xián míng zhě jù tǐ chéng dān lì fǎ de zé rèn; lì fǎ yào zhù yì gè zhǒng zì rán de shè huì tiáo jiàn, fǎ lǜ zhǐ bù guò shì bǎo zhàng、 zūn xún hé jiáo zhèng zì rán de guān xì 'ér yǐ; jì yào bǎo chí fǎ lǜ de wěn dìng xìng, yòu yào shì shí xiū gǎi、 fèi chú bù hǎo de fǎ lǜ。
“ rén shì shēng 'ér zì yóu píng děng de, zhè shì tiān fù de quán lì”,《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 zhōng de zhè yī lǐ lùn, kāi chuàng liǎo 'ōu zhōu jí quán shì jiè mín zhù píng děng sī xiǎng zhī xiān hé, tā de“ rén quán tiān fù“, zhù quán zài mín” de xīn xué shuō xiàng“ jūn quán shén shòu” de chuán tǒng guān niàn fā qǐ liǎo tiǎo zhàn。 tā suǒ jiē shì de“ rén quán zì yóu、 quán lì píng děng” de yuán zé, zhì jīn réng zuò wéi xī fāng zhèng zhì de jī chǔ。
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 - zhuān jiā diǎn píng
lú suō shì 18 shì jì fǎ guó qǐ méng yùn dòng jié chū de zhèng zhì sī xiǎng jiā、 wén xué jiā。 tā de cái sī wén zǎo fēngmǐ liǎo dāng shí de zhěng gè 'ōu zhōu, bìng wéi hòu rén liú xià liǎo yī xì liè huàshídài de jù zhù。 hěn shǎo yòu jǐ gè zhé xué jiā néng dài lái lú suō zhù zuò nà yàng de zhèn hàn。 tā de《 yì shù yǔ kē xué tán》 huò fǎ guó dì róng jiǎng, shǐ tā róng huò 'ōu zhōu zhé xué dà shī chēng hào。 tā de wén xué míng zhù《 xīn 'ài luò yī sī》 zài shì jiè wén xué shǐ shàng yòu zhe hěn gāo dì wèi, shǐ tā jī shēn yú qǐ méng shí qī zhù míng wén xué jiā de hángliè。《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 yòu yì zuò《 mín yuē lùn》 shì tā zuì wéi jié chū de dài biǎo zuò zhī yī, bèi yù wéi“ rén lèi jiě fàng de dì yī gè hū shēng, shì jiè dà gé mìng de dì yī gè shān dòng zhě”。 lú suō shì 'ōu zhōu qǐ méng yùn dòng zhōng zhòng yào de sī xiǎng jiā, yǔ fú 'ěr tài qí míng。 tā de zhù yào zuò pǐn yòu《 chàn huǐ lù》、《 ài mí 'ér》、《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》、《 xīn 'ài luò yī sī》。 tā de zhù yào sī xiǎng: tiān fù rén quán xué shuō, tí chū“ rén mín zhù quán” de kǒu hào。 qí sī xiǎng shì fǎ guó dà gé mìng zhōng yǎ gè bīn pài de qí zhì, duì 'ōu měi gè guó de zī chǎn jiē jí gé mìng chǎn shēng liǎo shēn kè yǐng xiǎng。
tā de《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 zhōng de“ zhù quán zài mín” yī shuō, jiù huàfēn liǎo yī gè shí dài。
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 lú suō jiāng yě huā sòng gěi wèi nǎi de mǔ qīn
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 dì yī cì tí chū liǎo“ tiān fù rén quán hé zhù quán zài mín de sī xiǎng”。 tā gāng yī wèn shì jiù zāo dào liǎo jìn zhǐ。 lú suō běn rén yě bèi pò liú wáng dào yīng guó。 dàn《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 suǒ tí chàng de mín zhù lǐ lùn què hěn kuài fēngmǐ quán shì jiè。 tā yǐn fā liǎo zhèn jīng shì jiè de fǎ guó dà gé mìng。 fǎ guó guó jiā gé yán“ zì yóu、 píng děng、 bó 'ài” biàn lái zì《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》。 1789 nián fǎ guó guó mín dài biǎo dà huì tōng guò de《 rén quán xuān yán》 zhōng“ shè huì de mùdì shì wéi dà zhòng móu fú lì de”、“ tǒng zhì quán shǔ yú rén mín” děng nèi róng chōng fēn tǐ xiàn liǎo《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 de jīng shén。《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 hái duì měi guó de《 dú lì xuān yán》 chǎn shēng liǎo zhòng yào yǐng xiǎng, cóng luó bó sī bì 'ěr dào liè níng dū céng yòng《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 wéi zì jǐ de zhèng quán zuò jiě shì。 1978 nián, zài jì niàn lú suō shì shì 200 zhōu nián de huó dòng zhōng, zhuān mén zhào kāi liǎo guó jì yán tǎo huì, yán jiū lú suō de sī xiǎng, chū bǎn tā de xīn chuán, tuī chū yǐ tā wéi tí cái de diàn shì jù。 tā de yí hái bèi 'ān fàng zài fǎ guó de wěi rén cí nèi。 lú suō zài《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 zhōng yù jiàn de“ xiāo fèi zhě de gè zhǒng xiàn jǐng, dà chéng shì de sāo luàn yǐ jí huǐ miè xìng de jūn fèi fù dān” děng děng, dōuyǐ chéng wéi dāng dài shè huì de xiàn shí wèn tí。 mù qián, dān zài fǎ guó jiù yòu 150 duō wèi xué zhě zài zhuān mén yán jiū lú suō de sī xiǎng。
yòu shuō lú suō de zhèng zhì lǐ lùn shēn shòu bólātú de《 lǐ xiǎng guó》 de yǐng xiǎng。《 lǐ xiǎng guó》 de gài niàn, jiàn lì yú rén xìng shàn de lǐ niàn jī chǔ shàng, bólātú bǐ xià de sū gé lā dǐ shuō,“ zhǐ yòu zhèng zhí de rén cái huì xìng fú”,“ shàn de yì zhì” chéng wéi tā de lǐ xiǎng guó de jī chǔ。 lú suō yě xiāng xìn rén xìng shàn, tā tí chàng kuān róng lǐ xìng, jiān dìng dì fǎn duì rèn hé zhèng zhì bào lì。 tóng shì lùn shù lǐ xiǎng guó de yuán zé, bù tóng yú bólātú, lú suō jiāng qí lǐ lùn kuàng jià wán quán jiàn lì zài“ rén shēng 'ér zì yóu” de jī chǔ zhī shàng, yě jiù shì shuō“ zì yóu yì zhì”。 zhè gè jī chǔ jiù shí zài duō liǎo。 hěn zǎo yǐ qián, rén men yòu yī gè gèng hǎo de dàn wén yán de shuō fǎ:“ tiān fù rén quán。” yóu tiān fù rén quán zuò wéi dì yī yuán lǐ, tā suǒ gòu zào de bù zài zhǐ shì lǐ xiǎng, ér shì xiàn dài gōng mín shè huì de jī běn yuán zé。 gōng mín shè huì zhōng, gōng mín shī qù liǎo zì yóu rén wú suǒ bùwèi de zì yóu, ér dé dào gōng mín de zhèng zhì quán lì、 zhèng zhì zì yóu。 tā de《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》( yòu yì《 mín yuē lùn》) suǒ yào jiě jué de shì rén quán hé fǎ lǜ de yòu jī jié hé。 cóng cǐ, hé fǎ xìng zhǐ néng lái zì rén mín, chéng liǎo lú suō de jì chéng zhě hé bèi pàn zhě de gòng tóng de lǐ niàn。 qián zhě chǎn shēng liǎo měi guó gé mìng hé mín zhù de jiàn lì, hòu zhě yǐ rén mín zhī míng zhuān quán tú shā。 lú suō, zuò wéi“ zhù quán zài mín” de gòu huà zhě, jiù shì zài 200 nián hòu hái chǔyú zhēng lùn de zhōng xīn: tā de lǐ lùn dào dǐ shì zài tí chàng mín zhù zì yóu, hái shì zài tí chàng jí quán bào zhèng?
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 zhé xué jiā lú suō dà bù tóu zhù zuò
rén quán shì shǔ yú gè tǐ de, fǎ lǜ shì shǔ yú guó jiā de。 gè tǐ yuē dìng 'ér chéng guó jiā de hé lǐ xìng, shì fǎ lǜ yòu xiào xìng hé zhèng quán hé fǎ xìng de zhōng jí pàn duàn。 zì yóu, bù shì lái zì fǎ lǜ duì gè rén de bǎo hù, ér shì lái zì gè tǐ duì lì fǎ de chè dǐ cānyù。 zhè shì qièshí bǎo zhàng gè tǐ zì yóu de xiān jué tiáo jiàn。 zài zhè yī guò chéng lǐ, gè tǐ lì yì de“ jiāo jí” ér fēi“ bìng jí”( bù wán quán shì shù xué shàng de nà zhǒng) xíng chéng gōng mín yì zhì héng héng zhù quán zhě de yì zhì héng héng yī bān yì zhì, ér zhè zhǒng zhù quán zhě yīn wéi gè tǐ de bù duàn cānyù, qí nèi róng shì cháng xīn de, qí lì yì yǔ gè tǐ lì yì gòng róng de。 cóng zhè yī diǎn chū fā, duō shù rén shuō liǎo suàn de yuē fǎ sān zhāng bì rán chéng wéi zhù quán zài mín de dào dé de tǐ xiàn fāng shì。
lú suō bǎ zhèng quán míng bái dì fēn chéng liǎo lì fǎ hé xíng zhèng liǎng gè bù fēn, qián zhě shǔ yú shè huì qì yuē de fàn chóu, ér hòu zhě bù shì qì yuē de nèi róng( yīn cǐ shì kě biàn kě tuī fān de)。 zhè gè lǐ niàn duì hòu lái mín zhù zhèng zhì de fā zhǎn yòu zhe bù kě mó miè de gòng xiàn。 zài lú suō zhī qián, mèng dé sī jiū de《 lùn fǎ de jīng shén》 duì fǎ lǜ de lǐ jiě gèng jiā shēn kè, wéi quē lú suō de“ zhù quán zài mín” de dòng lì。《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 zì shǐ zhì zhōng zhǐ yáng qì liǎo yī zhǒng tǐ zhì: zhuān zhì zhèng fǔ。 àn lú suō de huà, zhè jiù shì nà zhǒng miè shì fǎ lǜ bǎ gè tǐ de quán lì gāo yú zhù quán zhě zhī shàng de tǐ zhì。 qí tā de tǐ zhì, lú suō jǐn jǐn lùn shù liǎo tā men hé fǎ de zì rán yǐ jù。 cóng zhí jiē mín zhù zhì、 guì zú dài yì zhì dào jūn zhù lì xiàn zhì, tǒng zhì de gēn jù bì xū shì rén mín zhù quán héng héng héng qí zhēn zhèng biǎo dá jiù shì fǎ lǜ。 lú suō bìng jìn 'ér bǎ rèn hé zhēn zhèng yǐ fǎ 'ér zhì de zhèng tǐ tǒng chēng wéi gòng hé zhèng tǐ。 zài lú suō kàn lái, tā nà gè shí dài de zhèng zhì shè huì xíng tài shì fǔ xiǔ de, tā yào dào gǔ xī là shí dài cái néng zhǎo dào hé lǐ de huí guī。
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 shì shì jiè zhèng zhì fǎ lǜ xué shuō shǐ shàng zuì zhòng yào de jīng diǎn zhī yī, shì zhèn hàn shì jiè de 1789 nián fǎ guó dà gé mìng de hào jiǎo hé fú yīn shū。 tā chǎn shù de xǔ duō yuán zé yuán lǐ bù jǐn zài gé mìng zhī chū bèi zài rù fǎ guó《 rén quán xuān yán》 děng zhòng yào wén xiàn zhōng, zài gé mìng hòu de cháng shí qī lǐ chéng wéi zī chǎn jiē jí de zhèng zhì fǎ lǜ zhì dù de jī shí。 lú suō de sī xiǎng duì hòu shì sī xiǎng jiā men lǐ lùn de xíng chéng yòu zhòng dà yǐng xiǎng。
lú suō de zhèng zhì zhù zuò zhōng yòu xǔ duō sī xiǎng dú tè xīn yíng, yǐn rén rù shèng。 dàn shì zǒng tǐ shuō lái jiù shì yī zhǒng zhuī qiú píng děng de qiáng liè yù wàng hé yī zhǒng tóng yàng qiáng liè de gǎn shòu: xiàn cún shè huì zhì dù de bù hé lǐ yǐ jīng dá dào liǎo lìng rén bù néng róng rěn de chéng dù, rén shēng xià lái běn lái shì zì yóu de, dàn shì wú lùn zǒu dào nǎ lǐ dōuyào dài shàng jiā suǒ。 lú suō zì jǐ kě néng bìng bù xǐ huān bào lì xíng wéi, dàn shì tā wú yí jī lì liǎo qí tā rén shí xíng bào lì gé mìng, zhú bù gǎi gé shè huì zhì dù。
yòu rén pī píng lú suō shì yī gè jí qí shén jīng zhì de rén, shì yī gè dà nán zǐ zhù yì zhě, shì yī gè sī xiǎng bùqiè shí jì de、 hú tú de sī xiǎng jiā, zhè yàng de pī píng dà tǐ shàng shì zhèng què de。 dàn shì yuǎn bǐ tā de quē diǎn gèng zhòng yào de shì tā de dòng chá lì hé jié chū de chuàng zào jīng shén suǒ shǎn xiàn chū lái de sī xiǎng huǒ huā, liǎng gè duō shì jì yǐ lái, bù duàn dì yǐng xiǎng zhe xiàn dài sī xiǎng。
《 shè huì qì yuē lùn》 - miào yǔ jiā jù
wǒ kàn dào liǎo lìng yī gè shì jiè, wǒ de quán bù jī qíng dōubèi duì zhēn lǐ、 duì zì yóu、 duì dào dé de rè 'ài zhì xī diào liǎo。
shuí dì yī gè bǎ yī kuài tǔ dì juàn qǐ lái bìng xiǎng dào zhè shì zì jǐ de, ér qiě bèi tóu nǎo jiǎn dān de rén suǒ xiāng xìn de huà, nà tā jiù shì wén míng de diàn jī zhě。
Social contract theory formed a central pillar in the historically important notion that legitimate state authority must be derived from the consent of the governed. The starting point for most of these theories is a heuristic examination of the human condition absent from any structured social order, usually termed the “state of nature”. In this condition, an individual’s actions are bound only by his or her personal power, constrained by conscience. From this common starting point, the various proponents of social contract theory attempt to explain, in different ways, why it is in an individual’s rational self-interest to voluntarily give up the freedom one has in the state of nature in order to obtain the benefits of political order.
Thomas Hobbes (1651), John Locke (1689) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762) are the most famous philosophers of contractarianism. However, they drew quite different conclusions from this starting-point. Hobbes advocated an authoritarian monarchy, Locke advocated a liberal monarchy, while Rousseau advocated liberal republicanism. Their work provided theoretical groundwork of constitutional monarchy, liberal democracy and republicanism. The Social Contract was used in the Declaration of Independence as a sign of enforcing Democracy, and more recently has been revived by thinkers such as John Rawls.
Overview
According to Thomas Hobbes, human life would be "nasty, brutish, and short" without political authority. In its absence, we would live in a state of nature, where we each have unlimited natural freedoms, including the "right to all things" and thus the freedom to harm all who threaten our own self-preservation; there would be an endless "war of all against all" (Bellum omnium contra omnes). To avoid this, free men establish political community i.e. civil society through a social contract in which each gain civil rights in return for subjecting himself to civil law or to political authority.
Alternatively, some have argued that we gain civil rights in return for accepting the obligation to respect and defend the rights of others, giving up some freedoms to do so; this alternative formulation of the duty arising from the social contract is often identified with arguments about military service.
Violations of the contract
The social contract and the civil rights it gives us are neither "natural rights" nor permanently fixed. Rather, the contract itself is the means towards an end — the benefit of all — and (according to some philosophers such as Locke or Rousseau), is only legitimate to the extent that it meets the general interest ("general will" in Rousseau). Therefore, when failings are found in the contract, we renegotiate to change the terms, using methods such as elections and legislature. Locke theorized the right of rebellion in case of the contract leading to tyranny.
Since civil rights come from agreeing to the contract, those who choose to violate their contractual obligations, such as by committing crimes, abdicate their rights, and the rest of society can be expected to protect itself against the actions of such outlaws. To be a member of society is to accept responsibility for following its rules, along with the threat of punishment for violating them. In this way, society works by "mutual coercion, mutually agreed upon" (Hardin 1968).
History
Classical thought
Many have argued that Plato's dialog Crito expresses a Greek version of social contract theory. In this dialog, Socrates refuses to escape from jail to avoid being put to death. He argues that since he has willingly remained in Athens all of his life despite opportunities to go elsewhere, he has accepted the social contract i.e. the burden of the local laws, and he cannot violate these laws even when they are against his self-interest.
Epicurus seems to have had a strong sense of social contract, with justice and law being rooted in mutual agreement and advantage, as evidenced by these lines, among others, from his Principal Doctrines:
31. Natural justice is a pledge of reciprocal benefit, to prevent one man from harming or being harmed by another. 32. Those animals which are incapable of making binding agreements with one another not to inflict nor suffer harm are without either justice or injustice; and likewise for those peoples who either could not or would not form binding agreements not to inflict nor suffer harm. 33. There never was such a thing as absolute justice, but only agreements made in mutual dealings among men in whatever places at various times providing against the infliction or suffering of harm. 34. Injustice is not an evil in itself, but only in consequence of the fear which is associated with the apprehension of being discovered by those appointed to punish such actions.
Also see Epicurean ethics
Renaissance developments
Quentin Skinner has argued that several critical modern innovations in contract theory are found in the writings from French Calvinists and Huguenots, whose work in turn was invoked by writers in the Low Countries who objected to their subjection to Spain and, later still, by Catholics in England. Among these, Francisco Suárez (1548–1617), from the School of Salamanca, might be considered as an early theorist of the social contract, theorizing natural law in an attempt to limit the divine right of absolute monarchy. All of these groups were led to articulate notions of popular sovereignty by means of a social covenant or contract: all of these arguments began with proto-“state of nature” arguments, to the effect that the basis of politics is that everyone is by nature free of subjection to any government.
However, these arguments relied on a corporatist theory found in Roman Law, according to which "a populus" can exist as a distinct legal entity. Therefore these arguments held that a community of people can join a government because they have the capacity to exercise a single will and make decisions with a single voice in the absence of sovereign authority — a notion rejected by Hobbes and later contract theorists.
Philosophers
Hugo Grotius
In the early 17th century, Grotius (1583–1645) introduced the modern idea of natural rights of individuals. Grotius says that we each have natural rights which we have in order to preserve ourselves. He uses this idea to try to establish a basis for moral consensus in the face of religious diversity and the rise of natural science and to find a minimal basis for a moral beginning for society, a kind of natural law that everyone could potentially accept. He goes so far as to say even if we were to concede what we cannot concede without the utmost wickedness, that there is no God, these laws would still hold. The idea was considered incendiary, since it suggests that power can ultimately go back to the individuals if the political society that they have set up forfeits the purpose for which it was originally established, which is to preserve themselves. In other words, the people i.e. the individual people, are sovereign. Grotius says that the people are sui juris - under their own jurisdiction. People have rights as human beings but there is a delineation of those rights because of what is possible for everyone to accept morally - everyone has to accept that each person is entitled to try to preserve themselves and therefore they shouldn't try to do harm to others or to interfere with them and they should punish any breach of someone else's rights that arises.
Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan (1651)
The first modern philosopher to articulate a detailed contract theory was Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). According to Hobbes, the lives of individuals in the state of nature were "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short", a state where self-interest and the absence of rights and contracts prevented the 'social', or society. Life was 'anarchic' (without leadership/ the concept of sovereignty). Individuals in the state of nature were apolitical and asocial. This state of nature is followed by the social contract.
The social contract was an 'occurrence' during which individuals came together and ceded some of their individual rights so that others would cede theirs (e.g. person A gives up his/her right to kill person B if person B does the same). This resulted in the establishment of society, and by extension, the state, a sovereign entity (like the individuals, now under its rule, used to be) which was to protect these new rights which were now to regulate societal interactions. Society was thus no longer anarchic.
But the state system, which grew out of the social contract, was anarchic (without leadership). Just as the individuals in the state of nature had been sovereigns and thus guided by self-interest and the absence of rights, so states now acted in their self-interest in competition with each other. Just like the state of nature, states were thus bound to be in conflict because there was no sovereign over and above the state (i.e. more powerful) capable of imposing social-contract laws. Indeed, Hobbes' work helped to serve as a basis for the realism theories of international relations, advanced by E.H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau.
John Locke's Second Treatise of Government (1689)
John Locke's conception of the social contract differed from Hobbes' in several ways, but retained the central notion that persons in a state of nature would willingly come together to form a state. Locke believed that individuals in a state of nature would have stronger moral limits on their action than accepted by Hobbes, but recognized that people would still live in fear of one another. Locke argued that individuals would agree to form a state that would provide a "neutral judge", and that could therefore protect the lives, liberty, and property of those who lived within it. While Hobbes argued for near-absolute authority, Locke argued that laws could only be legitimate if they sought to achieve the common good. Locke also believed that people will do the right thing as a group, and that all people have natural rights.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Du contrat social (1762)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), in his influential 1762 treatise The Social Contract, outlined a different version of social contract theory, based on popular sovereignty. Although Rousseau wrote that the British were perhaps at the time the freest people on earth, he did not approve of their representative government. Rousseau believed that liberty was possible only where there was direct rule by the people as a whole in lawmaking, where popular sovereignty was indivisible and inalienable. Citizens must, in at least some circumstances, be able to choose together the fundamental rules by which they would live, and be able to revise those rules on later occasions if they choose to do so - something the British people as a whole were unable to do.
Rousseau's political theory has some points in common with Locke's individualism, but departs from it in his development of the "luminous conception" (which he credited to Diderot) of the general will. Rousseau argues a citizen can be an egoist and decide that his personal interest should override the collective interest. However, as part of a collective body, the individual citizen puts aside his egoism to create a "general will", which is popular sovereignty itself. Popular sovereignty (i.e., the rule of law), thus decides what is good for society as a whole, and the individual (including the administrative head of state, who could be a monarch) must bow to it, or be forced to bow to it:
[The social contract] can be reduced to the following terms: Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will; and in a body we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.
Rousseau's striking phrase that man must "be forced to be free" should be understood this way: since the indivisible and inalienable popular sovereignty decides what is good for the whole, then if an individual lapses back into his ordinary egoism and breaks the law, he will be forced to listen to what they decided as a member of the collectivity (i.e. as citizens). Thus, the law, inasmuch as it is voted by the people's representatives, is not a limitation of individual freedom, but its expression; and enforcement of law, including criminal law, is not a restriction on individual liberty, as the individual, as a citizen, explicitly agreed to be constrained if, as a private individual, he did not respect his own will as formulated in the general will. Because laws represent the restraints of civil freedom, they represent the leap made from humans in the state of nature into civil society. In this sense, the law is a civilizing force, and therefore Rousseau believed that the laws that govern a people helped to mold their character.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's individualist social contract (1851)
While Rousseau's social contract is based on popular sovereignty and not on individual sovereignty, there are other theories espoused by individualists, libertarians and anarchists, which do not involve agreeing to anything more than negative rights and creates only a limited state, if any.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) advocated a conception of social contract which didn't involve an individual surrendering sovereignty to others. According to him, the social contract was not between individuals and the state, but rather between individuals themselves refraining from coercing or governing each other, each one maintaining complete sovereignty upon oneself:
What really is the Social Contract? An agreement of the citizen with the government? No, that would mean but the continuation of [Rousseau’s] idea. The social contract is an agreement of man with man; an agreement from which must result what we call society. In this, the notion of commutative justice, first brought forward by the primitive fact of exchange, …is substituted for that of distributive justice … Translating these words, contract, commutative justice, which are the language of the law, into the language of business, and you have commerce, that is to say, in its highest significance, the act by which man and man declare themselves essentially producers, and abdicate all pretension to govern each other.
—Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century (1851)
John Rawls' Theory of Justice (1971)
John Rawls (1921–2002) proposed a contractarian approach that has a decidedly Kantian flavour, in A Theory of Justice (1971), whereby rational people in a hypothetical "original position", setting aside their individual preferences and capacities under a "veil of ignorance", would agree to certain general principles of justice. This idea is also used as a game-theoretical formalization of the notion of fairness.
Philip Pettit's Republicanism (1997)
Philip Pettit (b. 1945) has argued, in Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government (1997), that the theory of social contract, classically based on the consent of the governed (as it is assumed that the contract is valid as long as the people consent to being governed by its representatives, who exercise sovereignty), should be modified, in order to avoid dispute. Instead of arguing that an explicit consent, which can always be manufactured, should justify the validity of social contract, Philip Pettit argues that the absence of an effective rebellion against the contract is the only legitimacy of it.
Criticism
David Hume
An early critic of social contract theory was Rousseau's friend, the philosopher David Hume, who in 1742 published an essay "On Civil Liberty", in whose second part, entitled, "Of the Original Contract ", he stressed that the concept of a "social contract" was a convenient fiction:
AS no party, in the present age can well support itself without a philosophical or speculative system of principles annexed to its political or practical one; we accordingly find that each of the factions into which this nation is divided has reared up a fabric of the former kind, in order to protect and cover that scheme of actions which it pursues. . . . The one party [defenders of the absolute and divine right of kings, or Tories], by tracing up government to the DEITY, endeavor to render it so sacred and inviolate that it must be little less than sacrilege, however tyrannical it may become, to touch or invade it in the smallest article. The other party [the Whigs, or believers in constitutional monarchy], by founding government altogether on the consent of the PEOPLE suppose that there is a kind of original contract by which the subjects have tacitly reserved the power of resisting their sovereign, whenever they find themselves aggrieved by that authority with which they have for certain purposes voluntarily entrusted him. --David Hume, "On Civil Liberty" [II.XII.1]
However, Hume did agree that, no matter how a government is founded, the consent of the governed is the only legitimate foundation on which a government can rest.
My intention here is not to exclude the consent of the people from being one just foundation of government where it has place. It is surely the best and most sacred of any. I only pretend that it has very seldom had place in any degree and never almost in its full extent. And that therefore some other foundation of government must also be admitted. --Ibid II.XII.20
Logic of contracting
According to the will theory of contract, which was dominant in the 19th century and still exerts a strong influence, a contract is not presumed valid unless all parties agree to it voluntarily, either tacitly or explicitly, without coercion. Lysander Spooner, a 19th century lawyer and staunch supporter of a right of contract between individuals, in his essay No Treason, argues that a supposed social contract cannot be used to justify governmental actions such as taxation, because government will initiate force against anyone who does not wish to enter into such a contract. As a result, he maintains that such an agreement is not voluntary and therefore cannot be considered a legitimate contract at all.
Modern Anglo-American law, like European civil law, is based on a will theory of contract, according to which all terms of a contract are binding on the parties because they chose those terms for themselves. This was less true when Hobbes wrote Leviathan; then, more importance was attached to consideration, meaning a mutual exchange of benefits necessary to the formation of a valid contract, and most contracts had implicit terms that arose from the nature of the contractual relationship rather than from the choices made by the parties. Accordingly, it has been argued that social contract theory is more consistent with the contract law of the time of Hobbes and Locke than with the contract law of our time, and that features in the social contract which seem anomalous to us, such as the belief that we are bound by a contract formulated by our distant ancestors, would not have seemed as strange to Hobbes' contemporaries as they do to us.
Multiple contracts
Legal scholar Randy Barnett has argued, that, while presence in the territory of a society may be necessary for consent, it is not consent to any rules the society might make regardless of their content. A second condition of consent is that the rules be consistent with underlying principles of justice and the protection of natural and social rights, and have procedures for effective protection of those rights (or liberties). This has also been discussed by O.A. Brownson, who argued that there are, in a sense, three "constitutions" involved: The first the constitution of nature that includes all of what the Founders called "natural law". The second would be the constitution of society, an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it does establish the third, a constitution of government. To consent, a necessary condition is that the rules be constitutional in that sense.
Tacit consent
The theory of an implicit social contract holds that by remaining in the territory controlled by some government, people give consent to be governed. This consent is what gives legitimacy to the government. Philosopher Roderick Long argues that this is a case of question begging, because the argument has to presuppose its conclusion:
I think that the person who makes this argument is already assuming that the government has some legitimate jurisdiction over this territory. And then they say, well, now, anyone who is in the territory is therefore agreeing to the prevailing rules. But they’re assuming the very thing they're trying to prove – namely that this jurisdiction over the territory is legitimate. If it's not, then the government is just one more group of people living in this broad general geographical territory. But I've got my property, and exactly what their arrangements are I don't know, but here I am in my property and they don't own it – at least they haven't given me any argument that they do – and so, the fact that I am living in "this country" means I am living in a certain geographical region that they have certain pretensions over – but the question is whether those pretensions are legitimate. You can’t assume it as a means to proving it.
Criticisms of natural rights
Contractualism is based on the notion that rights are agreed upon in order to further our interests: each individual subject is accorded individual rights, which may or may not be inalienable, and form the basis of civil rights, as in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. It must be underlined, however, as Hannah Arendt did on her book on imperialism, that the 1789 Declarations, in this agreeing with the social contract theory, bases the natural rights of the human-being on the civil rights of the citizen, instead of the reverse as the contractualist theory does. This criticism derives from a long tradition going back to St. Augustine of Hippo, who in The City of God (book) envisioned a unified Christian society presided over by a king who was responsible for the welfare of his subjects. Political Augustinianism with its insistence on divine sovereignty and on the two separate spheres of a heavenly and an earthly community, has indeed been regarded as incompatible with social contract theories. This raises the question of whether social contractarianism, as a central plank of liberal thought, is reconcilable with the Christian religion, and particularly with Catholicism and Catholic social teaching. The individualist and liberal approach has also been criticized since the 19th century by thinkers such as Marx, Nietzsche & Freud, and afterward by structuralist and post-structuralist thinkers, such as Lacan, Althusser, Foucault, Deleuze or Derrida
wǒ zhēn xīn jiē shòu zhè yī míng yán héng héng“ zuì shǎo guǎn shì de zhèng fǔ shì zuì hǎo de zhèng fǔ”; bìng xī wàng tā néng gèng xùn sù gèng chè dǐ dì dé dào zhí xíng。 zhí xíng zhī hòu, wǒ yě xiāng xìn, tā zuì zhōng huì biàn chéng:“ yī shì bù guǎn de zhèng fǔ cái shì zuì hǎo de zhèng fǔ”。 zhǐ yào rén men duì cǐ yòu suǒ qī dài, tā men jiù huì dé dào nà yàng de zhèng fǔ。 chōng qí liàng zhèng fǔ zhǐ bù guò shì yī zhǒng quán yí zhī jì。 dàn shì dà duō shù zhèng fǔ wǎng wǎng bù dé jì, ér suǒ yòu de zhèng fǔ yòu shí dū huì bù dé jì。 rén men duì cháng bèi jūn tí chū de yì jiàn hěn duō, yě hěn yòu fèn liàng, zhí dé guǎng fàn xuān chuán。 dàn tā zuì zhōng yě kě néng huì yòng lái fǎn duì cháng bèi zhèng fǔ。 cháng bèi jūn zhǐ shì zhèng fǔ de yī gè shǒu bì。 zhèng fǔ běn shēn shì yóu rén mín xuǎn zé yòng lái zhí xíng tā men yì zhì de yī zhǒng mó shì。 dàn shì zài rén mín néng gòu tōng guò tā cǎi qǔ xíng dòng zhī qián, tā tóng yàng yòu kě néng bèi yǐn rù qí tú, làn yòng zhí quán。 qǐng kàn dāng qián de mò xī gē zhàn zhēng, zhè shì xiāng duì shǎo shù rén bǎ cháng bèi zhèng fǔ dāng gōng jù shǐ yòng de lì zǐ。 yīn wéi zài yī kāi shǐ rén mín bìng bù tóng yì cǎi qǔ zhè zhǒng shǒu duàn。
( suō luó de zhù zhāng yòu diǎn xiàng shì zì yóu zhù yì, bìng qiě zài jiēguǒ shàng qīng xiàng yú wú zhèng fǔ zhù yì。 dú zhě 'àn)
mù qián de měi guó zhèng fǔ héng héng tā shí jì shàng shì gè chuán tǒng xíng shì。 suī shuō rén xuǎn shì xīn de, tā què nǔ lì shǐ zì jǐ wán zhěng dì chuán sòng dào xià yī dài, ér měi yī kè yòu dōuzài shī qù tā de wán zhěng xìng。 chú cǐ zhī wài tā yòu néng shì shénme ní? tā de zhāoqì hé lì liàng dǐ bù shàng yī gè huó rén; yīn wéi yī gè rén yě néng 'àn tā de yì zhì shǐ zhī qū cóng。 duì rén mín zì jǐ lái shuō, tā shì yī zhǒng mù qiāng。 rú guǒ tā men yī běn zhèng jīng dì bǎ tā dàngzhēn jiā huǒ yòng lái hù xiāng gōng jī, tā kěn dìng huì bēng liè。 dàn tā de bì yào xìng bù huì yīn cǐ 'ér jiǎn shǎo, yīn wèirénmín bì xū yào yòu zhè yàng huò nà yàng de fù zá jī qì, bìng qīn 'ěr líng tīng tā fā chū yùn zhuǎn zào yīn, yǐ cǐ lái mǎn zú tā men yòu guān zhèng fǔ de gài niàn。 yīn cǐ zhèng fǔ biàn néng xiǎn shì chū rén men huì duō me róng yì dì zhì shēn yú qiáng zhì zhī xià, shèn zhì shì zì wǒ de qiáng zhì, mùdì shì wèile cóng zhōng huò yì。 wǒ mendōu bì xū chéng rèn zhè shì zhuāng miào shì; dàn zhèng fǔ chú liǎo jí shàn yú piān lí zì jǐ zhí néng zhī wài, tā kě cóng lái méi yòu cù jìn guò rèn hé shì yè。 tā méi yòu shǐ guó jiā bǎo chí zì yóu。 tā méi yòu 'ān dìng xī bù。 tā méi yòu tí gōng jiào yù。 suǒ yòu yǐ qǔ dé de chéng jiù dōushì kào měi guó rén mín gù yòu de xìng gé 'ér huò dé de; ér qiě, yào bù shì zhèng fǔ jīng cháng cóng zhōng zǔ náo, zhè chéng jiù huò xǔ huì gèng dà xiē。 rú guǒ rén men néng tōng guò zhèng fǔ zhè yī quán yí zhī jì shí xiàn hù bù yuē shù, tā men jiāng huì fēi cháng gāo xīng。 zhèng rú gāng cái suǒ shuō, bèi tǒng zhì zhě zuì bù shòu yuē shù shí, zhèng shì tǒng zhì jī gòu zuì dé jì zhī shí。 mào yì yǔ shāng yè, ruò méi yòu yǔ yìn dì 'ān rén mó cā suǒ zào chéng de cì jī, gēn běn bù kě néng yuè guò lì fǎ zhě men bù duàn shè zhì de zhàng 'ài 'ér dé yǐ fā zhǎn。 rú guǒ wǒ men jǐn gēn jù zhèng fǔ xíng dòng de hòu guǒ, ér bù gù jí qí dòng jī, wǒ men zhēn yìng dāng jiāng zhè pī rén dāng zuò nà xiē zài tiě guǐ shàng fàng zhì zhàng 'ài wù de táo qì guǐ yī yàng jiā yǐ chéng fá。
shuō shí zài de, zuò wéi yī gè gōng mín, ér bù xiàng nà xiē zì chēng wéi wú zhèng fǔ de rén, wǒ bìng bù yào qiú lì jí fèi chú zhèng fǔ, ér shì xī wàng lì jí néng yòu yī gè hǎo yī diǎn de zhèng fǔ。 ràng měi yī gè réndōu shuō shuō shénme yàng de zhèng fǔ néng yíng dé tā de zūn jìng, zhè jiāng shì jiàn lì nà zhǒng zhèng fǔ de dì yī bù。
( suō luó zì jǐ bìng bù rèn wéi zì jǐ shì yī gè wú zhèng fǔ zhù yì zhě)
dāng quán lì yī dàn luò rù rén mín shǒu zhōng, dà bù fēn rén bèi yǔn xǔ cháng jiǔ dì zhì lǐ guó jiā de lǐ yóu bì jìng bù jǐn jǐn shì yīn wéi tā men dài biǎo zhe zhēn lǐ, yě bù yīn wéi zhè kàn lái duì shǎo shù rén zuì gōng zhèng, ér shì yīn wéi tā men zài lì liàng shàng zuì qiáng dà。 rán 'ér, jí shǐ shì yī gè zài suǒ yòu qíng kuàng xià dū yóu duō shù rén tǒng zhì de zhèng fǔ yě bù kě néng jī yú zhèng yì, nǎ pà shì rén men tōng cháng lǐ jiě de zhèng yì。 jiǎ shè zài zhèng fǔ lǐ bù kào duō shù rén, ér yòng liáng zhī lái pàn duàn shì fēi, duō shù rén zhǐ jué dìng zhèng fǔ gāi guǎn huò bù gāi guǎn de wèn tí, zhè yàng de zhèng fǔ nán dào bù kě néng shí xiàn má? nán dào yī gè gōng mín yǒng yuǎn yīngdāng zài tè dìng shí kè, huò zài zuì dī chéng dù shàng pò shǐ tā de liáng xīn fú cóng lì fǎ zhě má? rú guǒ zhè yàng, rén men yào liáng xīn yòu yòu hé yòng? wǒ xiǎng, wǒ men shǒu xiān yīnggāi shì rén, qí cì cái shì chén mín。 jǐn jǐn wèile gōng zhèng 'ér péi yǎng zūn jìng fǎ lǜ de xí guàn shì bù kě qǔ de。 wǒ yòu quán chéng dān de wéi yī yì wù jiù shì zài rèn hé shí hòu zuò wǒ rèn wéi shì zhèng què de shì。 gōng sī méi yòu liáng xīn, dàn shì yóu yòu liáng xīn de rén men zǔ chéng de gōng sī shì yòu liáng xīn de gōng sī, zhè yàng de shuō fǎ wán quán zhèng què。 fǎ lǜ sī háo méi yòu shǐ rén biàn dé gèng gōng zhèng xiē; xiāng fǎn, yóu yú zūn zhòng fǎ lǜ, shèn zhì shì hǎo xīn rén yě zài rì yì biàn chéng fēi zhèng yì de zhí xíng zhě。 nǐ kě yǐ kàn dào yī gè yóu shì bīng、 shàng xiào、 shàng wèi、 xià shì、 yī děng bīng hé jūn huǒ bān yùn gōng zǔ chéng de duì wǔ, yǐ lìng rén xiàn mù de duì liè fān shān yuè lǐng, bēn fù zhàn zhēng; dàn shì yóu yú tā men wéi bèi liǎo zì jǐ de yì zhì、 cháng qíng hé liáng xīn, tā men de xíng jūn biàn dé yì cháng kùn nán, rén réndōu gǎn dào xīn jīng ròu tiào; zhè jiù shì guòfèn zūn zhòng fǎ lǜ de yī gè pǔ tōng 'ér zì rán de jiēguǒ。 tā men suǒ juǎnrù de shì yīcháng kěwù de jiāo yì, duì cǐ tā men shēn xìn bù yí; tā mendōu xī wàng hé píng。 xiàn zài tā men chéng liǎo shénme? shì rén má? hái shì xiē xiǎo xíng huó dòng bǎo lěi huò dàn yào kù, zài wéi mǒu xiē bù zé shǒu duàn de zhǎng quán zhě xiào láo? qǐng cān guān hǎi jūn jī dì, mù dǔ yī gè shuǐ bīng, nà jiù shì měi guó zhèng fǔ suǒ néng zào jiù de rén, huò zhě shuō zhè jiù shì tā néng yòng wū shù bǎ yī gè rén gǎi biàn chéng de múyàng: tā zhǐ shì rén lèi de yī gè yǐng zǐ hé huí yì, yī gè bèi 'ān fàng zài nà lǐ zhàn gǎng de huó rén。 zhèng rú rén men suǒ shuō, zhè wèi shì bīng dài zhe péi zàng wù, mái zài wǔ qì duī lǐ……
yīn cǐ zhè xiē rén bìng fēi zuò wéi rén qù wèiguó xiào láo, ér shì zuò wéi ròu tǐ de jī qì。 tā men bāo kuò cháng bèi jūn、 mín bīng、 jiān yù kānshǒu、 jǐng chá、 dì fāng mín tuán děng。 zài dà bù fēn qíng kuàng xià, tā men zì jǐ de pàn duàn lì hé dào dé gǎn méi yòu fā huī rèn hé zuò yòng; tā men shì zì jǐ wéi mù cái、 ní tǔ hé shí kuài; yào shì néng zào chū mù tóu rén lái, yě néng dá dào tóng yàng de mùdì。 zhè zhǒng rén bù huì bǐ dào cǎo rén huò yī duī tǔ gèng néng yǐn qǐ rén men de zūn jìng。 tā men zhǐ jù yòu yǔ mǎ hé gǒu tóng děng de jià zhí。 rán 'ér zhè yàng de rén què bèi pǔ biàn shì wéi hǎo gōng mín。 qí tā rén, zhū rú dà duō shù lì fǎ zhě、 zhèng kè、 lǜ shī、 mù shī、 guān yuán děng, zhù yào yòng tóu nǎo lái wèiguó jiā fú wù。 dàn shì, yóu yú tā men hěn shǎo biàn bié dào dé shì fēi, ér yòu kě néng bù zhī bù jué dì xiàng shì fèng shàng dì yī yàng wéi mó guǐ fú wù。 yě yòu yī xiē zhēn zhèng chēng dé shàng shì yīng xióng、 ài guó zhě、 xùn dào zhě huò gǎi gé jiā de rén, tā men què shí yòng liáng xīn wèiguó jiā fú wù, yīn 'ér wǎng wǎng huì dǐ zhì guó jiā de xíng jìng, jiēguǒ tā men tōng cháng bèi guó jiā dāng zuò dí rén kàn dài。
yī gè rén jīn tiān gāi zěn yàng duì dài měi guó zhèng fǔ cái hé shì ní? wǒ shuō, tā bù kě néng yǔ zhī xiāng lián 'ér bù shī tǐ miàn。 wǒ yī kè yě bù néng chéng rèn nà gè zhèng zhì zǔ zhì jiù shì wǒ de zhèng fǔ, yīn wéi tā yě shì nú lì de zhèng fǔ。
suǒ yòu de réndōu chéng rèn gé mìng de quán lì: nà jiù shì dāng rén men wú fǎ róng rěn yī gè dú cái huò wú néng de zhèng fǔ shí, jù jué xiào zhōng bìng dǐ kàng tā de quán lì。 dàn shì jīhū suǒ yòu de réndōu shuō xiàn zài bù shì nà zhǒng qíng kuàng。 tā men rèn wéi zhǐ yòu 1 77 5 nián dà gé mìng cái shǔ yú nà zhǒng fēi cháng shí qī。 yào shì yòu rén gào sù wǒ, zhè shì gè huài zhèng fǔ, yīn wéi tā xiàng jìn rù tā gǎng kǒu de wài guó shāng pǐn zhēng shuì, wǒ wán quán kě néng bù bǎ zhè zhǒng zhǐ kòng dāng huí shì, yīn wéi wǒ kě yǐ bù yào zhè xiē shāng pǐn: suǒ yòu jī qì dōuyòu mó cā, zhè yòu kě néng dǐ xiāo zuì 'è。 wú lùn rú hé, yào shì cóng zhōng jìn xíng shān dòng biàn shì jí dà de zuì 'è。 dàn shì dāng zhè yī mó cā kāi shǐ huǐ huài jī qì, dāng zhèn yā hé qiǎng jié yǐ zǔ zhì qǐ lái shí, wǒ shuō, ràng wǒ men zài yě bù yào zhè yàng de jī qì liǎo。 huàn jù huà shuō, dāng yī gè chéng nuò yào bǎo hù zì yóu de guó jiā de liù fēn zhī yī rén kǒu shì nú lì, dāng yī gè guó jiā wán quán bèi wài guó jūn duì fēi fǎ dì róu lìn、 zhēng fú, bìng yóu jūn fǎ guǎn zhì de shí hòu, wǒ xiǎng, guò bù liǎo duō jiǔ, chéng shí de rén biàn huì qǐ lái zào fǎn hé gé mìng。 shǐ dé zhè yī zé rèn gèng wéi jǐn pò de shì shí shì: bèi róu lìn de guó jiā bù shì wǒ men zì jǐ de, ér qīn lüè jūn què shì wǒ men de。
dāng rán, yī gè rén méi yòu zé rèn yī dìng yào zhì lì yú jiū zhèng mǒu zhǒng miù wù, nǎ pà shì zuì bù gōng zhèng de miù wù。 tā réng kě yǐ shìdàng dì cóng shì qí tā shì qíng。 dàn tā qǐ mǎ yòu zé rèn tóng zhè miù wù yī dāo liǎng duàn。 jì rán tā bù zài ná tā dāng huí zhèng shì, tā jiù yīnggāi jī běn shàng zhōng zhǐ duì tā de zhī chí。 yào shì wǒ zhì lì yú qí tā zhuī qiú hé sī suǒ, wǒ shǒu xiān zhì shǎo dé bǎo zhèng wǒ méi yòu qí zài bié rén jiān shàng。 wǒ bì xū xiān cóng tā shēn shàng pá xià lái, hǎo ràng tā yě néng jìn xíng tā zì jǐ de sī suǒ。 qǐng kàn zhè shè huì shì duō me dì bù hé xié。 wǒ céng tīng dào chéng lǐ yòu xiē shì mín shuō:“ wǒ xī wàng tā men mìng lìng wǒ qián qù zhèn yā nú lì qǐ yì, huò kāi fù mò xī gē; héng héng kàn wǒ shì fǒu huì qù。” dàn zhèng shì zhè xiē rén, tā men měi réndōu zhí jiē 'ér zhōng chéng dì, qǐ mǎ shì jiànjiē dì tōng guò chū qián, tí gōng liǎo yī gè tì shēn。 jù jué cān jiā yīcháng fēi zhèng yì zhàn zhēng díshì bīng shòu dào rén men de zàn měi。 kě zhè xiē zàn měi zhě zhōng de mǒu xiē rén bìng méi yòu jù jué yōng hù nà gè fā dòng zhè chǎng zhàn zhēng de fēi zhèng yì zhèng fǔ。 zhè xiē rén de xíng wéi hé quán wēi zhèng shì shì bīng men suǒ miè shì hé bù xiè yī gù de。 zài tā men kàn lái, sì hū guó jiā zài fàn zuì shí yě yòu zhuī huǐ zhī yì, yīn 'ér yào zhuān gù yī rén lái biān chī zì jǐ, dàn yòu méi yòu hòu huǐ dào yào tíng zhǐ piàn kè fàn zuì de chéng dù。 yīn cǐ zài zhì xù hé gōng mín zhèng fǔ de míng yì xià, wǒ men zuì hòu dōubèi pò duì wǒ men zì jǐ de bēi liè xíng jìng biǎo shì jìng yì hé zhī chí。 rén men zài fàn zuì de shǒu cì liǎn hóng zhī hòu xué huì liǎo mǎn bù zài hū。 bù dào dé sì hū yě biàn chéng liǎo fēi dào dé。 zhè zhǒng shì yìng zài wǒ men de shēng huó lǐ bìng fēi wán quán méi yòu bì yào。
…… rú guǒ nǐ bèi lín jū piàn zǒu yī yuán qián, nǐ bù kě néng jǐn jǐn mǎn zú yú zhī dào zì jǐ shòu piàn, huò duì bié rén shuō zì jǐ shòu piàn, huò yào qiú tā rú shù cháng hái。 nǐ huì lì jí cǎi qǔ yòu lì bù zhòu huò dé quán bù tuì péi, bìng shè fǎ bǎo zhèng zì jǐ bù zài shòu piàn。 chū yú yuán zé de xíng dòng, héng héng chū yú zhèng yì gǎn bìng jiā yǐ lǚ xíng de xíng dòng, héng héng néng gòu gǎi biàn shì wù jí qí guān xì。 zhè zhǒng xíng dòng jī běn shàng shì gé mìng de, tā tóng yǐ qián rèn hé shì wù jié rán bù tóng。 tā bù jǐn fēn lí liǎo zhèng fǔ yǔ jiào huì, yě fēn lí liǎo jiā tíng; shì de, tā hái fēn lí gè rén, jiāng tā shēn shàng de 'è mó cóng shén shèng de bù fēn zhōng fēn lí chū qù。
fēi zhèng yì de fǎ lǜ díquè cún zài。 wǒ men jiū jìng shì mǎn zú yú fú cóng tā men, hái shì yīngdāng yī biān nǔ lì xiū gǎi、 yī biān fú cóng tā men zhí zhì wǒ men chéng gōng, huò zhě gān cuì chāo yuè tā men? zài mù qián zhè zhǒng zhèng fǔ tǒng zhì xià de rén men tōng cháng rèn wéi tā men yīnggāi děng dài, zhí zhì tā men shuō fú liǎo duō shù rén lái xiū gǎi fǎ lǜ。 tā men rèn wéi, rú guǒ tā men dǐ kàng, zhè zhǒng jiū zhèng fāng fǎ jiāng bǐ zuì 'è de xiàn zhuàng gèng huài。 dàn zào chéng zhè zhǒng wú kě bǔ jiù jú miàn de zé rèn yīngdāng guī jiù yú zhèng fǔ běn shēn。 tā shǐ zhī yuè gǎi yuè huài。 tā wèishénme bù néng shì xiān yù jì dào gǎi gé bìng wéi zhī tí gōng fāng biàn? tā wèishénme bù 'ài hù shǎo shù míng zhì de rén? tā wèihé zài hái méi yòu shòu dào shāng hài shí jiù háo jiào zhe dǐ kàng? tā wèihé bù gǔ lì gōng mín men jí shí zhǐ chū tā de cuò wù, bìng ràng tā men zhù dòng dì gànhǎoshì qíng? tā wèihé zǒng shì bǎ jī dū dīng zài shí zì jià shàng, jiāng gē bái ní hé lù dé gé chū jiào mén, bìng xuān pàn huá shèng dùn hé fù lán kè lín wéi pàn nì?
yòu rén huì rèn wéi, zhèng fǔ duì yú nà xiē gù yì 'ér qièshí mào fàn tā quán wēi de rén wǎng wǎng shì shú shì wú dǔ de。 yào bù rán, tā zěn me méi yòu wèicǐ guī dìng guò míng què、 qiàdàng hé xiāng yìng de chéng fá? yī gè méi yòu cái chǎn de rén zhǐ yào yòu yī huí jù jué xiàng zhōu zhèng fǔ jiāo nà 9 gè xiān lìng, tā jiù huì bèi sòng jìn jiān yù, guān yā tā de shí jiān bù shòu wǒ suǒ zhī dào de rèn hé fǎ lǜ xiàn zhì, jǐn jǐn yóu bǎ tā sòng jìn qù de nà huǒ rén rèn yì jué dìng。 dàn shì, rú guǒ tā cóng zhōu lǐ tōu liǎo9 0 bèi yú9 xiān lìng de qián, tā hěn kuài jiù néng xiāo yáo fǎ wài。
rú guǒ zhè yàng de bù gōng zhèng shì zhèng fǔ jī qì bì yào mó cā de yī bù fēn, nà jiù ràng tā qù, ràng tā qù bā。 kě néng tā huì zì jǐ mó diào zhè xiē bù píng héng héng dāng rán, zhè jī qì dào shí yě huì wán dàn。 rú guǒ zhè zhǒng fēi zhèng yì yòu tā zhuān yòng de tánhuáng, huá lún, shéng zǐ, huò qū bǐng, nǐ kě néng rèn wéi gǎi zào tā bìng bù yī dìng jiù shì huài shì。 dàn shì rú guǒ tā de běn xìng jiù yào qiú nǐ duì lìng yī rén shī nüè, nà me wǒ yào shuō, qǐng fàn fǎ bā。 yòng nǐ de shēng mìng lái fǎn mó cā, hǎo ràng zhè jī qì tíng zhǐ yùn zhuǎn。 zài rèn hé qíng kuàng xià, wǒ bì xū bǎo zhèng zì jǐ bù cānyù wǒ suǒ qiǎn zé de zuì guò。
zhì yú shuō yào zhí xíng zhōu zhèng fǔ tí chū de xiāo chú zuì 'è de fāng fǎ, wǒ bù zhī dào yòu zhè zhǒng fāng fǎ。 tā men fèi shí tài jiǔ, yī gè rén de shēng mìng yòu xiàn。 wǒ yòu qí tā shì yào zuò。 wǒ lái dào zhè shì jiè de zhù yào mùdì bù shì yào jiāng tā jiàn chéng shēng huó de lè yuán, ér shì zài cǐ dì shēng huó, wú lùn tā hǎo hái shì huài。 yī gè rén bù bì yàng yàng shìdōu qù zuò, ér zhǐ xū zuò yī xiē shì。 zhèng yīn wèitā bù néng yàng yàng shìdōu zuò, tā jiù bù yīnggāi jiāng yī xiē shì zuò cuò。 jiǎ rú zhōu cháng huò zhōu yì huì méi yòu yì wù xiàng wǒ qǐng yuàn, wǒ yě méi yòu yì wù xiàng tā men qǐng yuàn。 rú guǒ tā men tīng bù dào wǒ de qǐng yuàn, wǒ gāi zěn me bàn? zài mù qián qíng kuàng xià, zhōu zhèng fǔ duì cǐ bìng méi xiǎng chū rèn hé bàn fǎ。 zhēn zhèng de zuì guò zài yú tā de xiàn fǎ běn shēn。 zhè tīng lái kě néng guò yú yán lì、 gù zhí huò bù tōng qíng dá lǐ。 dàn wéi yòu zhè zhǒng jīng shén cái shì wǒ men duì dài xiàn zhì de tài dù, tā hán yòu zuì dà chéng dù de shàn yì hé zuì shēn kè de sī kǎo。 zhè yě shì suǒ yòu shì wù xiàng hǎo de fāng miàn zhuǎn huà de guī lǜ, jiù xiàng rén zài tóng jí bìng de shēng sǐ bó dǒu zhōng huì quán shēn jìng luán yī yàng。
wǒ háo bù yóu yù dì jìng gào nà xiē zì chēng wéi fèi nú lùn zhě de rén, tā men bì xū lì jí zhēn zhèng dì shōu huí wú lùn zài gè rén hé cái chǎn fāng miàn duì mǎ sà zhū sài zhōu zhèng fǔ de zhī chí, bù yào děng dào tā men xíng chéng duō shù hòu zài zài tā men zhōng jiān zhí xíng zhèng yì。 wǒ rèn wéi, zhǐ yào yòu shàng dì zhàn zài tā men nà yī biān jiù gòu liǎo, bù bì děng dài qí tā。 zài shuō, rèn hé bǐ tā lín jū gèng yǒng gǎn de réndōu kě yǐ xíng chéng yī gè duō shù。
wǒ měi nián jǐn yòu yī cì jī huì tōng guò shōu shuì guān zhí jiē miàn duì miàn dì hé měi guó zhèng fǔ, huò tā de dài biǎo héng héng zhōu zhèng fǔ dǎ jiāo dào。 zhè shì xiàng wǒ zhè zhǒng chǔjìng de rén bì rán hé tā dǎ jiāo dào de wéi yī fāng shì。 zhè gè zhèng fǔ shí fēn qīng chǔ dì yào qiú wǒ chéng rèn tā。 ér wǒ wèile yào zài zhè zhǒng qíng kuàng xià yìng fù tā, bìng biǎo dá duì tā wēi hū qí wēi de mǎn yì hé 'ài dài, wǒ de zuì jiǎn dān、 zuì yòu xiào、 bìng zài mù qián xíng shì xià zuì yòu bì yào de fāng shì jiù shì fǒu rèn tā。 wǒ de lín jū, shōu shuì guān, zhèng shì wǒ yào duì fù de rén, héng héng yīn wéi bì jìng wǒ bìng bù gēn yáng pí zhǐ wén jiàn, ér shì yào gēn rén zhēng lùn, héng héng tā yǐ zì yuàn dāng liǎo zhèng fǔ de dài lǐ rén……
zài yī gè bù gōng dào dì guān yā rén de zhèng fǔ de tǒng zhì xià, yī gè zhèng yì zhě de zhēn zhèng guī sù yě shì jiān yù。 jīn tiān, mǎ sà zhū sài tí gōngjǐ nà xiē jiào zì yóu hé yòu diǎn zhāoqì de rén de hé shì dì fāng jiù shì tā de jiān yù, zhōu zhèng fǔ 'àn zì jǐ de fǎ lìng jiāng tā men qū zhú chū qù huò jiān jìn qǐ lái, yīn wéi zhè xiē rén yǐ jīng 'àn zhào tā men de yuán zé bǎ zì jǐ fàng zhú chū qù liǎo。 zài jiān yù lǐ, zài nà xiē táo wáng de nú lì、 bǎo shì de mò xī gē zhàn fú hé qián lái tóu sù zhǒng zú pò hài de yìn dì 'ān rén zhōng jiān, tā men zhǎo dào liǎo guī sù。 zài nà gè yǔ shì gé jué, dàn gèng zì yóu、 gèng chéng shí de chǎng suǒ, zhōu zhèng fǔ guān yā de bù shì zàn chéng tā, ér shì fǎn duì tā de rén, héng héng nà shì yī gè xù nú zhōu lǐ de zì yóu rén kě yǐ wèn xīn wú kuì dì shēng huó de wéi yī dì fāng。 rú guǒ yòu rén rèn wéi, zì yóu rén de yǐng xiǎng zài jiān yù lǐ huì xiāo shī, tā men de shēng yīn zài yě bù néng cì tòng guān yuán men de 'ěr duǒ, tā men zài dà qiáng zhī nèi yě bù zài shì dí rén, nà jiù cuò liǎo。 tā men bù zhī dào zhēn lǐ yào bǐ miù wù qiáng dà xǔ duō bèi, yě bù zhī dào qīn shēn jīng lì guò yī xiē fēi zhèng yì de rén néng gòu duō me xióng biàn 'ér yòu xiào dì tóng fēi zhèng yì zuò dǒu zhēng。 tóu shàng nǐ de zhěng gè xuǎn piào bā, bù dān dān shì yī zhāng xiǎo zhǐ tiáo, ér shì nǐ de quán bù yǐng xiǎng。 shǎo shù fú cóng duō shù zé ruǎn ruò wú lì; tā shèn zhì hái suàn bù shàng shǎo shù。 dàn rú guǒ jìn quán lì dǐ zhì, tā jiāng shì bù kě dǎng。 yī dàn ràng zhōu zhèng fǔ lái xuǎn zé chū lù: yào me bǎ suǒ yòu zhèng yì zhě dū guān jìn jiān yù, yào me fàng qì zhàn zhēng hé nú lì zhì, wǒ xiǎng tā shì huì háo bù chí yí de。 yào shì jīn nián yòu yī qiān rén jù jiāo shuì kuǎn, nà hái suàn bù shàng shì bào lì liúxiě de shǒu duàn。 wǒ men ruò jiāo liǎo shuì, zé shǐ zhōu zhèng fǔ yòu néng lì shí xíng bào lì, zào chéng wú gū liúxiě。 shì shí shàng zhè jiù shì hé píng gé mìng de dìng yì, yào shì rèn hé zhè zhǒng gé mìng shì kě néng de huà。 jiǎ rú nà wèi shōu shuì guān huò rèn hé qí tā zhèng fǔ guān yuán wèn wǒ, zhèng rú yòu rén yǐ wèn guò de:“ nà me wǒ gāi zěn me bàn ní?” wǒ de huí dá shì:“ rú guǒ nǐ zhēn yào gān diǎn shì, jiù qǐng cí zhí bā。” dāng chén mín jù jué xiào zhōng, guān yuán cí qù zhí wù, nà me zhè chǎng gé mìng jiù chéng gōng liǎo。 jiù suàn zhè zhǒng zuò fǎ kě néng huì yǐn qǐ liúxiě bā。 dāng rén men de liáng xīn shòu dào chuāngshāng shí, zhè nán dào bù yě shì yī zhǒng liúxiě má? yóu yú zhè zhǒng chuāngshāng, yī gè rén jiāng shī qù tā zhēn zhèng de yǒng qì hé bù xiǔ de qì zhì。 tā huì rú cǐ liúxiě bù zhǐ, zhí zhì jīng shén shàng de sǐ wáng。 xiàn zài wǒ kàn dào zhè zhǒng wú xíng de xuè zhèng zài liú tǎng。
jǐ nián qián, zhōu zhèng fǔ céng yǐ jiào huì de míng yì yào qiú wǒ zhī fù yī bǐ qián yǐ gòngyǎng yī gè mù shī, tā de chuán dào wǒ fù qīn tīng guò, ér wǒ cóng lái wèi tīng guò。“ fù qián bā,” tā shuō,“ yào bù rán jiù jìn jiān yù。” wǒ jiù shì bù fù。 dàn bù xìng de shì lìng yī gè rén jué dé yīnggāi fù。 wǒ bù míng bái wèishénme jiào shī yào fù shuì gěi mù shī, ér bù shì mù shī fù gěi jiào shī。 wǒ bù shì zhōu lì xué xiào de jiào shī, dàn wǒ kào zì yuàn juān kuǎn wéi shēng。 wǒ bù míng bái wèishénme xué xiào jiù bù néng xiàng jiào huì nà yàng, zài zhōu de zhī chí xià, tí chū zì jǐ de shuì dān。 rán 'ér, zài dāng xuǎn yì yuán men de yào qiú xià, wǒ qū zūn xiě xià liǎo zhè yàng de shēng míng:“ jǐn yǐ cǐ yán wéi zhèng, wǒ, hēng lì · dà wèi · suō luó, bù xī wàng bèi rèn wéi shì rèn hé wǒ méi yòu jiā rù de lián hé tuán tǐ de yī yuán。” wǒ bǎ zhè shēng míng jiāo gěi liǎo zhèn gōng suǒ de wén shū, tā hái bǎo liú zhe。 suī rán zhōu zhèng fǔ dāng shí shuō guò, tā bì xū jiān chí tā yuán xiān de jué dìng, dàn tīng shuō wǒ bù xī wàng bèi rèn wéi shì nà gè jiào táng de chéng yuán, dǎ nà yǐ lái, tā yī zhí méi duì wǒ tí chū lèi sì yào qiú。 wǒ yuàn yì yī yī qiān zì, yǐ biǎo shì yǔ wǒ cóng wèi qiān zì rèn kě de yī qiē shè huì tuán tǐ duàn jué guān xì。 kě xī wǒ bù zhī dào zhè xiē tuán tǐ de míng chēng, yě bù zhī dào gāi dào hé chù qù xún yī fèn wán zhěng de míng dān。
wǒ yòu liù nián méi jiāo rén tóu shuì liǎo。 jiù wéi zhè wǒ céng jìn jiān yù zhù liǎo yī wǎn。 dāng wǒ zài nà lǐ zhàn zhe sī kǎo, miàn duì nà 'èr sān yīng chǐ hòu de jiān shí shí qiáng、 yī yīng chǐ hòu de mù tiě mén hé tòu guāng de tiě shān lán shí, wǒ jìn bù zhù qiáng liè dì gǎn dào zhè jiān yù bǎ wǒ jǐn dāng zuò yī gè xuè ròu zhī qū guān jìn lái shì hé děng yú chǔn。 wǒ huái yí tā zuì hòu shì fǒu huì duàn dìng zhè jiù shì tā duì fù wǒ de zuì hǎo fāng fǎ, ér cóng méi xiǎng dào yào yǐ mǒu zhǒng fāng shì lái jiào wǒ zuò diǎn shì。 wǒ zài xiǎng, suī rán wǒ hé wǒ de jiē fāng lín lǐ men zhī jiān gé liǎo yī dǔ shí qiáng, dàn tā men yào dá dào xiàng wǒ yī yàng zì yóu, hái yòu yī dǔ gèng nán pān yuè、 gèng nán dǎ pò de qiáng。 wǒ yī kè yě méi gǎn dào bèi jiān jìn, nà qiáng sì hū shì shí kuài huóní huī de jù dà làng fèi。 wǒ sì hū gǎn dào, quán tǐ shì mín zhōng, zhǐ yòu wǒ yī rén fù liǎo shuì。 tā men wán quán bù zhī gāi zěn yàng duì dài wǒ, tā men de yán xíng quē fá jiào yǎng。 wú lùn tā men duì wǒ jìn xíng wēi xié huò zàn yáng, zǒng shì cuò kàn liǎo wǒ de běn yì。 yīn wéi tā men rèn wéi, wǒ de zhù yào yuàn wàng shì zhàn dào shí qiáng de lìng yī biān。 kàn dào tā men zài wǒ chén sī shí rú hé qín fèn dì suǒ mén, wǒ zhǐ hǎo fù zhī yī xiào。 wǒ de sī xù bù bì kāi mén, bù bì shè zhàng, yòu gēn tā men chū qù liǎo, ér zhè cái shì zhēn zhèng de wēi xiǎn。 yīn wéi tā men yǐ wú fǎ lǐ jiě wǒ, tā men biàn jué dìng chéng fá wǒ de ròu tǐ; jiù xiàng yī qún wán tóng, dāng tā men wú fǎ jiē jìn tā men suǒ tòng hèn de rén shí, biàn nüè dài tā de gǒu。 wǒ gǎn dào zhōu zhèng fǔ zhì néng dī xià, tā jiù xiàng ná zhe yín tānɡ chí de gū dú nǚ rén yī yàng dǎn xiǎo。 tā dí yǒu bù fēn。 wǒ duì tā shèng xià de yī diǎn zūn jìng yǐ jīng dàng rán wú cún, wǒ zhēn wéi tā yí hàn。
yóu cǐ kàn lái, zhōu zhèng fǔ cóng wèi yòu yì shí dì zhèng shì guò yī gè rén de xīn líng, wú lùn shì cóng lǐ zhì hái shì dào yì de jiǎo dù。 tā zhǐ kàn dào yī gè rén de ròu tǐ hé gǎn guān。 tā bìng bù jù bèi gāo jí zhì néng, yě bù jiàn dé chéng shí, zhǐ shì zài wù zhì shàng qiáng dà bà liǎo。 wǒ bù shì shēng lái jiù shòu qiáng zhì de rén。 wǒ yào 'àn zì jǐ de fāng shì hū xī kōng qì。 ràng wǒ men kàn kàn shuí zuì qiáng dà。 mín zhòng yòu shénme lì liàng? tā men zhǐ néng qiǎngpò wǒ, ér wǒ yào fú cóng bǐ wǒ gèng gāo de fǎ guī。 tā men qiǎngpò wǒ chéng wéi xiàng tā men yī yàng de rén。 wǒ méi tīng shuō yòu rén yīngdāng fú cóng duō shù rén de qiǎngpò 'ér yǐ zhè zhǒng huò nà zhǒng fāng shì shēng huó。 nà yàng suàn shì shénme yàng de shēng huó? dāng zhèng fǔ mìng lìng wǒ shuō“ jiāo qián hái shì jiāo mìng” shí, wǒ wèishénme yào cōng máng dì bǎ wǒ de qián gěi tā? tā kě néng kùn nán chóngchóng, bù zhī rú hé shì hǎo; rán 'ér wǒ zěn me kě néng bāng zhù tā? tā bì xū xiàng wǒ zhè yàng zì jǐ bāng zhù zì jǐ。 wèicǐ kū bí zǐ bù zhí dé。 shè huì zhè bù jī qì shì fǒu chéng gōng yùn zhuǎn wǒ bù fù zé rèn, wǒ bù shì gōng chéng shī de 'ér zǐ。 wǒ fā xiàn, dāng yī lì xiàng zǐ hé yī lì lì zǐ bìng pái luò dì hòu, méi yòu nǎ gè tíng xià lái qiān ràng lìng yī gè。 liǎng zhě dū 'àn tā men zì jǐ de guī lǜ, jìn zuì dà de néng lì qù fā yá、 shēngzhǎng、 biàn dé mào shèng。 kě néng zhí zhì yī gè chāo yuè bìng huǐ miè lìng yī gè。 yī zhū zhí wù rú bù néng 'àn zì jǐ běn xìng shēngzhǎng zé sǐ wáng; yī gè rén yě tóng yàng rú cǐ。
wǒ bù xiǎng yǔ rèn hé rén huò guó jiā zhēng chǎo。 wǒ bù xiǎng wú gù tiǎo tī, zhǎo chū xì wēi chā bié, yě bù xiǎng biāo bǎng zì jǐ gāo lín jū yī děng。 kě yǐ shuō, wǒ shèn zhì shì yào xún zhǎo yī gè jiè kǒu lái zūn shǒu guó jiā fǎ lìng。 zūn shǒu guó jiā fǎ lìng wǒ shì zài gāo xīng bù guò liǎo。 dàn zài zhè yī wèn tí shàng, wǒ què shí yòu lǐ yóu huái yí zì jǐ。 měi nián dāng shōu shuì guān dào lái shí, wǒ zǒng yào shěn chá yī xià guó jiā hé zhōu zhèng fǔ de fǎ lìng hé tài dù, yǐ jí rén mín de qíng xù, yǐ biàn zhǎo dào yī gè zūn shǒu de qián tí。 wǒ xiāng xìn zhōu zhèng fǔ hěn kuài jiù huì shǐ wǒ fàng qì suǒ yòu zhè xiē zuò fǎ, rán hòu, wǒ jiāng biàn chéng yī gè hé wǒ de tóng bāo xiāng sì de 'ài guó zhě。 cóng fàng dī liǎo de jiǎo dù kàn, xiàn fǎ suī rán yòu xǔ duō quē xiàn, tā réng bù shī wéi yī bù hěn hǎo de xiàn fǎ。 fǎ lǜ hé fǎ tíng lìng rén zūn jìng。 shèn zhì běn zhōu zhèng fǔ hé měi guó zhèng fǔ zài xǔ duō fāng miàn yě shì xiāng dāng lìng rén qīn pèi 'ér yòu hǎn jiàn de jī gòu, lìng rén gǎn 'ēn bù jìn, xǔ duō rén duì cǐ yǐ zuò chū miáo shù。 dàn shì cóng lüè gāo yī diǎn de jiǎo dù kàn, tā men zhèng rú wǒ yǐ miáo shù guò de nà yàng。 yào shì huàn chéng zuì gāo de jiǎo dù, yòu shuí shuō dé chū tā men shì shénme, huò tā men hái zhēn zhí dé yī kàn huò yī xiǎng?
rán 'ér zhèng fǔ yǔ wǒ méi yòu duō dà guān xì, wǒ jiāng jìn liàng bù qù xiǎng tā。 shèn zhì zài zhè gè shì jiè lǐ, wǒ zài zhèng fǔ tǒng zhì xià shēng huó de shí kè bù duō。 yào shì yī gè rén sī kǎo zì yóu, huàn xiǎng zì yóu, xiǎng xiàng zì yóu, bù cún zài de shì wù cóng bù huì hěn jiǔ dì bèi tā kàn zuò shì cún zài zhī wù, nà me, bù míng zhì de tǒng zhì zhě hé gǎi gé jiā de zǔ 'ài duì tā yě qǐ bù liǎo duō dà zuò yòng。
wǒ zhī dào dà duō shù rén yǔ wǒ xiǎng de bù yī yàng。 dàn shì nà xiē zhuān mén yǐ yán jiū zhè yī lèi wèn tí wéi zhí yè de rén yě hěn shǎo lìng wǒ mǎn yì。 yóu yú zhèng zhì jiā hé lì fǎ zhě men wán quán chǔyú zhè yī jī gòu zhī nèi, tā men jué bù kě néng qīng chǔ 'ér kè guān dì guān chá tā。 tā men cháng shuō yào tuī jìn shè huì, dàn tā men shè cǐ jiù méi yòu lì zú zhī chù。 tā men kě néng yòu yī dìng de jīng yàn hé jiàn shí, háo wú yí wèn, yě kě néng xiǎng chū liǎo yī xiē yòu dú chuàng xìng de shèn zhì shì yòu yòng de zhì dù, duì cǐ wǒ men chéng zhì dì gǎn xiè tā men。 dàn tā men suǒ yòu de zhì huì hé xiào yòng dōuhěn yòu xiàn。 tā men jīng cháng huì wàng jì zhè shì jiè bìng bù shì yóu zhèng cè hé quán yí zhī jì suǒ tǒng zhì。 dān ní 'ěr · wéi bó sī tè cóng wèi diào chá guò zhèng fǔ, yīn cǐ, tā yě wú quán tán lùn tā。 duì nà xiē bù kǎo lǜ chè dǐ gǎi gé xiàn xíng zhèng fǔ de yì yuán men lái shuō, tā de huà jiù shì zhì huì。 ér zài sī xiǎng jiā, nà xiē yī zhí zài cānyù lì fǎ de sī xiǎng jiā yǎn lǐ, tā cóng wèi zhèng shì guò zhè yī wèn tí。 jù wǒ liǎo jiě, yòu xiē rén tōng guò duì zhè yī wèn tí de níng jìng hé míng zhì de sī kǎo, bù jiǔ jiāng huì jiē shì, wéi bó sī tè de sī kǎo fàn wéi hé tǎn dàng xiōng huái dōushì yòu xiàn de。
dàn shì yǔ dà duō shù gǎi gé zhě de píng yōng zhí yè xiāng bǐ, yǔ nà xiē gèng wéi píng yōng 'ér pǔ tōng de zhèng kè de zhì huì yǔ kǒu cái xiāng bǐ, wéi bó sī tè de huà jīhū shì wéi yī yòu lǐ zhì, yòu jià zhí de huà。 wǒ men wèiyòu tā 'ér gǎn xiè shàng dì。 xiāng bǐ 'ér yán, tā zǒng shì jiān qiáng yòu lì, yòu dú chuàng xìng, yóu qí shì jiǎng jiū shí jì de。 rán 'ér tā de běn zhì bù shì zhì huì, ér shì jǐn shèn。 lǜ shī de zhēn lǐ bù shì zhēn lǐ, zhǐ bù guò shì xié diào, huò xié diào de quán yí zhī jì。 zhēn lǐ de zì shēn yǒng yuǎn shì hé xié de, tā bù shì yòng lái jiē shì nà xiē kě néng yǔ cuò wù xíng wéixiàng yī zhì de zhèng yì。 wéi bó sī tè bèi chēng wéi“ xiàn fǎ de hàn wèi zhě” wán quán dāng zhī wú kuì。 tā duì xiàn fǎ zhǐ yòu hàn wèi, ér cóng wèi zhēn zhèng gōng jī guò。 tā bù shì lǐng xiù, ér shì suí cóng。 tā de lǐng xiù shì17 87 nián qǐ cǎo xiàn fǎ de rén。“ wǒ cóng wèi zuò chū nǔ lì,” tā shuō,“ cóng wèi jiàn yì zuò chū nǔ lì, cóng wèi zhī chí guò nǔ lì, yě cóng wèi dǎ suàn zhī chí nà xiē qǐ tú dǎ rǎo yuán dìng 'ān pái de nǔ lì。 zhèng shì yóu yú xiàn fǎ de 'ān pái, gè zhōu zǔ chéng liǎo mù qián zhè gè lián bāng。” zài kǎo lǜ xiàn fǎ duì nú lì zhì de mò rèn wèn tí shí, tā shèn zhì shuō,“ jì rán zhè shì zǎo xiān qì yuē de yī bù fēn, héng héng nà jiù ràng tā cún zài xià qù。” jìn guǎn tā jīng míng guò rén, cái néng chāo qún, hái shì wú fǎ jiāng yī jiàn shì cóng tā de chún zhèng zhì guān xì zhōng fēn lí chū lái, bǎ tā kàn zuò shì jué duì yào yòng cái zhì lái chù lǐ de shì, héng héng bǐ rú: zài dāng jīn měi guó, jiù nú lì zhì zhè yī wèn tí, yī gè rén dào dǐ yīnggāi gān xiē shénme。 kě shì wéi bó sī tè zhǐ néng huò shì bèi pò jué wàng dì zuò chū xià liè huí dá, tóng shí hái shēng míng tā shì zuò wéi yī gè sī xià de péng yǒu yǐ bǎ huà shuō jué liǎo, héng héng tā zhè me shuō huà, hái néng yòu shénme xīn de hé gè rén de shè huì zé rèn de zhǔn zé kě tán?“ fāng fǎ,” tā shuō,“ yǐ jí nà xiē xù nú zhōu de zhèng fǔ yīnggāi 'àn shénme xíng shì lái diào zhěng zhè yī zhì dù, bì xū yóu tā men zì jǐ kǎo lǜ, tā men bì xū duì tā men de xuǎn mín, duì yòu guān shì dù、 rén xìng hé zhèng yì de pǔ biàn cháng guī jí shàng dì běn shēn fù zé。 zài qí tā dì fāng xíng chéng, cóng mǒu zhǒng rén lèi gǎn qíng zhōng chǎn shēng, huò yóu qí tā yuán yīn zǔ chéng de shè tuán dū yǔ cǐ háo bù xiāng gān。 tā men cóng wèi dé dào guò wǒ de gǔ lì, jiāng lái yě yǒng yuǎn bù huì dé dào。”
nà xiē bù zhī zhēn lǐ yòu gèng chún jié de yuán quán de rén, nà xiē bù zài yán zhēn lǐ de xiǎo xī wǎng gāo chù zhuī xún de rén, tā men hěn cōng míng dì shǒu zài shèng jīng hé xiàn fǎ bàng biān, bì gōng bì jìng dì jū shuǐ jiě kě。 ér nà xiē kàn dào shuǐ shì cóng nǎ 'ér huì rù zhè xiē húpō de rén men què zài cì zhěng zhuāng chū fā, jì xù tā men tàn xún zhēn lǐ yuán tóu de lì chéng。
zài měi guó méi yòu chū xiàn guò lì fǎ tiān cái。 zhè zhǒng rén zài shì jiè shǐ shàng yì shǔ hǎn jiàn。 yǎn shuō jiā、 zhèng zhì jiā hé xióng biàn zhě chéng qiān shàng wàn, dàn shì yòu néng lì jiě jué dāng qián jí shǒu wèn tí de fā yán rén què shàng wèi kāi kǒu shuō huà。 wǒ men xǐ huān xióng biàn zhǐ shì yīn wéi tā shì yī mén jì shù, ér bù tài kǎo lǜ tā kě néng biǎo dá de zhēn lǐ huò jī qǐ mǒu zhǒng yīng xióng zhù yì。 wǒ men de lì fǎ zhě men shàng wèi dǒng dé zì yóu mào yì hé zì yóu、 lián méng、 gōng zhèng duì yī gè guó jiā suǒ jù yòu de xiāng duì jià zhí。 tā men méi yòu tiān zī huò cái néng jiě jué zhū rú shuì shōu、 jīn róng、 shāng yè、 shēng chǎn hé nóng yè děng shì sú zhèng wù。 yào shì wǒ men wán quán tīng píng guó huì lǐ fèi huà lián piān de lì fǎ zhě men de zhǐ dǎo, ér tā men de zhǐ dǎo yòu dé bù dào rén mín jí shí yǔ hé lǐ de jiū zhèng, yào bù liǎo duō jiǔ, měi guó zài shì jiè shàng de dì wèi biàn huì sàng shī。《 xīn yuē quán shū》 wèn shì yǐ yòu yī qiān bā bǎi nián, suī rán wǒ kě néng méi yòu zī gé shuō xià miàn de huà, dàn shì jù yòu zú gòu zhì huì hé shí jì néng lì yǐ《 xīn yuē》 jīng shén lái zhǐ dǎo lì fǎ kē xué de rén yòu zài nǎ lǐ?
zhèng fǔ de quán wēi, shèn zhì shì wǒ yuàn shùn cóng de quán wēi, héng héng yīn wéi wǒ lè yú fú cóng nà xiē dǒng dé bǐ wǒ duō、 gānde bǐ wǒ hǎo de rén, shèn zhì zài xǔ duō shì qíng shàng fú cóng nà xiē dǒng dé hé gānde dōubù rú wǒ de rén, héng héng réng rán shì bù gòu chún jié de。 yán gé shuō lái, tā bì xū dé dào bèi tǒng zhì zhě de chéng rèn hé tóng yì。 zhǐ yào wǒ méi ràng bù, tā duì wǒ gè rén hé cái chǎn jiù méi yòu chún cuì de quán lì。 cóng jué duì jūn zhù zhì dào yòu xiàn jūn zhù zhì, zài cóng yòu xiàn jūn zhù zhì dào mín zhù zhì de jìn chéng jiù shì tōng xiàng zhēn zhèng zūn zhòng gè rén de jìn chéng。 wǒ men suǒ zhī dào de mín zhù zhì shì fǒu jiù shì zhèng fǔ kě néng zuò de zuì hòu gǎi jìn? nán dào jiù bù néng zài mài jìn yī bù, chéng rèn bìng zǔ zhì rén quán? zhōu zhèng fǔ bì xū jiāng gè rén zuò wéi yī zhǒng gèng gāo hé dú lì de lì liàng 'ér jiā yǐ chéng rèn, bìng yú yǐ xiāng yìng duì dài, yīn wéi zhèng fǔ suǒ yòu de quán lì hé quán wēi dōulái zì yú zhè yī lì liàng。 zài cǐ zhī qián, jué bù huì yòu zhēn zhèng zì yóu hé wén míng de zhōu。 wǒ zì míng dé yì de shì, wǒ zuì hòu hái shì shè xiǎng liǎo yī gè zhōu, zhè gè zhōu néng gōng zhèng duì dài suǒ yòu de rén, bīn bīn yòu lǐ dì jiāng gè rén shì wéi lín jū。 jí biàn yòu xiē rén lí qún suǒ jū, zhǐ yào tā men bù dǎo luàn, yě bù tīng mìng yú rén, ér shì wán chéng zuò wéi lín jū hé tóng bāo de suǒ yòu yì wù, zhōu zhèng fǔ réng néng chǔzhī tài rán, rèn qí zì yóu。 yī gè zhōu rú néng jié chū zhè zhǒng guǒ shí, bìng rěn nài dào guā shú dì luò de shí kè, nà jiāng wéi wǒ suǒ shè xiǎng de, lìng yī gè gèng wán shàn、 gèng zhuàng lì de zhōu pū píng dào lù, jìn guǎn zhè gè zhōu zhì jīn rèn hé dì fāng dū hái kàn bù dào。
zhāi zì《 měi guó de lì shǐ wén xiàn》 zhào yī fán biān
sān lián shū diàn1989 nián bǎn
This American government -- what is it but a tradition, though a recent one, endeavoring to transmit itself unimpaired to posterity, but each instant losing some of its integrity? It has not the vitality and force of a single living man; for a single man can bend it to his will. It is a sort of wooden gun to the people themselves. But it is not the less necessary for this; for the people must have some complicated machinery or other, and hear its din, to satisfy that idea of government which they have. Governments show thus how successfully men can be imposed on, even impose on themselves, for their own advantage. It is excellent, we must all allow. Yet this government never of itself furthered any enterprise, but by the alacrity with which it got out of its way. It does not keep the country free. It does not settle the West. It does not educate. The character inherent in the American people has done all that has been accomplished; and it would have done somewhat more, if the government had not sometimes got in its way. For government is an expedient by which men would fain succeed in letting one another alone; and, as has been said, when it is most expedient, the governed are most let alone by it. Trade and commerce, if they were not made of India rubber, would never manage to bounce over the obstacles which legislators are continually putting in their way; and, if one were to judge these men wholly by the effects of their actions, and not partly by their intentions, they would deserve to be classed and punished with those mischievous persons who put obstructions on the railroads.
But, to speak practically and as a citizen, unlike those who call themselves no-government men, I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government. Let every man make known what kind of government would command his respect, and that will be one step toward obtaining it.
After all, the practical reason why, when the power is once in the hands of the people, a majority are permitted, and for a long period continue, to rule, is not because they are most likely to be in the right, nor because this seems fairest to the minority, but because they are physically the strongest. But a government in which the majority rule in all cases cannot be based on justice, even as far as men understand it. Can there not be a government in which majorities do not virtually decide right and wrong, but conscience? -- in which majorities decide only those questions to which the rule of expediency is applicable? Must the citizen ever for a moment, or in the least degree, resign his conscience to the legislator? Why has every man a conscience, then? I think that we should be men first, and subjects afterward. It is not desirable to cultivate a respect for the law, so much as for the right. The only obligation which I have a right to assume is to do at any time what I think right. It is truly enough said that a corporation has no conscience; but a corporation of conscientious men is a corporation with a conscience. Law never made men a whit more just; and, by means of their respect for it, even the well-disposed are daily made the agents of injustice. A common and natural result of an undue respect for law is, that you may see a file of soldiers, colonel, captain, corporal, privates, powder-monkeys, and all, marching in admirable order over hill and dale to the wars, against their wills, ay, against their common sense and consciences, which makes it very steep marching indeed, and produces a palpitation of the heart. They have no doubt that it is a damnable business in which they are concerned; they are all peaceably inclined. Now, what are they? Men at all? or small movable forts and magazines, at the service of some unscrupulous man in power? Visit the Navy Yard, and behold a marine, such a man as an American government can make, or such as it can make a man with its black arts -- a mere shadow and reminiscence of humanity, a man laid out alive and standing, and already, as one may say, buried under arms with funeral accompaniments, though it may be
"Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note,
As his corse to the rampart we hurried;
Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot
O'er the grave where our hero we buried."
The mass of men serve the state thus, not as men mainly, but as machines, with their bodies. They are the standing army, and the militia, jailers, constables, posse comitatus, etc. In most cases there is no free exercise whatever of the judgment or of the moral sense; but they put themselves on a level with wood and earth and stones; and wooden men can perhaps be manufactured that will serve the purpose as well. Such command no more respect than men of straw or a lump of dirt. They have the same sort of worth only as horses and dogs. Yet such as these even are commonly esteemed good citizens. Others, as most legislators, politicians, lawyers, ministers, and office-holders, serve the state chiefly with their heads; and, as they rarely make any moral distinctions, they are as likely to serve the devil, without intending it, as God. A very few, as heroes, patriots, martyrs, reformers in the great sense, and men, serve the state with their consciences also, and so necessarily resist it for the most part; and they are commonly treated as enemies by it. A wise man will only be useful as a man, and will not submit to be "clay," and "stop a hole to keep the wind away," but leave that office to his dust at least:--
"I am too high-born to be propertied,
To be a secondary at control,
Or useful serving-man and instrument
To any sovereign state throughout the world."
He who gives himself entirely to his fellow-men appears to them useless and selfish; but he who gives himself partially to them is pronounced a benefactor and philanthropist.
How does it become a man to behave toward this American government to-day? I answer, that he cannot without disgrace be associated with it. I cannot for an instant recognize that political organization as my government which is the slave's government also.
All men recognize the right of revolution; that is, the right to refuse allegiance to, and to resist, the government, when its tyranny or its inefficiency are great and unendurable. But almost all say that such is not the case now. But such was the case, they think, in the Revolution of '75. If one were to tell me that this was a bad government because it taxed certain foreign commodities brought to its ports, it is most probable that I should not make an ado about it, for I can do without them. All machines have their friction; and possibly this does enough good to counterbalance the evil. At any rate, it is a great evil to make a stir about it. But when the friction comes to have its machine, and oppression and robbery are organized, I say, let us not have such a machine any longer. In other words, when a sixth of the population of a nation which has undertaken to be the refuge of liberty are slaves, and a whole country is unjustly overrun and conquered by a foreign army, and subjected to military law, I think that it is not too soon for honest men to rebel and revolutionize. What makes this duty the more urgent is the fact that the country so overrun is not our own, but ours is the invading army.
Paley, a common authority with many on moral questions, in his chapter on the "Duty of Submission to Civil Government," resolves all civil obligation into expediency; and he proceeds to say that "so long as the interest of the whole society requires it, that is, so long as the established government cannot be resisted or changed without public inconveniency, it is the will of God... that the established government be obeyed, and no longer.... This principle being admitted, the justice of every particular case of resistance is reduced to a computation of the quantity of the danger and grievance on the one side, and of the probability and expense of redressing it on the other." Of this, he says, every man shall judge for himself. But Paley appears never to have contemplated those cases to which the rule of expediency does not apply, in which a people, as well as an individual, must do justice, cost what it may. If I have unjustly wrested a plank from a drowning man, I must restore it to him though I drown myself. This, according to Paley, would be inconvenient. But he that would save his life, in such a case, shall lose it. This people must cease to hold slaves, and to make war on Mexico, though it cost them their existence as a people.
In their practice, nations agree with Paley; but does any one think that Massachusetts does exactly what is right at the present crisis?
"A drab of state, a cloth-o'-silver slut, To have her train borne up, and her soul trail in the dirt."
Practically speaking, the opponents to a reform in Massachusetts are not a hundred thousand politicians at the South, but a hundred thousand merchants and farmers here, who are more interested in commerce and agriculture than they are in humanity, and are not prepared to do justice to the slave and to Mexico, cost what it may. I quarrel not with far-off foes, but with those who, near at home, co-operate with, and do the bidding of those far away, and without whom the latter would be harmless. We are accustomed to say, that the mass of men are unprepared; but improvement is slow, because the few are not materially wiser or better than the many. It is not so important that many should be as good as you, as that there be some absolute goodness somewhere; for that will leaven the whole lump. There are thousands who are in opinion opposed to slavery and to the war, who yet in effect do nothing to put an end to them; who, esteeming themselves children of Washington and Franklin, sit down with their hands in their pockets, and say that they know not what to do, and do nothing; who even postpone the question of freedom to the question of free-trade, and quietly read the prices-current along with the latest advices from Mexico, after dinner, and, it may be, fall asleep over them both. What is the price-current of an honest man and patriot to-day? They hesitate, and they regret, and sometimes they petition; but they do nothing in earnest and with effect. They will wait, well disposed, for others to remedy the evil, that they may no longer have it to regret. At most, they give only a cheap vote, and a feeble countenance and Godspeed, to the right, as it goes by them. There are nine hundred and ninety-nine patrons of virtue to one virtuous man; but it is easier to deal with the real possessor of a thing than with the temporary guardian of it.
All voting is a sort of gaming, like checkers or backgammon, with a slight moral tinge to it, a playing with right and wrong, with moral questions; and betting naturally accompanies it. The character of the voters is not staked. I cast my vote, perchance, as I think right; but I am not vitally concerned that that right should prevail. I am willing to leave it to the majority. Its obligation, therefore, never exceeds that of expediency. Even voting for the right is doing nothing for it. It is only expressing to men feebly your desire that it should prevail. A wise man will not leave the right to the mercy of chance, nor wish it to prevail through the power of the majority. There is but little virtue in the action of masses of men. When the majority shall at length vote for the abolition of slavery, it will be because they are indifferent to slavery, or because there is but little slavery left to be abolished by their vote. They will then be the only slaves. Only his vote can hasten the abolition of slavery who asserts his own freedom by his vote.
I hear of a convention to be held at Baltimore, or elsewhere, for the selection of a candidate for the Presidency, made up chiefly of editors, and men who are politicians by profession; but I think, what is it to any independent, intelligent, and respectable man what decision they may come to? Shall we not have the advantage of his wisdom and honesty, nevertheless? Can we not count upon some independent votes? Are there not many individuals in the country who do not attend conventions? But no: I find that the respectable man, so called, has immediately drifted from his position, and despairs of his country, when his country has more reason to despair of him. He forthwith adopts one of the candidates thus selected as the only available one, thus proving that he is himself available for any purposes of the demagogue. His vote is of no more worth than that of any unprincipled foreigner or hireling native, who may have been bought. Oh for a man who is a man, and, as my neighbor says, has a bone in his back which you cannot pass your hand through! Our statistics are at fault: the population has been returned too large. How many men are there to a square thousand miles in this country? Hardly one. Does not America offer any inducement for men to settle here? The American has dwindled into an Odd Fellow -- one who may be known by the development of his organ of gregariousness, and a manifest lack of intellect and cheerful self-reliance; whose first and chief concern, on coming into the world, is to see that the almshouses are in good repair; and, before yet he has lawfully donned the virile garb, to collect a fund for the support of the widows and orphans that may be; who, in short ventures to live only by the aid of the Mutual Insurance company, which has promised to bury him decently.
It is not a man's duty, as a matter of course, to devote himself to the eradication of any, even the most enormous wrong; he may still properly have other concerns to engage him; but it is his duty, at least, to wash his hands of it, and, if he gives it no thought longer, not to give it practically his support. If I devote myself to other pursuits and contemplations, I must first see, at least, that I do not pursue them sitting upon another man's shoulders. I must get off him first, that he may pursue his contemplations too. See what gross inconsistency is tolerated. I have heard some of my townsmen say, "I should like to have them order me out to help put down an insurrection of the slaves, or to march to Mexico; -- see if I would go"; and yet these very men have each, directly by their allegiance, and so indirectly, at least, by their money, furnished a substitute. The soldier is applauded who refuses to serve in an unjust war by those who do not refuse to sustain the unjust government which makes the war; is applauded by those whose own act and authority he disregards and sets at naught; as if the state were penitent to that degree that it hired one to scourge it while it sinned, but not to that degree that it left off sinning for a moment. Thus, under the name of Order and Civil Government, we are all made at last to pay homage to and support our own meanness. After the first blush of sin comes its indifference; and from immoral it becomes, as it were, unmoral, and not quite unnecessary to that life which we have made.
The broadest and most prevalent error requires the most disinterested virtue to sustain it. The slight reproach to which the virtue of patriotism is commonly liable, the noble are most likely to incur. Those who, while they disapprove of the character and measures of a government, yield to it their allegiance and support are undoubtedly its most conscientious supporters, and so frequently the most serious obstacles to reform. Some are petitioning the State to dissolve the Union, to disregard the requisitions of the President. Why do they not dissolve it themselves -- the union between themselves and the State -- and refuse to pay their quota into its treasury? Do not they stand in the same relation to the State, that the State does to the Union? And have not the same reasons prevented the State from resisting the Union, which have prevented them from resisting the State?
How can a man be satisfied to entertain an opinion merely, and enjoy it? Is there any enjoyment in it, if his opinion is that he is aggrieved? If you are cheated out of a single dollar by your neighbor, you do not rest satisfied with knowing that you are cheated, or with saying that you are cheated, or even with petitioning him to pay you your due; but you take effectual steps at once to obtain the full amount, and see that you are never cheated again. Action from principle -- the perception and the performance of right -- changes things and relations; it is essentially revolutionary, and does not consist wholly with anything which was. It not only divides states and churches, it divides families; ay, it divides the individual, separating the diabolical in him from the divine.
Unjust laws exist; shall we be content to obey them, or shall we endeavor to amend them, and obey them until we have succeeded, or shall we transgress them at once? Men generally, under such a government as this, think that they ought to wait until they have persuaded the majority to alter them. They think that, if they should resist, the remedy would be worse than the evil. But it is the fault of the government itself that the remedy is worse than the evil. It makes it worse. Why is it not more apt to anticipate and provide for reform? Why does it not cherish its wise minority? Why does it cry and resist before it is hurt? Why does it not encourage its citizens to be on the alert to point out its faults, and do better than it would have them? Why does it always crucify Christ, and excommunicate Copernicus and Luther, and pronounce Washington and Franklin rebels?
One would think, that a deliberate and practical denial of its authority was the only offence never contemplated by government; else, why has it not assigned its definite, its suitable and proportionate, penalty? If a man who has no property refuses but once to earn nine shillings for the State, he is put in prison for a period unlimited by any law that I know, and determined only by the discretion of those who placed him there; but if he should steal ninety times nine shillings from the State, he is soon permitted to go at large again.
If the injustice is part of the necessary friction of the machine of government, let it go, let it go; perchance it will wear smooth -- certainly the machine will wear out. If the injustice has a spring, or a pulley, or a rope, or a crank, exclusively for itself, then perhaps you may consider whether the remedy will not be worse than the evil; but if it is of such a nature that it requires you to be the agent of injustice to another, then, I say, break the law. Let your life be a counter friction to stop the machine. What I have to do is to see, at any rate, that I do not lend myself to the wrong which I condemn.
As for adopting the ways which the State has provided for remedying the evil, I know not of such ways. They take too much time, and a man's life will be gone. I have other affairs to attend to. I came into this world, not chiefly to make this a good place to live in, but to live in it, be it good or bad. A man has not everything to do, but something; and because he cannot do everything, it is not necessary that he should do something wrong. It is not my business to be petitioning the Governor or the Legislature any more than it is theirs to petition me; and if they should not hear my petition, what should I do then? But in this case the State has provided no way; its very Constitution is the evil. This may seem to be harsh and stubborn and unconciliatory; but it is to treat with the utmost kindness and consideration the only spirit that can appreciate or deserves it. So is an change for the better, like birth and death which convulse the body.
I do not hesitate to say, that those who call themselves Abolitionists should at once effectually withdraw their support, both in person and property, from the government of Massachusetts, and not wait till they constitute a majority of one, before they suffer the right to prevail through them. I think that it is enough if they have God on their side, without waiting for that other one. Moreover, any man more right than his neighbors constitutes a majority of one already.
I meet this American government, or its representative, the State government, directly, and face to face, once a year -- no more -- in the person of its tax-gatherer; this is the only mode in which a man situated as I am necessarily meets it; and it then says distinctly, Recognize me; and the simplest, the most effectual, and, in the present posture of affairs, the indispensablest mode of treating with it on this head, of expressing your little satisfaction with and love for it, is to deny it then. My civil neighbor, the tax-gatherer, is the very man I have to deal with -- for it is, after all, with men and not with parchment that I quarrel -- and he has voluntarily chosen to be an agent of the government. How shall he ever know well what he is and does as an officer of the government, or as a man, until he is obliged to consider whether he shall treat me, his neighbor, for whom he has respect, as a neighbor and well-disposed man, or as a maniac and disturber of the peace, and see if he can get over this obstruction to his neighborliness without a ruder and more impetuous thought or speech corresponding with his action? I know this well, that if one thousand, if one hundred, if ten men whom I could name -- if ten honest men only -- ay, if one HONEST man, in this State of Massachusetts, ceasing to hold slaves, were actually to withdraw from this copartnership, and be locked up in the county jail therefor, it would be the abolition of slavery in America. For it matters not how small the beginning may seem to be: what is once well done is done forever. But we love better to talk about it: that we say is our mission. Reform keeps many scores of newspapers in its service, but not one man. If my esteemed neighbor, the State's ambassador, who will devote his days to the settlement of the question of human rights in the Council Chamber, instead of being threatened with the prisons of Carolina, were to sit down the prisoner of Massachusetts, that State which is so anxious to foist the sin of slavery upon her sister -- though at present she can discover only an act of inhospitality to be the ground of a quarrel with her -- the Legislature would not wholly waive the subject the following winter.
Under a government which imprisons any unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison. The proper place to-day, the only place which Massachusetts has provided for her freer and less desponding spirits, is in her prisons, to be put out and locked out of the State by her own act, as they have already put themselves out by their principles. It is there that the fugitive slave, and the Mexican prisoner on parole, and the Indian come to plead the wrongs of his race, should find them; on that separate, but more free and honorable ground, where the State places those who are not with her, but against her -- the only house in a slave State in which a free man can abide with honor. If any think that their influence would be lost there, and their voices no longer afflict the ear of the State, that they would not be as an enemy within its walls, they do not know by how much truth is stronger than error, nor how much more eloquently and effectively he can combat injustice who has experienced a little in his own person. Cast your whole vote, not a strip of paper merely, but your whole influence. A minority is powerless while it conforms to the majority; it is not even a minority then; but it is irresistible when it clogs by its whole weight. If the alternative is to keep all just men in prison, or give up war and slavery, the State will not hesitate which to choose. If a thousand men were not to pay their tax-bills this year, that would not be a violent and bloody measure, as it would be to pay them, and enable the State to commit violence and shed innocent blood. This is, in fact, the definition of a peaceable revolution, if any such is possible. If the tax-gatherer, or any other public officer, asks me, as one has done, "But what shall I do?" my answer is, "If you really wish to do anything, resign your office." When the subject has refused allegiance, and the officer has resigned his office, then the revolution is accomplished. But even suppose blood should flow. Is there not a sort of blood shed when the conscience is wounded? Through this wound a man's real manhood and immortality flow out, and he bleeds to an everlasting death. I see this blood flowing now.
I have contemplated the imprisonment of the offender, rather than the seizure of his goods -- though both will serve the same purpose -- because they who assert the purest right, and consequently are most dangerous to a corrupt State, commonly have not spent much time in accumulating property. To such the State renders comparatively small service, and a slight tax is wont to appear exorbitant, particularly if they are obliged to earn it by special labor with their hands. If there were one who lived wholly without the use of money, the State itself would hesitate to demand it of him. But the rich man -- not to make any invidious comparison -- is always sold to the institution which makes him rich. Absolutely speaking, the more money, the less virtue; for money comes between a man and his objects, and obtains them for him; and it was certainly no great virtue to obtain it. It puts to rest many questions which he would otherwise be taxed to answer; while the only new question which it puts is the hard but superfluous one, how to spend it. Thus his moral ground is taken from under his feet. The opportunities of living are diminished in proportion as what are called the "means" are increased. The best thing a man can do for his culture when he is rich is to endeavor to carry out those schemes which he entertained when he was poor. Christ answered the Herodians according to their condition. "Show me the tribute-money," said he; -- and one took a penny out of his pocket; -- if you use money which has the image of Caesar on it, and which he has made current and valuable, that is, if you are men of the State, and gladly enjoy the advantages of Caesar's government, then pay him back some of his own when he demands it; "Render therefore to Caesar that which is Caesar's, and to God those things which are God's" -- leaving them no wiser than before as to which was which; for they did not wish to know.
When I converse with the freest of my neighbors, I perceive that, whatever they may say about the magnitude and seriousness of the question, and their regard for the public tranquillity, the long and the short of the matter is, that they cannot spare the protection of the existing government, and they dread the consequences to their property and families of disobedience to it. For my own part, I should not like to think that I ever rely on the protection of the State. But, if I deny the authority of the State when it presents its tax-bill, it will soon take and waste all my property, and so harass me and my children without end. This is hard. This makes it impossible for a man to live honestly, and at the same time comfortably in outward respects. It will not be worth the while to accumulate property; that would be sure to go again. You must hire or squat somewhere, and raise but a small crop, and eat that soon. You must live within yourself, and depend upon yourself always tucked up and ready for a start, and not have many affairs. A man may grow rich in Turkey even, if he will be in all respects a good subject of the Turkish government. Confucius said, "If a state is governed by the principles of reason, poverty and misery are subjects of shame; if a state is not governed by the principles of reason, riches and honors are the subjects of shame." No: until I want the protection of Massachusetts to be extended to me in some distant Southern port, where my liberty is endangered, or until I am bent solely on building up an estate at home by peaceful enterprise, I can afford to refuse allegiance to Massachusetts, and her right to my property and life. It costs me less in every sense to incur the penalty of disobedience to the State than it would to obey. I should feel as if I were worth less in that case.
Some years ago, the State met me in behalf of the Church, and commanded me to pay a certain sum toward the support of a clergyman whose preaching my father attended, but never I myself. "Pay," it said, "or be locked up in the jail." I declined to pay. But, unfortunately, another man saw fit to pay it. I did not see why the schoolmaster should be taxed to support the priest, and not the priest the schoolmaster: for I was not the State's schoolmaster, but I supported myself by voluntary subscription. I did not see why the lyceum should not present its tax-bill, and have the State to back its demand, as well as the Church. However, at the request of the selectmen, I condescended to make some such statement as this in writing:-- "Know all men by these presents, that I, Henry Thoreau, do not wish to be regarded as a member of any incorporated society which I have not joined." This I gave to the town clerk; and he has it. The State, having thus learned that I did not wish to be regarded as a member of that church, has never made a like demand on me since; though it said that it must adhere to its original presumption that time. If I had known how to name them, I should then have signed off in detail from all the societies which I never signed on to; but I did not know where to find a complete list.
I have paid no poll-tax for six years. I was put into a jail once on this account, for one night; and, as I stood considering the walls of solid stone, two or three feet thick, the door of wood and iron, a foot thick, and the iron grating which strained the light, I could not help being struck with the foolishness of that institution which treated me as if I were mere flesh and blood and bones, to be locked up. I wondered that it should have concluded at length that this was the best use it could put me to, and had never thought to avail itself of my services in some way. I saw that, if there was a wall of stone between me and my townsmen, there was a still more difficult one to climb or break through, before they could get to be as free as I was. I did not for a moment feel confined, and the walls seemed a great waste of stone and mortar. I felt as if I alone of all my townsmen had paid my tax. They plainly did not know how to treat me, but behaved like persons who are underbred. In every threat and in every compliment there was a blunder; for they thought that my chief desire was to stand the other side of that stone wall. I could not but smile to see how industriously they locked the door on my meditations, which followed them out again without let or hindrance, and they were really all that was dangerous. As they could not reach me, they had resolved to punish my body; just as boys, if they cannot come at some person against whom they have a spite, will abuse his dog. I saw that the State was half-witted, that it was timid as a lone woman with her silver spoons, and that it did not know its friends from its foes, and I lost all my remaining respect for it, and pitied it.
Thus the State never intentionally confronts a man's sense, intellectual or moral, but only his body, his senses. It is not armed with superior wit or honesty, but with superior physical strength. I was not born to be forced. I will breathe after my own fashion. Let us see who is the strongest. What force has a multitude? They only can force me who obey a higher law than I. They force me to become like themselves. I do not hear of men being forced to have this way or that by masses of men. What sort of life were that to live? When I meet a government which says to me, "Your money or your life," why should I be in haste to give it my money? It may be in a great strait, and not know what to do: I cannot help that. It must help itself; do as I do. It is not worth the while to snivel about it. I am not responsible for the successful working of the machinery of society. I am not the son of the engineer. I perceive that, when an acorn and a chestnut fall side by side, the one does not remain inert to make way for the other, but both obey their own laws, and spring and grow and flourish as best they can, till one, perchance, overshadows and destroys the other. If a plant cannot live according to its nature, it dies; and so a man.
The night in prison was novel and interesting enough. The prisoners in their shirt-sleeves were enjoying a chat and the evening air in the doorway, when I entered. But the jailer said, "Come, boys, it is time to lock up"; and so they dispersed, and I heard the sound of their steps returning into the hollow apartments. My room-mate was introduced to me by the jailer as "a first-rate fellow and a clever man." When the door was locked, he showed me where to hang my hat, and how he managed matters there. The rooms were whitewashed once a month; and this one, at least, was the whitest, most simply furnished, and probably the neatest apartment in the town. He naturally wanted to know where I came from, and what brought me there; and, when I had told him, I asked him in my turn how he came there, presuming him to be an honest man, of course; and, as the world goes, I believe he was. "Why," said he, "they accuse me of burning a barn; but I never did it." As near as I could discover, he had probably gone to bed in a barn when drunk, and smoked his pipe there; and so a barn was burnt. He had the reputation of being a clever man, had been there some three months waiting for his trial to come on, and would have to wait as much longer; but he was quite domesticated and contented, since he got his board for nothing, and thought that he was well treated.
He occupied one window, and I the other; and I saw that if one stayed there long, his principal business would be to look out the window. I had soon read all the tracts that were left there, and examined where former prisoners had broken out, and where a grate had been sawed off, and heard the history of the various occupants of that room; for I found that even here there was a history and a gossip which never circulated beyond the walls of the jail. Probably this is the only house in the town where verses are composed, which are afterward printed in a circular form, but not published. I was shown quite a long list of verses which were composed by some young men who had been detected in an attempt to escape, who avenged themselves by singing them.
I pumped my fellow-prisoner as dry as I could, for fear I should never see him again; but at length he showed me which was my bed, and left me to blow out the lamp.
It was like travelling into a far country, such as I had never expected to behold, to lie there for one night. It seemed to me that I never had heard the town-clock strike before, nor the evening sounds of the village; for we slept with the windows open, which were inside the grating. It was to see my native village in the light of the Middle Ages, and our Concord was turned into a Rhine stream, and visions of knights and castles passed before me. They were the voices of old burghers that I heard in the streets. I was an involuntary spectator and auditor of whatever was done and said in the kitchen of the adjacent village-inn -- a wholly new and rare experience to me. It was a closer view of my native town. I was fairly inside of it. I never had seen its institutions before. This is one of its peculiar institutions; for it is a shire town. I began to comprehend what its inhabitants were about.
In the morning, our breakfasts were put through the hole in the door, in small oblong-square tin pans, made to fit, and holding a pint of chocolate, with brown bread, and an iron spoon. When they called for the vessels again, I was green enough to return what bread I had left; but my comrade seized it, and said that I should lay that up for lunch or dinner. Soon after he was let out to work at haying in a neighboring field, whither he went every day, and would not be back till noon; so he bade me good-day, saying that he doubted if he should see me again.
When I came out of prison -- for some one interfered, and paid that tax -- I did not perceive that great changes had taken place on the common, such as he observed who went in a youth and emerged a tottering and gray-headed man; and yet a change had to my eyes come over the scene -- the town, and State, and country -- greater than any that mere time could effect. I saw yet more distinctly the State in which I lived. I saw to what extent the people among whom I lived could be trusted as good neighbors and friends; that their friendship was for summer weather only; that they did not greatly propose to do right; that they were a distinct race from me by their prejudices and superstitions, as the Chinamen and Malays are; that in their sacrifices to humanity, they ran no risks, not even to their property; that after all they were not so noble but they treated the thief as he had treated them, and hoped, by a certain outward observance and a few prayers, and by walking in a particular straight though useless path from time to time, to save their souls. This may be to judge my neighbors harshly; for I believe that many of them are not aware that they have such an institution as the jail in their village.
It was formerly the custom in our village, when a poor debtor came out of jail, for his acquaintances to salute him, looking through their fingers, which were crossed to represent the grating of a jail window, "How do ye do?" My neighbors did not thus salute me, but first looked at me, and then at one another, as if I had returned from a long journey. I was put into jail as I was going to the shoemaker's to get a shoe which was mended. When I was let out the next morning, I proceeded to finish my errand, and, having put on my mended shoe, joined a huckleberry party, who were impatient to put themselves under my conduct; and in half an hour -- for the horse was soon tackled -- was in the midst of a huckleberry field, on one of our highest hills, two miles off, and then the State was nowhere to be seen.
This is the whole history of "My Prisons."
I have never declined paying the highway tax, because I am as desirous of being a good neighbor as I am of being a bad subject; and as for supporting schools, I am doing my part to educate my fellow-countrymen now. It is for no particular item in the tax-bill that I refuse to pay it. I simply wish to refuse allegiance to the State, to withdraw and stand aloof from it effectually. I do not care to trace the course of my dollar, if I could, till it buys a man or a musket to shoot one with -- the dollar is innocent -- but I am concerned to trace the effects of my allegiance. In fact, I quietly declare war with the State, after my fashion, though I will still make what use and get what advantage of her I can, as is usual in such cases.
If others pay the tax which is demanded of me, from a sympathy with the State, they do but what they have already done in their own case, or rather they abet injustice to a greater extent than the State requires. If they pay the tax from a mistaken interest in the individual taxed, to save his property, or prevent his going to jail, it is because they have not considered wisely how far they let their private feelings interfere with the public good.
This, then, is my position at present. But one cannot be too much on his guard in such a case, lest his action be biased by obstinacy or an undue regard for the opinions of men. Let him see that he does only what belongs to himself and to the hour.
I think sometimes, Why, this people mean well; they are only ignorant; they would do better if they knew how: why give your neighbors this pain to treat you as they are not inclined to? But I think, again, This is no reason why I should do as they do, or permit others to suffer much greater pain of a different kind. Again, I sometimes say to myself, When many millions of men, without heat, without ill-will, without personal feeling of any kind, demand of you a few shillings only, without the possibility, such is their constitution, of retracting or altering their present demand, and without the possibility, on your side, of appeal to any other millions, why expose yourself to this overwhelming brute force? You do not resist cold and hunger, the winds and the waves, thus obstinately; you quietly submit to a thousand similar necessities. You do not put your head into the fire. But just in proportion as I regard this as not wholly a brute force, but partly a human force, and consider that I have relations to those millions as to so many millions of men, and not of mere brute or inanimate things, I see that appeal is possible, first and instantaneously, from them to the Maker of them, and, secondly, from them to themselves. But, if I put my head deliberately into the fire, there is no appeal to fire or to the Maker of fire, and I have only myself to blame. If I could convince myself that I have any right to be satisfied with men as they are, and to treat them accordingly, and not according, in some respects, to my requisitions and expectations of what they and I ought to be, then, like a good Mussulman and fatalist, I should endeavor to be satisfied with things as they are, and say it is the will of God. And, above all, there is this difference between resisting this and a purely brute or natural force, that I can resist this with some effect; but I cannot expect, like Orpheus, to change the nature of the rocks and trees and beasts.
I do not wish to quarrel with any man or nation. I do not wish to split hairs, to make fine distinctions, or set myself up as better than my neighbors. I seek rather, I may say, even an excuse for conforming to the laws of the land. I am but too ready to conform to them. Indeed, I have reason to suspect myself on this head; and each year, as the tax-gatherer comes round, I find myself disposed to review the acts and position of the general and State governments, and the spirit of the people, to discover a pretext for conformity.
"We must affect our country as our parents,
And if at any time we alienate
Our love or industry from doing it honor,
We must respect effects and teach the soul
Matter of conscience and religion,
And not desire of rule or benefit."
I believe that the State will soon be able to take all my work of this sort out of my hands, and then I shall be no better a patriot than my fellow-countrymen. Seen from a lower point of view, the Constitution, with all its faults, is very good; the law and the courts are very respectable; even this State and this American government are, in many respects, very admirable and rare things, to be thankful for, such as a great many have described them; but seen from a point of view a little higher, they are what I have described them; seen from a higher still, and the highest, who shall say what they are, or that they are worth looking at or thinking of at all?
However, the government does not concern me much, and I shall bestow the fewest possible thoughts on it. It is not many moments that I live under a government, even in this world. If a man is thought-free, fancy-free, imagination-free, that which is not never for a long time appearing to be to him, unwise rulers or reformers cannot fatally interrupt him.
I know that most men think differently from myself; but those whose lives are by profession devoted to the study of these or kindred subjects, content me as little as any. Statesmen and legislators, standing so completely within the institution, never distinctly and nakedly behold it. They speak of moving society, but have no resting-place without it. They may be men of a certain experience and discrimination, and have no doubt invented ingenious and even useful systems, for which we sincerely thank them; but all their wit and usefulness lie within certain not very wide limits. They are wont to forget that the world is not governed by policy and expediency. Webster never goes behind government, and so cannot speak with authority about it. His words are wisdom to those legislators who contemplate no essential reform in the existing government; but for thinkers, and those who legislate for all time, he never once glances at the subject. I know of those whose serene and wise speculations on this theme would soon reveal the limits of his mind's range and hospitality. Yet, compared with the cheap professions of most reformers, and the still cheaper wisdom and eloquence of politicians in general, his are almost the only sensible and valuable words, and we thank Heaven for him. Comparatively, he is always strong, original, and, above all, practical. Still, his quality is not wisdom, but prudence. The lawyer's truth is not truth, but consistency or a consistent expediency. Truth is always in harmony with herself, and is not concerned chiefly to reveal the justice that may consist with wrong-doing. He well deserves to be called, as he has been called, the Defender of the Constitution. There are really no blows to be given by him but defensive ones. He is not a leader, but a follower. His leaders are the men of '87. "I have never made an effort," he says, "and never propose to make an effort; I have never countenanced an effort, and never mean to countenance an effort, to disturb the arrangement as originally made, by which the various States came into the Union." Still thinking of the sanction which the Constitution gives to slavery, he says, "Because it was a part of the original compact -- let it stand." Notwithstanding his special acuteness and ability, he is unable to take a fact out of its merely political relations, and behold it as it lies absolutely to be disposed of by the intellect -- what, for instance, it behooves a man to do here in America to-day with regard to slavery, but ventures, or is driven, to make some such desperate answer as the following, while professing to speak absolutely, and as a private man -- from which what new and singular code of social duties might be inferred? "The manner," says he, "in which the governments of those States where slavery exists are to regulate it is for their own consideration, under their responsibility to their constituents, to the general laws of propriety, humanity, and justice, and to God. Associations formed elsewhere, springing from a feeling of humanity, or any other cause, have nothing whatever to do with it. They have never received any encouragement from me, and they never will."
They who know of no purer sources of truth, who have traced up its stream no higher, stand, and wisely stand, by the Bible and the Constitution, and drink at it there with reverence and humility; but they who behold where it comes trickling into this lake or that pool, gird up their loins once more, and continue their pilgrimage toward its fountain-head.
No man with a genius for legislation has appeared in America. They are rare in the history of the world. There are orators, politicians, and eloquent men, by the thousand; but the speaker has not yet opened his mouth to speak who is capable of settling the much-vexed questions of the day. We love eloquence for its own sake, and not for any truth which it may utter, or any heroism it may inspire. Our legislators have not yet learned the comparative value of free-trade and of freedom, of union, and of rectitude, to a nation. They have no genius or talent for comparatively humble questions of taxation and finance, commerce and manufacturers and agriculture. If we were left solely to the wordy wit of legislators in Congress for our guidance, uncorrected by the seasonable experience and the effectual complaints of the people, America would not long retain her rank among the nations. For eighteen hundred years, though perchance I have no right to say it, the New Testament has been written; yet where is the legislator who has wisdom and practical talent enough to avail himself of the light which it sheds on the science of legislation?
The authority of government, even such as I am willing to submit to -- for I will cheerfully obey those who know and can do better than I, and in many things even those who neither know nor can do so well -- is still an impure one: to be strictly just, it must have the sanction and consent of the governed. It can have no pure right over my person and property but what I concede to it. The progress from an absolute to a limited monarchy, from a limited monarchy to a democracy, is a progress toward a true respect for the individual. Even the Chinese philosopher was wise enough to regard the individual as the basis of the empire. Is a democracy, such as we know it, the last improvement possible in government? Is it not possible to take a step further towards recognizing and organizing the rights of man? There will never be a really free and enlightened State until the State comes to recognize the individual as a higher and independent power, from which all its own power and authority are derived, and treats him accordingly. I please myself with imagining a State at least which can afford to be just to all men, and to treat the individual with respect as a neighbor; which even would not think it inconsistent with its own repose if a few were to live aloof from it, not meddling with it, nor embraced by it, who fulfilled all the duties of neighbors and fellow-men. A State which bore this kind of fruit, and suffered it to drop off as fast as it ripened, would prepare the way for a still more perfect and glorious State, which also I have imagined, but not yet anywhere seen.
( suō luó de zhù zhāng yòu diǎn xiàng shì zì yóu zhù yì, bìng qiě zài jiēguǒ shàng qīng xiàng yú wú zhèng fǔ zhù yì。 dú zhě 'àn)
mù qián de měi guó zhèng fǔ héng héng tā shí jì shàng shì gè chuán tǒng xíng shì。 suī shuō rén xuǎn shì xīn de, tā què nǔ lì shǐ zì jǐ wán zhěng dì chuán sòng dào xià yī dài, ér měi yī kè yòu dōuzài shī qù tā de wán zhěng xìng。 chú cǐ zhī wài tā yòu néng shì shénme ní? tā de zhāoqì hé lì liàng dǐ bù shàng yī gè huó rén; yīn wéi yī gè rén yě néng 'àn tā de yì zhì shǐ zhī qū cóng。 duì rén mín zì jǐ lái shuō, tā shì yī zhǒng mù qiāng。 rú guǒ tā men yī běn zhèng jīng dì bǎ tā dàngzhēn jiā huǒ yòng lái hù xiāng gōng jī, tā kěn dìng huì bēng liè。 dàn tā de bì yào xìng bù huì yīn cǐ 'ér jiǎn shǎo, yīn wèirénmín bì xū yào yòu zhè yàng huò nà yàng de fù zá jī qì, bìng qīn 'ěr líng tīng tā fā chū yùn zhuǎn zào yīn, yǐ cǐ lái mǎn zú tā men yòu guān zhèng fǔ de gài niàn。 yīn cǐ zhèng fǔ biàn néng xiǎn shì chū rén men huì duō me róng yì dì zhì shēn yú qiáng zhì zhī xià, shèn zhì shì zì wǒ de qiáng zhì, mùdì shì wèile cóng zhōng huò yì。 wǒ mendōu bì xū chéng rèn zhè shì zhuāng miào shì; dàn zhèng fǔ chú liǎo jí shàn yú piān lí zì jǐ zhí néng zhī wài, tā kě cóng lái méi yòu cù jìn guò rèn hé shì yè。 tā méi yòu shǐ guó jiā bǎo chí zì yóu。 tā méi yòu 'ān dìng xī bù。 tā méi yòu tí gōng jiào yù。 suǒ yòu yǐ qǔ dé de chéng jiù dōushì kào měi guó rén mín gù yòu de xìng gé 'ér huò dé de; ér qiě, yào bù shì zhèng fǔ jīng cháng cóng zhōng zǔ náo, zhè chéng jiù huò xǔ huì gèng dà xiē。 rú guǒ rén men néng tōng guò zhèng fǔ zhè yī quán yí zhī jì shí xiàn hù bù yuē shù, tā men jiāng huì fēi cháng gāo xīng。 zhèng rú gāng cái suǒ shuō, bèi tǒng zhì zhě zuì bù shòu yuē shù shí, zhèng shì tǒng zhì jī gòu zuì dé jì zhī shí。 mào yì yǔ shāng yè, ruò méi yòu yǔ yìn dì 'ān rén mó cā suǒ zào chéng de cì jī, gēn běn bù kě néng yuè guò lì fǎ zhě men bù duàn shè zhì de zhàng 'ài 'ér dé yǐ fā zhǎn。 rú guǒ wǒ men jǐn gēn jù zhèng fǔ xíng dòng de hòu guǒ, ér bù gù jí qí dòng jī, wǒ men zhēn yìng dāng jiāng zhè pī rén dāng zuò nà xiē zài tiě guǐ shàng fàng zhì zhàng 'ài wù de táo qì guǐ yī yàng jiā yǐ chéng fá。
shuō shí zài de, zuò wéi yī gè gōng mín, ér bù xiàng nà xiē zì chēng wéi wú zhèng fǔ de rén, wǒ bìng bù yào qiú lì jí fèi chú zhèng fǔ, ér shì xī wàng lì jí néng yòu yī gè hǎo yī diǎn de zhèng fǔ。 ràng měi yī gè réndōu shuō shuō shénme yàng de zhèng fǔ néng yíng dé tā de zūn jìng, zhè jiāng shì jiàn lì nà zhǒng zhèng fǔ de dì yī bù。
( suō luó zì jǐ bìng bù rèn wéi zì jǐ shì yī gè wú zhèng fǔ zhù yì zhě)
dāng quán lì yī dàn luò rù rén mín shǒu zhōng, dà bù fēn rén bèi yǔn xǔ cháng jiǔ dì zhì lǐ guó jiā de lǐ yóu bì jìng bù jǐn jǐn shì yīn wéi tā men dài biǎo zhe zhēn lǐ, yě bù yīn wéi zhè kàn lái duì shǎo shù rén zuì gōng zhèng, ér shì yīn wéi tā men zài lì liàng shàng zuì qiáng dà。 rán 'ér, jí shǐ shì yī gè zài suǒ yòu qíng kuàng xià dū yóu duō shù rén tǒng zhì de zhèng fǔ yě bù kě néng jī yú zhèng yì, nǎ pà shì rén men tōng cháng lǐ jiě de zhèng yì。 jiǎ shè zài zhèng fǔ lǐ bù kào duō shù rén, ér yòng liáng zhī lái pàn duàn shì fēi, duō shù rén zhǐ jué dìng zhèng fǔ gāi guǎn huò bù gāi guǎn de wèn tí, zhè yàng de zhèng fǔ nán dào bù kě néng shí xiàn má? nán dào yī gè gōng mín yǒng yuǎn yīngdāng zài tè dìng shí kè, huò zài zuì dī chéng dù shàng pò shǐ tā de liáng xīn fú cóng lì fǎ zhě má? rú guǒ zhè yàng, rén men yào liáng xīn yòu yòu hé yòng? wǒ xiǎng, wǒ men shǒu xiān yīnggāi shì rén, qí cì cái shì chén mín。 jǐn jǐn wèile gōng zhèng 'ér péi yǎng zūn jìng fǎ lǜ de xí guàn shì bù kě qǔ de。 wǒ yòu quán chéng dān de wéi yī yì wù jiù shì zài rèn hé shí hòu zuò wǒ rèn wéi shì zhèng què de shì。 gōng sī méi yòu liáng xīn, dàn shì yóu yòu liáng xīn de rén men zǔ chéng de gōng sī shì yòu liáng xīn de gōng sī, zhè yàng de shuō fǎ wán quán zhèng què。 fǎ lǜ sī háo méi yòu shǐ rén biàn dé gèng gōng zhèng xiē; xiāng fǎn, yóu yú zūn zhòng fǎ lǜ, shèn zhì shì hǎo xīn rén yě zài rì yì biàn chéng fēi zhèng yì de zhí xíng zhě。 nǐ kě yǐ kàn dào yī gè yóu shì bīng、 shàng xiào、 shàng wèi、 xià shì、 yī děng bīng hé jūn huǒ bān yùn gōng zǔ chéng de duì wǔ, yǐ lìng rén xiàn mù de duì liè fān shān yuè lǐng, bēn fù zhàn zhēng; dàn shì yóu yú tā men wéi bèi liǎo zì jǐ de yì zhì、 cháng qíng hé liáng xīn, tā men de xíng jūn biàn dé yì cháng kùn nán, rén réndōu gǎn dào xīn jīng ròu tiào; zhè jiù shì guòfèn zūn zhòng fǎ lǜ de yī gè pǔ tōng 'ér zì rán de jiēguǒ。 tā men suǒ juǎnrù de shì yīcháng kěwù de jiāo yì, duì cǐ tā men shēn xìn bù yí; tā mendōu xī wàng hé píng。 xiàn zài tā men chéng liǎo shénme? shì rén má? hái shì xiē xiǎo xíng huó dòng bǎo lěi huò dàn yào kù, zài wéi mǒu xiē bù zé shǒu duàn de zhǎng quán zhě xiào láo? qǐng cān guān hǎi jūn jī dì, mù dǔ yī gè shuǐ bīng, nà jiù shì měi guó zhèng fǔ suǒ néng zào jiù de rén, huò zhě shuō zhè jiù shì tā néng yòng wū shù bǎ yī gè rén gǎi biàn chéng de múyàng: tā zhǐ shì rén lèi de yī gè yǐng zǐ hé huí yì, yī gè bèi 'ān fàng zài nà lǐ zhàn gǎng de huó rén。 zhèng rú rén men suǒ shuō, zhè wèi shì bīng dài zhe péi zàng wù, mái zài wǔ qì duī lǐ……
yīn cǐ zhè xiē rén bìng fēi zuò wéi rén qù wèiguó xiào láo, ér shì zuò wéi ròu tǐ de jī qì。 tā men bāo kuò cháng bèi jūn、 mín bīng、 jiān yù kānshǒu、 jǐng chá、 dì fāng mín tuán děng。 zài dà bù fēn qíng kuàng xià, tā men zì jǐ de pàn duàn lì hé dào dé gǎn méi yòu fā huī rèn hé zuò yòng; tā men shì zì jǐ wéi mù cái、 ní tǔ hé shí kuài; yào shì néng zào chū mù tóu rén lái, yě néng dá dào tóng yàng de mùdì。 zhè zhǒng rén bù huì bǐ dào cǎo rén huò yī duī tǔ gèng néng yǐn qǐ rén men de zūn jìng。 tā men zhǐ jù yòu yǔ mǎ hé gǒu tóng děng de jià zhí。 rán 'ér zhè yàng de rén què bèi pǔ biàn shì wéi hǎo gōng mín。 qí tā rén, zhū rú dà duō shù lì fǎ zhě、 zhèng kè、 lǜ shī、 mù shī、 guān yuán děng, zhù yào yòng tóu nǎo lái wèiguó jiā fú wù。 dàn shì, yóu yú tā men hěn shǎo biàn bié dào dé shì fēi, ér yòu kě néng bù zhī bù jué dì xiàng shì fèng shàng dì yī yàng wéi mó guǐ fú wù。 yě yòu yī xiē zhēn zhèng chēng dé shàng shì yīng xióng、 ài guó zhě、 xùn dào zhě huò gǎi gé jiā de rén, tā men què shí yòng liáng xīn wèiguó jiā fú wù, yīn 'ér wǎng wǎng huì dǐ zhì guó jiā de xíng jìng, jiēguǒ tā men tōng cháng bèi guó jiā dāng zuò dí rén kàn dài。
yī gè rén jīn tiān gāi zěn yàng duì dài měi guó zhèng fǔ cái hé shì ní? wǒ shuō, tā bù kě néng yǔ zhī xiāng lián 'ér bù shī tǐ miàn。 wǒ yī kè yě bù néng chéng rèn nà gè zhèng zhì zǔ zhì jiù shì wǒ de zhèng fǔ, yīn wéi tā yě shì nú lì de zhèng fǔ。
suǒ yòu de réndōu chéng rèn gé mìng de quán lì: nà jiù shì dāng rén men wú fǎ róng rěn yī gè dú cái huò wú néng de zhèng fǔ shí, jù jué xiào zhōng bìng dǐ kàng tā de quán lì。 dàn shì jīhū suǒ yòu de réndōu shuō xiàn zài bù shì nà zhǒng qíng kuàng。 tā men rèn wéi zhǐ yòu 1 77 5 nián dà gé mìng cái shǔ yú nà zhǒng fēi cháng shí qī。 yào shì yòu rén gào sù wǒ, zhè shì gè huài zhèng fǔ, yīn wéi tā xiàng jìn rù tā gǎng kǒu de wài guó shāng pǐn zhēng shuì, wǒ wán quán kě néng bù bǎ zhè zhǒng zhǐ kòng dāng huí shì, yīn wéi wǒ kě yǐ bù yào zhè xiē shāng pǐn: suǒ yòu jī qì dōuyòu mó cā, zhè yòu kě néng dǐ xiāo zuì 'è。 wú lùn rú hé, yào shì cóng zhōng jìn xíng shān dòng biàn shì jí dà de zuì 'è。 dàn shì dāng zhè yī mó cā kāi shǐ huǐ huài jī qì, dāng zhèn yā hé qiǎng jié yǐ zǔ zhì qǐ lái shí, wǒ shuō, ràng wǒ men zài yě bù yào zhè yàng de jī qì liǎo。 huàn jù huà shuō, dāng yī gè chéng nuò yào bǎo hù zì yóu de guó jiā de liù fēn zhī yī rén kǒu shì nú lì, dāng yī gè guó jiā wán quán bèi wài guó jūn duì fēi fǎ dì róu lìn、 zhēng fú, bìng yóu jūn fǎ guǎn zhì de shí hòu, wǒ xiǎng, guò bù liǎo duō jiǔ, chéng shí de rén biàn huì qǐ lái zào fǎn hé gé mìng。 shǐ dé zhè yī zé rèn gèng wéi jǐn pò de shì shí shì: bèi róu lìn de guó jiā bù shì wǒ men zì jǐ de, ér qīn lüè jūn què shì wǒ men de。
dāng rán, yī gè rén méi yòu zé rèn yī dìng yào zhì lì yú jiū zhèng mǒu zhǒng miù wù, nǎ pà shì zuì bù gōng zhèng de miù wù。 tā réng kě yǐ shìdàng dì cóng shì qí tā shì qíng。 dàn tā qǐ mǎ yòu zé rèn tóng zhè miù wù yī dāo liǎng duàn。 jì rán tā bù zài ná tā dāng huí zhèng shì, tā jiù yīnggāi jī běn shàng zhōng zhǐ duì tā de zhī chí。 yào shì wǒ zhì lì yú qí tā zhuī qiú hé sī suǒ, wǒ shǒu xiān zhì shǎo dé bǎo zhèng wǒ méi yòu qí zài bié rén jiān shàng。 wǒ bì xū xiān cóng tā shēn shàng pá xià lái, hǎo ràng tā yě néng jìn xíng tā zì jǐ de sī suǒ。 qǐng kàn zhè shè huì shì duō me dì bù hé xié。 wǒ céng tīng dào chéng lǐ yòu xiē shì mín shuō:“ wǒ xī wàng tā men mìng lìng wǒ qián qù zhèn yā nú lì qǐ yì, huò kāi fù mò xī gē; héng héng kàn wǒ shì fǒu huì qù。” dàn zhèng shì zhè xiē rén, tā men měi réndōu zhí jiē 'ér zhōng chéng dì, qǐ mǎ shì jiànjiē dì tōng guò chū qián, tí gōng liǎo yī gè tì shēn。 jù jué cān jiā yīcháng fēi zhèng yì zhàn zhēng díshì bīng shòu dào rén men de zàn měi。 kě zhè xiē zàn měi zhě zhōng de mǒu xiē rén bìng méi yòu jù jué yōng hù nà gè fā dòng zhè chǎng zhàn zhēng de fēi zhèng yì zhèng fǔ。 zhè xiē rén de xíng wéi hé quán wēi zhèng shì shì bīng men suǒ miè shì hé bù xiè yī gù de。 zài tā men kàn lái, sì hū guó jiā zài fàn zuì shí yě yòu zhuī huǐ zhī yì, yīn 'ér yào zhuān gù yī rén lái biān chī zì jǐ, dàn yòu méi yòu hòu huǐ dào yào tíng zhǐ piàn kè fàn zuì de chéng dù。 yīn cǐ zài zhì xù hé gōng mín zhèng fǔ de míng yì xià, wǒ men zuì hòu dōubèi pò duì wǒ men zì jǐ de bēi liè xíng jìng biǎo shì jìng yì hé zhī chí。 rén men zài fàn zuì de shǒu cì liǎn hóng zhī hòu xué huì liǎo mǎn bù zài hū。 bù dào dé sì hū yě biàn chéng liǎo fēi dào dé。 zhè zhǒng shì yìng zài wǒ men de shēng huó lǐ bìng fēi wán quán méi yòu bì yào。
…… rú guǒ nǐ bèi lín jū piàn zǒu yī yuán qián, nǐ bù kě néng jǐn jǐn mǎn zú yú zhī dào zì jǐ shòu piàn, huò duì bié rén shuō zì jǐ shòu piàn, huò yào qiú tā rú shù cháng hái。 nǐ huì lì jí cǎi qǔ yòu lì bù zhòu huò dé quán bù tuì péi, bìng shè fǎ bǎo zhèng zì jǐ bù zài shòu piàn。 chū yú yuán zé de xíng dòng, héng héng chū yú zhèng yì gǎn bìng jiā yǐ lǚ xíng de xíng dòng, héng héng néng gòu gǎi biàn shì wù jí qí guān xì。 zhè zhǒng xíng dòng jī běn shàng shì gé mìng de, tā tóng yǐ qián rèn hé shì wù jié rán bù tóng。 tā bù jǐn fēn lí liǎo zhèng fǔ yǔ jiào huì, yě fēn lí liǎo jiā tíng; shì de, tā hái fēn lí gè rén, jiāng tā shēn shàng de 'è mó cóng shén shèng de bù fēn zhōng fēn lí chū qù。
fēi zhèng yì de fǎ lǜ díquè cún zài。 wǒ men jiū jìng shì mǎn zú yú fú cóng tā men, hái shì yīngdāng yī biān nǔ lì xiū gǎi、 yī biān fú cóng tā men zhí zhì wǒ men chéng gōng, huò zhě gān cuì chāo yuè tā men? zài mù qián zhè zhǒng zhèng fǔ tǒng zhì xià de rén men tōng cháng rèn wéi tā men yīnggāi děng dài, zhí zhì tā men shuō fú liǎo duō shù rén lái xiū gǎi fǎ lǜ。 tā men rèn wéi, rú guǒ tā men dǐ kàng, zhè zhǒng jiū zhèng fāng fǎ jiāng bǐ zuì 'è de xiàn zhuàng gèng huài。 dàn zào chéng zhè zhǒng wú kě bǔ jiù jú miàn de zé rèn yīngdāng guī jiù yú zhèng fǔ běn shēn。 tā shǐ zhī yuè gǎi yuè huài。 tā wèishénme bù néng shì xiān yù jì dào gǎi gé bìng wéi zhī tí gōng fāng biàn? tā wèishénme bù 'ài hù shǎo shù míng zhì de rén? tā wèihé zài hái méi yòu shòu dào shāng hài shí jiù háo jiào zhe dǐ kàng? tā wèihé bù gǔ lì gōng mín men jí shí zhǐ chū tā de cuò wù, bìng ràng tā men zhù dòng dì gànhǎoshì qíng? tā wèihé zǒng shì bǎ jī dū dīng zài shí zì jià shàng, jiāng gē bái ní hé lù dé gé chū jiào mén, bìng xuān pàn huá shèng dùn hé fù lán kè lín wéi pàn nì?
yòu rén huì rèn wéi, zhèng fǔ duì yú nà xiē gù yì 'ér qièshí mào fàn tā quán wēi de rén wǎng wǎng shì shú shì wú dǔ de。 yào bù rán, tā zěn me méi yòu wèicǐ guī dìng guò míng què、 qiàdàng hé xiāng yìng de chéng fá? yī gè méi yòu cái chǎn de rén zhǐ yào yòu yī huí jù jué xiàng zhōu zhèng fǔ jiāo nà 9 gè xiān lìng, tā jiù huì bèi sòng jìn jiān yù, guān yā tā de shí jiān bù shòu wǒ suǒ zhī dào de rèn hé fǎ lǜ xiàn zhì, jǐn jǐn yóu bǎ tā sòng jìn qù de nà huǒ rén rèn yì jué dìng。 dàn shì, rú guǒ tā cóng zhōu lǐ tōu liǎo9 0 bèi yú9 xiān lìng de qián, tā hěn kuài jiù néng xiāo yáo fǎ wài。
rú guǒ zhè yàng de bù gōng zhèng shì zhèng fǔ jī qì bì yào mó cā de yī bù fēn, nà jiù ràng tā qù, ràng tā qù bā。 kě néng tā huì zì jǐ mó diào zhè xiē bù píng héng héng dāng rán, zhè jī qì dào shí yě huì wán dàn。 rú guǒ zhè zhǒng fēi zhèng yì yòu tā zhuān yòng de tánhuáng, huá lún, shéng zǐ, huò qū bǐng, nǐ kě néng rèn wéi gǎi zào tā bìng bù yī dìng jiù shì huài shì。 dàn shì rú guǒ tā de běn xìng jiù yào qiú nǐ duì lìng yī rén shī nüè, nà me wǒ yào shuō, qǐng fàn fǎ bā。 yòng nǐ de shēng mìng lái fǎn mó cā, hǎo ràng zhè jī qì tíng zhǐ yùn zhuǎn。 zài rèn hé qíng kuàng xià, wǒ bì xū bǎo zhèng zì jǐ bù cānyù wǒ suǒ qiǎn zé de zuì guò。
zhì yú shuō yào zhí xíng zhōu zhèng fǔ tí chū de xiāo chú zuì 'è de fāng fǎ, wǒ bù zhī dào yòu zhè zhǒng fāng fǎ。 tā men fèi shí tài jiǔ, yī gè rén de shēng mìng yòu xiàn。 wǒ yòu qí tā shì yào zuò。 wǒ lái dào zhè shì jiè de zhù yào mùdì bù shì yào jiāng tā jiàn chéng shēng huó de lè yuán, ér shì zài cǐ dì shēng huó, wú lùn tā hǎo hái shì huài。 yī gè rén bù bì yàng yàng shìdōu qù zuò, ér zhǐ xū zuò yī xiē shì。 zhèng yīn wèitā bù néng yàng yàng shìdōu zuò, tā jiù bù yīnggāi jiāng yī xiē shì zuò cuò。 jiǎ rú zhōu cháng huò zhōu yì huì méi yòu yì wù xiàng wǒ qǐng yuàn, wǒ yě méi yòu yì wù xiàng tā men qǐng yuàn。 rú guǒ tā men tīng bù dào wǒ de qǐng yuàn, wǒ gāi zěn me bàn? zài mù qián qíng kuàng xià, zhōu zhèng fǔ duì cǐ bìng méi xiǎng chū rèn hé bàn fǎ。 zhēn zhèng de zuì guò zài yú tā de xiàn fǎ běn shēn。 zhè tīng lái kě néng guò yú yán lì、 gù zhí huò bù tōng qíng dá lǐ。 dàn wéi yòu zhè zhǒng jīng shén cái shì wǒ men duì dài xiàn zhì de tài dù, tā hán yòu zuì dà chéng dù de shàn yì hé zuì shēn kè de sī kǎo。 zhè yě shì suǒ yòu shì wù xiàng hǎo de fāng miàn zhuǎn huà de guī lǜ, jiù xiàng rén zài tóng jí bìng de shēng sǐ bó dǒu zhōng huì quán shēn jìng luán yī yàng。
wǒ háo bù yóu yù dì jìng gào nà xiē zì chēng wéi fèi nú lùn zhě de rén, tā men bì xū lì jí zhēn zhèng dì shōu huí wú lùn zài gè rén hé cái chǎn fāng miàn duì mǎ sà zhū sài zhōu zhèng fǔ de zhī chí, bù yào děng dào tā men xíng chéng duō shù hòu zài zài tā men zhōng jiān zhí xíng zhèng yì。 wǒ rèn wéi, zhǐ yào yòu shàng dì zhàn zài tā men nà yī biān jiù gòu liǎo, bù bì děng dài qí tā。 zài shuō, rèn hé bǐ tā lín jū gèng yǒng gǎn de réndōu kě yǐ xíng chéng yī gè duō shù。
wǒ měi nián jǐn yòu yī cì jī huì tōng guò shōu shuì guān zhí jiē miàn duì miàn dì hé měi guó zhèng fǔ, huò tā de dài biǎo héng héng zhōu zhèng fǔ dǎ jiāo dào。 zhè shì xiàng wǒ zhè zhǒng chǔjìng de rén bì rán hé tā dǎ jiāo dào de wéi yī fāng shì。 zhè gè zhèng fǔ shí fēn qīng chǔ dì yào qiú wǒ chéng rèn tā。 ér wǒ wèile yào zài zhè zhǒng qíng kuàng xià yìng fù tā, bìng biǎo dá duì tā wēi hū qí wēi de mǎn yì hé 'ài dài, wǒ de zuì jiǎn dān、 zuì yòu xiào、 bìng zài mù qián xíng shì xià zuì yòu bì yào de fāng shì jiù shì fǒu rèn tā。 wǒ de lín jū, shōu shuì guān, zhèng shì wǒ yào duì fù de rén, héng héng yīn wéi bì jìng wǒ bìng bù gēn yáng pí zhǐ wén jiàn, ér shì yào gēn rén zhēng lùn, héng héng tā yǐ zì yuàn dāng liǎo zhèng fǔ de dài lǐ rén……
zài yī gè bù gōng dào dì guān yā rén de zhèng fǔ de tǒng zhì xià, yī gè zhèng yì zhě de zhēn zhèng guī sù yě shì jiān yù。 jīn tiān, mǎ sà zhū sài tí gōngjǐ nà xiē jiào zì yóu hé yòu diǎn zhāoqì de rén de hé shì dì fāng jiù shì tā de jiān yù, zhōu zhèng fǔ 'àn zì jǐ de fǎ lìng jiāng tā men qū zhú chū qù huò jiān jìn qǐ lái, yīn wéi zhè xiē rén yǐ jīng 'àn zhào tā men de yuán zé bǎ zì jǐ fàng zhú chū qù liǎo。 zài jiān yù lǐ, zài nà xiē táo wáng de nú lì、 bǎo shì de mò xī gē zhàn fú hé qián lái tóu sù zhǒng zú pò hài de yìn dì 'ān rén zhōng jiān, tā men zhǎo dào liǎo guī sù。 zài nà gè yǔ shì gé jué, dàn gèng zì yóu、 gèng chéng shí de chǎng suǒ, zhōu zhèng fǔ guān yā de bù shì zàn chéng tā, ér shì fǎn duì tā de rén, héng héng nà shì yī gè xù nú zhōu lǐ de zì yóu rén kě yǐ wèn xīn wú kuì dì shēng huó de wéi yī dì fāng。 rú guǒ yòu rén rèn wéi, zì yóu rén de yǐng xiǎng zài jiān yù lǐ huì xiāo shī, tā men de shēng yīn zài yě bù néng cì tòng guān yuán men de 'ěr duǒ, tā men zài dà qiáng zhī nèi yě bù zài shì dí rén, nà jiù cuò liǎo。 tā men bù zhī dào zhēn lǐ yào bǐ miù wù qiáng dà xǔ duō bèi, yě bù zhī dào qīn shēn jīng lì guò yī xiē fēi zhèng yì de rén néng gòu duō me xióng biàn 'ér yòu xiào dì tóng fēi zhèng yì zuò dǒu zhēng。 tóu shàng nǐ de zhěng gè xuǎn piào bā, bù dān dān shì yī zhāng xiǎo zhǐ tiáo, ér shì nǐ de quán bù yǐng xiǎng。 shǎo shù fú cóng duō shù zé ruǎn ruò wú lì; tā shèn zhì hái suàn bù shàng shǎo shù。 dàn rú guǒ jìn quán lì dǐ zhì, tā jiāng shì bù kě dǎng。 yī dàn ràng zhōu zhèng fǔ lái xuǎn zé chū lù: yào me bǎ suǒ yòu zhèng yì zhě dū guān jìn jiān yù, yào me fàng qì zhàn zhēng hé nú lì zhì, wǒ xiǎng tā shì huì háo bù chí yí de。 yào shì jīn nián yòu yī qiān rén jù jiāo shuì kuǎn, nà hái suàn bù shàng shì bào lì liúxiě de shǒu duàn。 wǒ men ruò jiāo liǎo shuì, zé shǐ zhōu zhèng fǔ yòu néng lì shí xíng bào lì, zào chéng wú gū liúxiě。 shì shí shàng zhè jiù shì hé píng gé mìng de dìng yì, yào shì rèn hé zhè zhǒng gé mìng shì kě néng de huà。 jiǎ rú nà wèi shōu shuì guān huò rèn hé qí tā zhèng fǔ guān yuán wèn wǒ, zhèng rú yòu rén yǐ wèn guò de:“ nà me wǒ gāi zěn me bàn ní?” wǒ de huí dá shì:“ rú guǒ nǐ zhēn yào gān diǎn shì, jiù qǐng cí zhí bā。” dāng chén mín jù jué xiào zhōng, guān yuán cí qù zhí wù, nà me zhè chǎng gé mìng jiù chéng gōng liǎo。 jiù suàn zhè zhǒng zuò fǎ kě néng huì yǐn qǐ liúxiě bā。 dāng rén men de liáng xīn shòu dào chuāngshāng shí, zhè nán dào bù yě shì yī zhǒng liúxiě má? yóu yú zhè zhǒng chuāngshāng, yī gè rén jiāng shī qù tā zhēn zhèng de yǒng qì hé bù xiǔ de qì zhì。 tā huì rú cǐ liúxiě bù zhǐ, zhí zhì jīng shén shàng de sǐ wáng。 xiàn zài wǒ kàn dào zhè zhǒng wú xíng de xuè zhèng zài liú tǎng。
jǐ nián qián, zhōu zhèng fǔ céng yǐ jiào huì de míng yì yào qiú wǒ zhī fù yī bǐ qián yǐ gòngyǎng yī gè mù shī, tā de chuán dào wǒ fù qīn tīng guò, ér wǒ cóng lái wèi tīng guò。“ fù qián bā,” tā shuō,“ yào bù rán jiù jìn jiān yù。” wǒ jiù shì bù fù。 dàn bù xìng de shì lìng yī gè rén jué dé yīnggāi fù。 wǒ bù míng bái wèishénme jiào shī yào fù shuì gěi mù shī, ér bù shì mù shī fù gěi jiào shī。 wǒ bù shì zhōu lì xué xiào de jiào shī, dàn wǒ kào zì yuàn juān kuǎn wéi shēng。 wǒ bù míng bái wèishénme xué xiào jiù bù néng xiàng jiào huì nà yàng, zài zhōu de zhī chí xià, tí chū zì jǐ de shuì dān。 rán 'ér, zài dāng xuǎn yì yuán men de yào qiú xià, wǒ qū zūn xiě xià liǎo zhè yàng de shēng míng:“ jǐn yǐ cǐ yán wéi zhèng, wǒ, hēng lì · dà wèi · suō luó, bù xī wàng bèi rèn wéi shì rèn hé wǒ méi yòu jiā rù de lián hé tuán tǐ de yī yuán。” wǒ bǎ zhè shēng míng jiāo gěi liǎo zhèn gōng suǒ de wén shū, tā hái bǎo liú zhe。 suī rán zhōu zhèng fǔ dāng shí shuō guò, tā bì xū jiān chí tā yuán xiān de jué dìng, dàn tīng shuō wǒ bù xī wàng bèi rèn wéi shì nà gè jiào táng de chéng yuán, dǎ nà yǐ lái, tā yī zhí méi duì wǒ tí chū lèi sì yào qiú。 wǒ yuàn yì yī yī qiān zì, yǐ biǎo shì yǔ wǒ cóng wèi qiān zì rèn kě de yī qiē shè huì tuán tǐ duàn jué guān xì。 kě xī wǒ bù zhī dào zhè xiē tuán tǐ de míng chēng, yě bù zhī dào gāi dào hé chù qù xún yī fèn wán zhěng de míng dān。
wǒ yòu liù nián méi jiāo rén tóu shuì liǎo。 jiù wéi zhè wǒ céng jìn jiān yù zhù liǎo yī wǎn。 dāng wǒ zài nà lǐ zhàn zhe sī kǎo, miàn duì nà 'èr sān yīng chǐ hòu de jiān shí shí qiáng、 yī yīng chǐ hòu de mù tiě mén hé tòu guāng de tiě shān lán shí, wǒ jìn bù zhù qiáng liè dì gǎn dào zhè jiān yù bǎ wǒ jǐn dāng zuò yī gè xuè ròu zhī qū guān jìn lái shì hé děng yú chǔn。 wǒ huái yí tā zuì hòu shì fǒu huì duàn dìng zhè jiù shì tā duì fù wǒ de zuì hǎo fāng fǎ, ér cóng méi xiǎng dào yào yǐ mǒu zhǒng fāng shì lái jiào wǒ zuò diǎn shì。 wǒ zài xiǎng, suī rán wǒ hé wǒ de jiē fāng lín lǐ men zhī jiān gé liǎo yī dǔ shí qiáng, dàn tā men yào dá dào xiàng wǒ yī yàng zì yóu, hái yòu yī dǔ gèng nán pān yuè、 gèng nán dǎ pò de qiáng。 wǒ yī kè yě méi gǎn dào bèi jiān jìn, nà qiáng sì hū shì shí kuài huóní huī de jù dà làng fèi。 wǒ sì hū gǎn dào, quán tǐ shì mín zhōng, zhǐ yòu wǒ yī rén fù liǎo shuì。 tā men wán quán bù zhī gāi zěn yàng duì dài wǒ, tā men de yán xíng quē fá jiào yǎng。 wú lùn tā men duì wǒ jìn xíng wēi xié huò zàn yáng, zǒng shì cuò kàn liǎo wǒ de běn yì。 yīn wéi tā men rèn wéi, wǒ de zhù yào yuàn wàng shì zhàn dào shí qiáng de lìng yī biān。 kàn dào tā men zài wǒ chén sī shí rú hé qín fèn dì suǒ mén, wǒ zhǐ hǎo fù zhī yī xiào。 wǒ de sī xù bù bì kāi mén, bù bì shè zhàng, yòu gēn tā men chū qù liǎo, ér zhè cái shì zhēn zhèng de wēi xiǎn。 yīn wéi tā men yǐ wú fǎ lǐ jiě wǒ, tā men biàn jué dìng chéng fá wǒ de ròu tǐ; jiù xiàng yī qún wán tóng, dāng tā men wú fǎ jiē jìn tā men suǒ tòng hèn de rén shí, biàn nüè dài tā de gǒu。 wǒ gǎn dào zhōu zhèng fǔ zhì néng dī xià, tā jiù xiàng ná zhe yín tānɡ chí de gū dú nǚ rén yī yàng dǎn xiǎo。 tā dí yǒu bù fēn。 wǒ duì tā shèng xià de yī diǎn zūn jìng yǐ jīng dàng rán wú cún, wǒ zhēn wéi tā yí hàn。
yóu cǐ kàn lái, zhōu zhèng fǔ cóng wèi yòu yì shí dì zhèng shì guò yī gè rén de xīn líng, wú lùn shì cóng lǐ zhì hái shì dào yì de jiǎo dù。 tā zhǐ kàn dào yī gè rén de ròu tǐ hé gǎn guān。 tā bìng bù jù bèi gāo jí zhì néng, yě bù jiàn dé chéng shí, zhǐ shì zài wù zhì shàng qiáng dà bà liǎo。 wǒ bù shì shēng lái jiù shòu qiáng zhì de rén。 wǒ yào 'àn zì jǐ de fāng shì hū xī kōng qì。 ràng wǒ men kàn kàn shuí zuì qiáng dà。 mín zhòng yòu shénme lì liàng? tā men zhǐ néng qiǎngpò wǒ, ér wǒ yào fú cóng bǐ wǒ gèng gāo de fǎ guī。 tā men qiǎngpò wǒ chéng wéi xiàng tā men yī yàng de rén。 wǒ méi tīng shuō yòu rén yīngdāng fú cóng duō shù rén de qiǎngpò 'ér yǐ zhè zhǒng huò nà zhǒng fāng shì shēng huó。 nà yàng suàn shì shénme yàng de shēng huó? dāng zhèng fǔ mìng lìng wǒ shuō“ jiāo qián hái shì jiāo mìng” shí, wǒ wèishénme yào cōng máng dì bǎ wǒ de qián gěi tā? tā kě néng kùn nán chóngchóng, bù zhī rú hé shì hǎo; rán 'ér wǒ zěn me kě néng bāng zhù tā? tā bì xū xiàng wǒ zhè yàng zì jǐ bāng zhù zì jǐ。 wèicǐ kū bí zǐ bù zhí dé。 shè huì zhè bù jī qì shì fǒu chéng gōng yùn zhuǎn wǒ bù fù zé rèn, wǒ bù shì gōng chéng shī de 'ér zǐ。 wǒ fā xiàn, dāng yī lì xiàng zǐ hé yī lì lì zǐ bìng pái luò dì hòu, méi yòu nǎ gè tíng xià lái qiān ràng lìng yī gè。 liǎng zhě dū 'àn tā men zì jǐ de guī lǜ, jìn zuì dà de néng lì qù fā yá、 shēngzhǎng、 biàn dé mào shèng。 kě néng zhí zhì yī gè chāo yuè bìng huǐ miè lìng yī gè。 yī zhū zhí wù rú bù néng 'àn zì jǐ běn xìng shēngzhǎng zé sǐ wáng; yī gè rén yě tóng yàng rú cǐ。
wǒ bù xiǎng yǔ rèn hé rén huò guó jiā zhēng chǎo。 wǒ bù xiǎng wú gù tiǎo tī, zhǎo chū xì wēi chā bié, yě bù xiǎng biāo bǎng zì jǐ gāo lín jū yī děng。 kě yǐ shuō, wǒ shèn zhì shì yào xún zhǎo yī gè jiè kǒu lái zūn shǒu guó jiā fǎ lìng。 zūn shǒu guó jiā fǎ lìng wǒ shì zài gāo xīng bù guò liǎo。 dàn zài zhè yī wèn tí shàng, wǒ què shí yòu lǐ yóu huái yí zì jǐ。 měi nián dāng shōu shuì guān dào lái shí, wǒ zǒng yào shěn chá yī xià guó jiā hé zhōu zhèng fǔ de fǎ lìng hé tài dù, yǐ jí rén mín de qíng xù, yǐ biàn zhǎo dào yī gè zūn shǒu de qián tí。 wǒ xiāng xìn zhōu zhèng fǔ hěn kuài jiù huì shǐ wǒ fàng qì suǒ yòu zhè xiē zuò fǎ, rán hòu, wǒ jiāng biàn chéng yī gè hé wǒ de tóng bāo xiāng sì de 'ài guó zhě。 cóng fàng dī liǎo de jiǎo dù kàn, xiàn fǎ suī rán yòu xǔ duō quē xiàn, tā réng bù shī wéi yī bù hěn hǎo de xiàn fǎ。 fǎ lǜ hé fǎ tíng lìng rén zūn jìng。 shèn zhì běn zhōu zhèng fǔ hé měi guó zhèng fǔ zài xǔ duō fāng miàn yě shì xiāng dāng lìng rén qīn pèi 'ér yòu hǎn jiàn de jī gòu, lìng rén gǎn 'ēn bù jìn, xǔ duō rén duì cǐ yǐ zuò chū miáo shù。 dàn shì cóng lüè gāo yī diǎn de jiǎo dù kàn, tā men zhèng rú wǒ yǐ miáo shù guò de nà yàng。 yào shì huàn chéng zuì gāo de jiǎo dù, yòu shuí shuō dé chū tā men shì shénme, huò tā men hái zhēn zhí dé yī kàn huò yī xiǎng?
rán 'ér zhèng fǔ yǔ wǒ méi yòu duō dà guān xì, wǒ jiāng jìn liàng bù qù xiǎng tā。 shèn zhì zài zhè gè shì jiè lǐ, wǒ zài zhèng fǔ tǒng zhì xià shēng huó de shí kè bù duō。 yào shì yī gè rén sī kǎo zì yóu, huàn xiǎng zì yóu, xiǎng xiàng zì yóu, bù cún zài de shì wù cóng bù huì hěn jiǔ dì bèi tā kàn zuò shì cún zài zhī wù, nà me, bù míng zhì de tǒng zhì zhě hé gǎi gé jiā de zǔ 'ài duì tā yě qǐ bù liǎo duō dà zuò yòng。
wǒ zhī dào dà duō shù rén yǔ wǒ xiǎng de bù yī yàng。 dàn shì nà xiē zhuān mén yǐ yán jiū zhè yī lèi wèn tí wéi zhí yè de rén yě hěn shǎo lìng wǒ mǎn yì。 yóu yú zhèng zhì jiā hé lì fǎ zhě men wán quán chǔyú zhè yī jī gòu zhī nèi, tā men jué bù kě néng qīng chǔ 'ér kè guān dì guān chá tā。 tā men cháng shuō yào tuī jìn shè huì, dàn tā men shè cǐ jiù méi yòu lì zú zhī chù。 tā men kě néng yòu yī dìng de jīng yàn hé jiàn shí, háo wú yí wèn, yě kě néng xiǎng chū liǎo yī xiē yòu dú chuàng xìng de shèn zhì shì yòu yòng de zhì dù, duì cǐ wǒ men chéng zhì dì gǎn xiè tā men。 dàn tā men suǒ yòu de zhì huì hé xiào yòng dōuhěn yòu xiàn。 tā men jīng cháng huì wàng jì zhè shì jiè bìng bù shì yóu zhèng cè hé quán yí zhī jì suǒ tǒng zhì。 dān ní 'ěr · wéi bó sī tè cóng wèi diào chá guò zhèng fǔ, yīn cǐ, tā yě wú quán tán lùn tā。 duì nà xiē bù kǎo lǜ chè dǐ gǎi gé xiàn xíng zhèng fǔ de yì yuán men lái shuō, tā de huà jiù shì zhì huì。 ér zài sī xiǎng jiā, nà xiē yī zhí zài cānyù lì fǎ de sī xiǎng jiā yǎn lǐ, tā cóng wèi zhèng shì guò zhè yī wèn tí。 jù wǒ liǎo jiě, yòu xiē rén tōng guò duì zhè yī wèn tí de níng jìng hé míng zhì de sī kǎo, bù jiǔ jiāng huì jiē shì, wéi bó sī tè de sī kǎo fàn wéi hé tǎn dàng xiōng huái dōushì yòu xiàn de。
dàn shì yǔ dà duō shù gǎi gé zhě de píng yōng zhí yè xiāng bǐ, yǔ nà xiē gèng wéi píng yōng 'ér pǔ tōng de zhèng kè de zhì huì yǔ kǒu cái xiāng bǐ, wéi bó sī tè de huà jīhū shì wéi yī yòu lǐ zhì, yòu jià zhí de huà。 wǒ men wèiyòu tā 'ér gǎn xiè shàng dì。 xiāng bǐ 'ér yán, tā zǒng shì jiān qiáng yòu lì, yòu dú chuàng xìng, yóu qí shì jiǎng jiū shí jì de。 rán 'ér tā de běn zhì bù shì zhì huì, ér shì jǐn shèn。 lǜ shī de zhēn lǐ bù shì zhēn lǐ, zhǐ bù guò shì xié diào, huò xié diào de quán yí zhī jì。 zhēn lǐ de zì shēn yǒng yuǎn shì hé xié de, tā bù shì yòng lái jiē shì nà xiē kě néng yǔ cuò wù xíng wéixiàng yī zhì de zhèng yì。 wéi bó sī tè bèi chēng wéi“ xiàn fǎ de hàn wèi zhě” wán quán dāng zhī wú kuì。 tā duì xiàn fǎ zhǐ yòu hàn wèi, ér cóng wèi zhēn zhèng gōng jī guò。 tā bù shì lǐng xiù, ér shì suí cóng。 tā de lǐng xiù shì17 87 nián qǐ cǎo xiàn fǎ de rén。“ wǒ cóng wèi zuò chū nǔ lì,” tā shuō,“ cóng wèi jiàn yì zuò chū nǔ lì, cóng wèi zhī chí guò nǔ lì, yě cóng wèi dǎ suàn zhī chí nà xiē qǐ tú dǎ rǎo yuán dìng 'ān pái de nǔ lì。 zhèng shì yóu yú xiàn fǎ de 'ān pái, gè zhōu zǔ chéng liǎo mù qián zhè gè lián bāng。” zài kǎo lǜ xiàn fǎ duì nú lì zhì de mò rèn wèn tí shí, tā shèn zhì shuō,“ jì rán zhè shì zǎo xiān qì yuē de yī bù fēn, héng héng nà jiù ràng tā cún zài xià qù。” jìn guǎn tā jīng míng guò rén, cái néng chāo qún, hái shì wú fǎ jiāng yī jiàn shì cóng tā de chún zhèng zhì guān xì zhōng fēn lí chū lái, bǎ tā kàn zuò shì jué duì yào yòng cái zhì lái chù lǐ de shì, héng héng bǐ rú: zài dāng jīn měi guó, jiù nú lì zhì zhè yī wèn tí, yī gè rén dào dǐ yīnggāi gān xiē shénme。 kě shì wéi bó sī tè zhǐ néng huò shì bèi pò jué wàng dì zuò chū xià liè huí dá, tóng shí hái shēng míng tā shì zuò wéi yī gè sī xià de péng yǒu yǐ bǎ huà shuō jué liǎo, héng héng tā zhè me shuō huà, hái néng yòu shénme xīn de hé gè rén de shè huì zé rèn de zhǔn zé kě tán?“ fāng fǎ,” tā shuō,“ yǐ jí nà xiē xù nú zhōu de zhèng fǔ yīnggāi 'àn shénme xíng shì lái diào zhěng zhè yī zhì dù, bì xū yóu tā men zì jǐ kǎo lǜ, tā men bì xū duì tā men de xuǎn mín, duì yòu guān shì dù、 rén xìng hé zhèng yì de pǔ biàn cháng guī jí shàng dì běn shēn fù zé。 zài qí tā dì fāng xíng chéng, cóng mǒu zhǒng rén lèi gǎn qíng zhōng chǎn shēng, huò yóu qí tā yuán yīn zǔ chéng de shè tuán dū yǔ cǐ háo bù xiāng gān。 tā men cóng wèi dé dào guò wǒ de gǔ lì, jiāng lái yě yǒng yuǎn bù huì dé dào。”
nà xiē bù zhī zhēn lǐ yòu gèng chún jié de yuán quán de rén, nà xiē bù zài yán zhēn lǐ de xiǎo xī wǎng gāo chù zhuī xún de rén, tā men hěn cōng míng dì shǒu zài shèng jīng hé xiàn fǎ bàng biān, bì gōng bì jìng dì jū shuǐ jiě kě。 ér nà xiē kàn dào shuǐ shì cóng nǎ 'ér huì rù zhè xiē húpō de rén men què zài cì zhěng zhuāng chū fā, jì xù tā men tàn xún zhēn lǐ yuán tóu de lì chéng。
zài měi guó méi yòu chū xiàn guò lì fǎ tiān cái。 zhè zhǒng rén zài shì jiè shǐ shàng yì shǔ hǎn jiàn。 yǎn shuō jiā、 zhèng zhì jiā hé xióng biàn zhě chéng qiān shàng wàn, dàn shì yòu néng lì jiě jué dāng qián jí shǒu wèn tí de fā yán rén què shàng wèi kāi kǒu shuō huà。 wǒ men xǐ huān xióng biàn zhǐ shì yīn wéi tā shì yī mén jì shù, ér bù tài kǎo lǜ tā kě néng biǎo dá de zhēn lǐ huò jī qǐ mǒu zhǒng yīng xióng zhù yì。 wǒ men de lì fǎ zhě men shàng wèi dǒng dé zì yóu mào yì hé zì yóu、 lián méng、 gōng zhèng duì yī gè guó jiā suǒ jù yòu de xiāng duì jià zhí。 tā men méi yòu tiān zī huò cái néng jiě jué zhū rú shuì shōu、 jīn róng、 shāng yè、 shēng chǎn hé nóng yè děng shì sú zhèng wù。 yào shì wǒ men wán quán tīng píng guó huì lǐ fèi huà lián piān de lì fǎ zhě men de zhǐ dǎo, ér tā men de zhǐ dǎo yòu dé bù dào rén mín jí shí yǔ hé lǐ de jiū zhèng, yào bù liǎo duō jiǔ, měi guó zài shì jiè shàng de dì wèi biàn huì sàng shī。《 xīn yuē quán shū》 wèn shì yǐ yòu yī qiān bā bǎi nián, suī rán wǒ kě néng méi yòu zī gé shuō xià miàn de huà, dàn shì jù yòu zú gòu zhì huì hé shí jì néng lì yǐ《 xīn yuē》 jīng shén lái zhǐ dǎo lì fǎ kē xué de rén yòu zài nǎ lǐ?
zhèng fǔ de quán wēi, shèn zhì shì wǒ yuàn shùn cóng de quán wēi, héng héng yīn wéi wǒ lè yú fú cóng nà xiē dǒng dé bǐ wǒ duō、 gānde bǐ wǒ hǎo de rén, shèn zhì zài xǔ duō shì qíng shàng fú cóng nà xiē dǒng dé hé gānde dōubù rú wǒ de rén, héng héng réng rán shì bù gòu chún jié de。 yán gé shuō lái, tā bì xū dé dào bèi tǒng zhì zhě de chéng rèn hé tóng yì。 zhǐ yào wǒ méi ràng bù, tā duì wǒ gè rén hé cái chǎn jiù méi yòu chún cuì de quán lì。 cóng jué duì jūn zhù zhì dào yòu xiàn jūn zhù zhì, zài cóng yòu xiàn jūn zhù zhì dào mín zhù zhì de jìn chéng jiù shì tōng xiàng zhēn zhèng zūn zhòng gè rén de jìn chéng。 wǒ men suǒ zhī dào de mín zhù zhì shì fǒu jiù shì zhèng fǔ kě néng zuò de zuì hòu gǎi jìn? nán dào jiù bù néng zài mài jìn yī bù, chéng rèn bìng zǔ zhì rén quán? zhōu zhèng fǔ bì xū jiāng gè rén zuò wéi yī zhǒng gèng gāo hé dú lì de lì liàng 'ér jiā yǐ chéng rèn, bìng yú yǐ xiāng yìng duì dài, yīn wéi zhèng fǔ suǒ yòu de quán lì hé quán wēi dōulái zì yú zhè yī lì liàng。 zài cǐ zhī qián, jué bù huì yòu zhēn zhèng zì yóu hé wén míng de zhōu。 wǒ zì míng dé yì de shì, wǒ zuì hòu hái shì shè xiǎng liǎo yī gè zhōu, zhè gè zhōu néng gōng zhèng duì dài suǒ yòu de rén, bīn bīn yòu lǐ dì jiāng gè rén shì wéi lín jū。 jí biàn yòu xiē rén lí qún suǒ jū, zhǐ yào tā men bù dǎo luàn, yě bù tīng mìng yú rén, ér shì wán chéng zuò wéi lín jū hé tóng bāo de suǒ yòu yì wù, zhōu zhèng fǔ réng néng chǔzhī tài rán, rèn qí zì yóu。 yī gè zhōu rú néng jié chū zhè zhǒng guǒ shí, bìng rěn nài dào guā shú dì luò de shí kè, nà jiāng wéi wǒ suǒ shè xiǎng de, lìng yī gè gèng wán shàn、 gèng zhuàng lì de zhōu pū píng dào lù, jìn guǎn zhè gè zhōu zhì jīn rèn hé dì fāng dū hái kàn bù dào。
zhāi zì《 měi guó de lì shǐ wén xiàn》 zhào yī fán biān
sān lián shū diàn1989 nián bǎn
This American government -- what is it but a tradition, though a recent one, endeavoring to transmit itself unimpaired to posterity, but each instant losing some of its integrity? It has not the vitality and force of a single living man; for a single man can bend it to his will. It is a sort of wooden gun to the people themselves. But it is not the less necessary for this; for the people must have some complicated machinery or other, and hear its din, to satisfy that idea of government which they have. Governments show thus how successfully men can be imposed on, even impose on themselves, for their own advantage. It is excellent, we must all allow. Yet this government never of itself furthered any enterprise, but by the alacrity with which it got out of its way. It does not keep the country free. It does not settle the West. It does not educate. The character inherent in the American people has done all that has been accomplished; and it would have done somewhat more, if the government had not sometimes got in its way. For government is an expedient by which men would fain succeed in letting one another alone; and, as has been said, when it is most expedient, the governed are most let alone by it. Trade and commerce, if they were not made of India rubber, would never manage to bounce over the obstacles which legislators are continually putting in their way; and, if one were to judge these men wholly by the effects of their actions, and not partly by their intentions, they would deserve to be classed and punished with those mischievous persons who put obstructions on the railroads.
But, to speak practically and as a citizen, unlike those who call themselves no-government men, I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government. Let every man make known what kind of government would command his respect, and that will be one step toward obtaining it.
After all, the practical reason why, when the power is once in the hands of the people, a majority are permitted, and for a long period continue, to rule, is not because they are most likely to be in the right, nor because this seems fairest to the minority, but because they are physically the strongest. But a government in which the majority rule in all cases cannot be based on justice, even as far as men understand it. Can there not be a government in which majorities do not virtually decide right and wrong, but conscience? -- in which majorities decide only those questions to which the rule of expediency is applicable? Must the citizen ever for a moment, or in the least degree, resign his conscience to the legislator? Why has every man a conscience, then? I think that we should be men first, and subjects afterward. It is not desirable to cultivate a respect for the law, so much as for the right. The only obligation which I have a right to assume is to do at any time what I think right. It is truly enough said that a corporation has no conscience; but a corporation of conscientious men is a corporation with a conscience. Law never made men a whit more just; and, by means of their respect for it, even the well-disposed are daily made the agents of injustice. A common and natural result of an undue respect for law is, that you may see a file of soldiers, colonel, captain, corporal, privates, powder-monkeys, and all, marching in admirable order over hill and dale to the wars, against their wills, ay, against their common sense and consciences, which makes it very steep marching indeed, and produces a palpitation of the heart. They have no doubt that it is a damnable business in which they are concerned; they are all peaceably inclined. Now, what are they? Men at all? or small movable forts and magazines, at the service of some unscrupulous man in power? Visit the Navy Yard, and behold a marine, such a man as an American government can make, or such as it can make a man with its black arts -- a mere shadow and reminiscence of humanity, a man laid out alive and standing, and already, as one may say, buried under arms with funeral accompaniments, though it may be
"Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note,
As his corse to the rampart we hurried;
Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot
O'er the grave where our hero we buried."
The mass of men serve the state thus, not as men mainly, but as machines, with their bodies. They are the standing army, and the militia, jailers, constables, posse comitatus, etc. In most cases there is no free exercise whatever of the judgment or of the moral sense; but they put themselves on a level with wood and earth and stones; and wooden men can perhaps be manufactured that will serve the purpose as well. Such command no more respect than men of straw or a lump of dirt. They have the same sort of worth only as horses and dogs. Yet such as these even are commonly esteemed good citizens. Others, as most legislators, politicians, lawyers, ministers, and office-holders, serve the state chiefly with their heads; and, as they rarely make any moral distinctions, they are as likely to serve the devil, without intending it, as God. A very few, as heroes, patriots, martyrs, reformers in the great sense, and men, serve the state with their consciences also, and so necessarily resist it for the most part; and they are commonly treated as enemies by it. A wise man will only be useful as a man, and will not submit to be "clay," and "stop a hole to keep the wind away," but leave that office to his dust at least:--
"I am too high-born to be propertied,
To be a secondary at control,
Or useful serving-man and instrument
To any sovereign state throughout the world."
He who gives himself entirely to his fellow-men appears to them useless and selfish; but he who gives himself partially to them is pronounced a benefactor and philanthropist.
How does it become a man to behave toward this American government to-day? I answer, that he cannot without disgrace be associated with it. I cannot for an instant recognize that political organization as my government which is the slave's government also.
All men recognize the right of revolution; that is, the right to refuse allegiance to, and to resist, the government, when its tyranny or its inefficiency are great and unendurable. But almost all say that such is not the case now. But such was the case, they think, in the Revolution of '75. If one were to tell me that this was a bad government because it taxed certain foreign commodities brought to its ports, it is most probable that I should not make an ado about it, for I can do without them. All machines have their friction; and possibly this does enough good to counterbalance the evil. At any rate, it is a great evil to make a stir about it. But when the friction comes to have its machine, and oppression and robbery are organized, I say, let us not have such a machine any longer. In other words, when a sixth of the population of a nation which has undertaken to be the refuge of liberty are slaves, and a whole country is unjustly overrun and conquered by a foreign army, and subjected to military law, I think that it is not too soon for honest men to rebel and revolutionize. What makes this duty the more urgent is the fact that the country so overrun is not our own, but ours is the invading army.
Paley, a common authority with many on moral questions, in his chapter on the "Duty of Submission to Civil Government," resolves all civil obligation into expediency; and he proceeds to say that "so long as the interest of the whole society requires it, that is, so long as the established government cannot be resisted or changed without public inconveniency, it is the will of God... that the established government be obeyed, and no longer.... This principle being admitted, the justice of every particular case of resistance is reduced to a computation of the quantity of the danger and grievance on the one side, and of the probability and expense of redressing it on the other." Of this, he says, every man shall judge for himself. But Paley appears never to have contemplated those cases to which the rule of expediency does not apply, in which a people, as well as an individual, must do justice, cost what it may. If I have unjustly wrested a plank from a drowning man, I must restore it to him though I drown myself. This, according to Paley, would be inconvenient. But he that would save his life, in such a case, shall lose it. This people must cease to hold slaves, and to make war on Mexico, though it cost them their existence as a people.
In their practice, nations agree with Paley; but does any one think that Massachusetts does exactly what is right at the present crisis?
"A drab of state, a cloth-o'-silver slut, To have her train borne up, and her soul trail in the dirt."
Practically speaking, the opponents to a reform in Massachusetts are not a hundred thousand politicians at the South, but a hundred thousand merchants and farmers here, who are more interested in commerce and agriculture than they are in humanity, and are not prepared to do justice to the slave and to Mexico, cost what it may. I quarrel not with far-off foes, but with those who, near at home, co-operate with, and do the bidding of those far away, and without whom the latter would be harmless. We are accustomed to say, that the mass of men are unprepared; but improvement is slow, because the few are not materially wiser or better than the many. It is not so important that many should be as good as you, as that there be some absolute goodness somewhere; for that will leaven the whole lump. There are thousands who are in opinion opposed to slavery and to the war, who yet in effect do nothing to put an end to them; who, esteeming themselves children of Washington and Franklin, sit down with their hands in their pockets, and say that they know not what to do, and do nothing; who even postpone the question of freedom to the question of free-trade, and quietly read the prices-current along with the latest advices from Mexico, after dinner, and, it may be, fall asleep over them both. What is the price-current of an honest man and patriot to-day? They hesitate, and they regret, and sometimes they petition; but they do nothing in earnest and with effect. They will wait, well disposed, for others to remedy the evil, that they may no longer have it to regret. At most, they give only a cheap vote, and a feeble countenance and Godspeed, to the right, as it goes by them. There are nine hundred and ninety-nine patrons of virtue to one virtuous man; but it is easier to deal with the real possessor of a thing than with the temporary guardian of it.
All voting is a sort of gaming, like checkers or backgammon, with a slight moral tinge to it, a playing with right and wrong, with moral questions; and betting naturally accompanies it. The character of the voters is not staked. I cast my vote, perchance, as I think right; but I am not vitally concerned that that right should prevail. I am willing to leave it to the majority. Its obligation, therefore, never exceeds that of expediency. Even voting for the right is doing nothing for it. It is only expressing to men feebly your desire that it should prevail. A wise man will not leave the right to the mercy of chance, nor wish it to prevail through the power of the majority. There is but little virtue in the action of masses of men. When the majority shall at length vote for the abolition of slavery, it will be because they are indifferent to slavery, or because there is but little slavery left to be abolished by their vote. They will then be the only slaves. Only his vote can hasten the abolition of slavery who asserts his own freedom by his vote.
I hear of a convention to be held at Baltimore, or elsewhere, for the selection of a candidate for the Presidency, made up chiefly of editors, and men who are politicians by profession; but I think, what is it to any independent, intelligent, and respectable man what decision they may come to? Shall we not have the advantage of his wisdom and honesty, nevertheless? Can we not count upon some independent votes? Are there not many individuals in the country who do not attend conventions? But no: I find that the respectable man, so called, has immediately drifted from his position, and despairs of his country, when his country has more reason to despair of him. He forthwith adopts one of the candidates thus selected as the only available one, thus proving that he is himself available for any purposes of the demagogue. His vote is of no more worth than that of any unprincipled foreigner or hireling native, who may have been bought. Oh for a man who is a man, and, as my neighbor says, has a bone in his back which you cannot pass your hand through! Our statistics are at fault: the population has been returned too large. How many men are there to a square thousand miles in this country? Hardly one. Does not America offer any inducement for men to settle here? The American has dwindled into an Odd Fellow -- one who may be known by the development of his organ of gregariousness, and a manifest lack of intellect and cheerful self-reliance; whose first and chief concern, on coming into the world, is to see that the almshouses are in good repair; and, before yet he has lawfully donned the virile garb, to collect a fund for the support of the widows and orphans that may be; who, in short ventures to live only by the aid of the Mutual Insurance company, which has promised to bury him decently.
It is not a man's duty, as a matter of course, to devote himself to the eradication of any, even the most enormous wrong; he may still properly have other concerns to engage him; but it is his duty, at least, to wash his hands of it, and, if he gives it no thought longer, not to give it practically his support. If I devote myself to other pursuits and contemplations, I must first see, at least, that I do not pursue them sitting upon another man's shoulders. I must get off him first, that he may pursue his contemplations too. See what gross inconsistency is tolerated. I have heard some of my townsmen say, "I should like to have them order me out to help put down an insurrection of the slaves, or to march to Mexico; -- see if I would go"; and yet these very men have each, directly by their allegiance, and so indirectly, at least, by their money, furnished a substitute. The soldier is applauded who refuses to serve in an unjust war by those who do not refuse to sustain the unjust government which makes the war; is applauded by those whose own act and authority he disregards and sets at naught; as if the state were penitent to that degree that it hired one to scourge it while it sinned, but not to that degree that it left off sinning for a moment. Thus, under the name of Order and Civil Government, we are all made at last to pay homage to and support our own meanness. After the first blush of sin comes its indifference; and from immoral it becomes, as it were, unmoral, and not quite unnecessary to that life which we have made.
The broadest and most prevalent error requires the most disinterested virtue to sustain it. The slight reproach to which the virtue of patriotism is commonly liable, the noble are most likely to incur. Those who, while they disapprove of the character and measures of a government, yield to it their allegiance and support are undoubtedly its most conscientious supporters, and so frequently the most serious obstacles to reform. Some are petitioning the State to dissolve the Union, to disregard the requisitions of the President. Why do they not dissolve it themselves -- the union between themselves and the State -- and refuse to pay their quota into its treasury? Do not they stand in the same relation to the State, that the State does to the Union? And have not the same reasons prevented the State from resisting the Union, which have prevented them from resisting the State?
How can a man be satisfied to entertain an opinion merely, and enjoy it? Is there any enjoyment in it, if his opinion is that he is aggrieved? If you are cheated out of a single dollar by your neighbor, you do not rest satisfied with knowing that you are cheated, or with saying that you are cheated, or even with petitioning him to pay you your due; but you take effectual steps at once to obtain the full amount, and see that you are never cheated again. Action from principle -- the perception and the performance of right -- changes things and relations; it is essentially revolutionary, and does not consist wholly with anything which was. It not only divides states and churches, it divides families; ay, it divides the individual, separating the diabolical in him from the divine.
Unjust laws exist; shall we be content to obey them, or shall we endeavor to amend them, and obey them until we have succeeded, or shall we transgress them at once? Men generally, under such a government as this, think that they ought to wait until they have persuaded the majority to alter them. They think that, if they should resist, the remedy would be worse than the evil. But it is the fault of the government itself that the remedy is worse than the evil. It makes it worse. Why is it not more apt to anticipate and provide for reform? Why does it not cherish its wise minority? Why does it cry and resist before it is hurt? Why does it not encourage its citizens to be on the alert to point out its faults, and do better than it would have them? Why does it always crucify Christ, and excommunicate Copernicus and Luther, and pronounce Washington and Franklin rebels?
One would think, that a deliberate and practical denial of its authority was the only offence never contemplated by government; else, why has it not assigned its definite, its suitable and proportionate, penalty? If a man who has no property refuses but once to earn nine shillings for the State, he is put in prison for a period unlimited by any law that I know, and determined only by the discretion of those who placed him there; but if he should steal ninety times nine shillings from the State, he is soon permitted to go at large again.
If the injustice is part of the necessary friction of the machine of government, let it go, let it go; perchance it will wear smooth -- certainly the machine will wear out. If the injustice has a spring, or a pulley, or a rope, or a crank, exclusively for itself, then perhaps you may consider whether the remedy will not be worse than the evil; but if it is of such a nature that it requires you to be the agent of injustice to another, then, I say, break the law. Let your life be a counter friction to stop the machine. What I have to do is to see, at any rate, that I do not lend myself to the wrong which I condemn.
As for adopting the ways which the State has provided for remedying the evil, I know not of such ways. They take too much time, and a man's life will be gone. I have other affairs to attend to. I came into this world, not chiefly to make this a good place to live in, but to live in it, be it good or bad. A man has not everything to do, but something; and because he cannot do everything, it is not necessary that he should do something wrong. It is not my business to be petitioning the Governor or the Legislature any more than it is theirs to petition me; and if they should not hear my petition, what should I do then? But in this case the State has provided no way; its very Constitution is the evil. This may seem to be harsh and stubborn and unconciliatory; but it is to treat with the utmost kindness and consideration the only spirit that can appreciate or deserves it. So is an change for the better, like birth and death which convulse the body.
I do not hesitate to say, that those who call themselves Abolitionists should at once effectually withdraw their support, both in person and property, from the government of Massachusetts, and not wait till they constitute a majority of one, before they suffer the right to prevail through them. I think that it is enough if they have God on their side, without waiting for that other one. Moreover, any man more right than his neighbors constitutes a majority of one already.
I meet this American government, or its representative, the State government, directly, and face to face, once a year -- no more -- in the person of its tax-gatherer; this is the only mode in which a man situated as I am necessarily meets it; and it then says distinctly, Recognize me; and the simplest, the most effectual, and, in the present posture of affairs, the indispensablest mode of treating with it on this head, of expressing your little satisfaction with and love for it, is to deny it then. My civil neighbor, the tax-gatherer, is the very man I have to deal with -- for it is, after all, with men and not with parchment that I quarrel -- and he has voluntarily chosen to be an agent of the government. How shall he ever know well what he is and does as an officer of the government, or as a man, until he is obliged to consider whether he shall treat me, his neighbor, for whom he has respect, as a neighbor and well-disposed man, or as a maniac and disturber of the peace, and see if he can get over this obstruction to his neighborliness without a ruder and more impetuous thought or speech corresponding with his action? I know this well, that if one thousand, if one hundred, if ten men whom I could name -- if ten honest men only -- ay, if one HONEST man, in this State of Massachusetts, ceasing to hold slaves, were actually to withdraw from this copartnership, and be locked up in the county jail therefor, it would be the abolition of slavery in America. For it matters not how small the beginning may seem to be: what is once well done is done forever. But we love better to talk about it: that we say is our mission. Reform keeps many scores of newspapers in its service, but not one man. If my esteemed neighbor, the State's ambassador, who will devote his days to the settlement of the question of human rights in the Council Chamber, instead of being threatened with the prisons of Carolina, were to sit down the prisoner of Massachusetts, that State which is so anxious to foist the sin of slavery upon her sister -- though at present she can discover only an act of inhospitality to be the ground of a quarrel with her -- the Legislature would not wholly waive the subject the following winter.
Under a government which imprisons any unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison. The proper place to-day, the only place which Massachusetts has provided for her freer and less desponding spirits, is in her prisons, to be put out and locked out of the State by her own act, as they have already put themselves out by their principles. It is there that the fugitive slave, and the Mexican prisoner on parole, and the Indian come to plead the wrongs of his race, should find them; on that separate, but more free and honorable ground, where the State places those who are not with her, but against her -- the only house in a slave State in which a free man can abide with honor. If any think that their influence would be lost there, and their voices no longer afflict the ear of the State, that they would not be as an enemy within its walls, they do not know by how much truth is stronger than error, nor how much more eloquently and effectively he can combat injustice who has experienced a little in his own person. Cast your whole vote, not a strip of paper merely, but your whole influence. A minority is powerless while it conforms to the majority; it is not even a minority then; but it is irresistible when it clogs by its whole weight. If the alternative is to keep all just men in prison, or give up war and slavery, the State will not hesitate which to choose. If a thousand men were not to pay their tax-bills this year, that would not be a violent and bloody measure, as it would be to pay them, and enable the State to commit violence and shed innocent blood. This is, in fact, the definition of a peaceable revolution, if any such is possible. If the tax-gatherer, or any other public officer, asks me, as one has done, "But what shall I do?" my answer is, "If you really wish to do anything, resign your office." When the subject has refused allegiance, and the officer has resigned his office, then the revolution is accomplished. But even suppose blood should flow. Is there not a sort of blood shed when the conscience is wounded? Through this wound a man's real manhood and immortality flow out, and he bleeds to an everlasting death. I see this blood flowing now.
I have contemplated the imprisonment of the offender, rather than the seizure of his goods -- though both will serve the same purpose -- because they who assert the purest right, and consequently are most dangerous to a corrupt State, commonly have not spent much time in accumulating property. To such the State renders comparatively small service, and a slight tax is wont to appear exorbitant, particularly if they are obliged to earn it by special labor with their hands. If there were one who lived wholly without the use of money, the State itself would hesitate to demand it of him. But the rich man -- not to make any invidious comparison -- is always sold to the institution which makes him rich. Absolutely speaking, the more money, the less virtue; for money comes between a man and his objects, and obtains them for him; and it was certainly no great virtue to obtain it. It puts to rest many questions which he would otherwise be taxed to answer; while the only new question which it puts is the hard but superfluous one, how to spend it. Thus his moral ground is taken from under his feet. The opportunities of living are diminished in proportion as what are called the "means" are increased. The best thing a man can do for his culture when he is rich is to endeavor to carry out those schemes which he entertained when he was poor. Christ answered the Herodians according to their condition. "Show me the tribute-money," said he; -- and one took a penny out of his pocket; -- if you use money which has the image of Caesar on it, and which he has made current and valuable, that is, if you are men of the State, and gladly enjoy the advantages of Caesar's government, then pay him back some of his own when he demands it; "Render therefore to Caesar that which is Caesar's, and to God those things which are God's" -- leaving them no wiser than before as to which was which; for they did not wish to know.
When I converse with the freest of my neighbors, I perceive that, whatever they may say about the magnitude and seriousness of the question, and their regard for the public tranquillity, the long and the short of the matter is, that they cannot spare the protection of the existing government, and they dread the consequences to their property and families of disobedience to it. For my own part, I should not like to think that I ever rely on the protection of the State. But, if I deny the authority of the State when it presents its tax-bill, it will soon take and waste all my property, and so harass me and my children without end. This is hard. This makes it impossible for a man to live honestly, and at the same time comfortably in outward respects. It will not be worth the while to accumulate property; that would be sure to go again. You must hire or squat somewhere, and raise but a small crop, and eat that soon. You must live within yourself, and depend upon yourself always tucked up and ready for a start, and not have many affairs. A man may grow rich in Turkey even, if he will be in all respects a good subject of the Turkish government. Confucius said, "If a state is governed by the principles of reason, poverty and misery are subjects of shame; if a state is not governed by the principles of reason, riches and honors are the subjects of shame." No: until I want the protection of Massachusetts to be extended to me in some distant Southern port, where my liberty is endangered, or until I am bent solely on building up an estate at home by peaceful enterprise, I can afford to refuse allegiance to Massachusetts, and her right to my property and life. It costs me less in every sense to incur the penalty of disobedience to the State than it would to obey. I should feel as if I were worth less in that case.
Some years ago, the State met me in behalf of the Church, and commanded me to pay a certain sum toward the support of a clergyman whose preaching my father attended, but never I myself. "Pay," it said, "or be locked up in the jail." I declined to pay. But, unfortunately, another man saw fit to pay it. I did not see why the schoolmaster should be taxed to support the priest, and not the priest the schoolmaster: for I was not the State's schoolmaster, but I supported myself by voluntary subscription. I did not see why the lyceum should not present its tax-bill, and have the State to back its demand, as well as the Church. However, at the request of the selectmen, I condescended to make some such statement as this in writing:-- "Know all men by these presents, that I, Henry Thoreau, do not wish to be regarded as a member of any incorporated society which I have not joined." This I gave to the town clerk; and he has it. The State, having thus learned that I did not wish to be regarded as a member of that church, has never made a like demand on me since; though it said that it must adhere to its original presumption that time. If I had known how to name them, I should then have signed off in detail from all the societies which I never signed on to; but I did not know where to find a complete list.
I have paid no poll-tax for six years. I was put into a jail once on this account, for one night; and, as I stood considering the walls of solid stone, two or three feet thick, the door of wood and iron, a foot thick, and the iron grating which strained the light, I could not help being struck with the foolishness of that institution which treated me as if I were mere flesh and blood and bones, to be locked up. I wondered that it should have concluded at length that this was the best use it could put me to, and had never thought to avail itself of my services in some way. I saw that, if there was a wall of stone between me and my townsmen, there was a still more difficult one to climb or break through, before they could get to be as free as I was. I did not for a moment feel confined, and the walls seemed a great waste of stone and mortar. I felt as if I alone of all my townsmen had paid my tax. They plainly did not know how to treat me, but behaved like persons who are underbred. In every threat and in every compliment there was a blunder; for they thought that my chief desire was to stand the other side of that stone wall. I could not but smile to see how industriously they locked the door on my meditations, which followed them out again without let or hindrance, and they were really all that was dangerous. As they could not reach me, they had resolved to punish my body; just as boys, if they cannot come at some person against whom they have a spite, will abuse his dog. I saw that the State was half-witted, that it was timid as a lone woman with her silver spoons, and that it did not know its friends from its foes, and I lost all my remaining respect for it, and pitied it.
Thus the State never intentionally confronts a man's sense, intellectual or moral, but only his body, his senses. It is not armed with superior wit or honesty, but with superior physical strength. I was not born to be forced. I will breathe after my own fashion. Let us see who is the strongest. What force has a multitude? They only can force me who obey a higher law than I. They force me to become like themselves. I do not hear of men being forced to have this way or that by masses of men. What sort of life were that to live? When I meet a government which says to me, "Your money or your life," why should I be in haste to give it my money? It may be in a great strait, and not know what to do: I cannot help that. It must help itself; do as I do. It is not worth the while to snivel about it. I am not responsible for the successful working of the machinery of society. I am not the son of the engineer. I perceive that, when an acorn and a chestnut fall side by side, the one does not remain inert to make way for the other, but both obey their own laws, and spring and grow and flourish as best they can, till one, perchance, overshadows and destroys the other. If a plant cannot live according to its nature, it dies; and so a man.
The night in prison was novel and interesting enough. The prisoners in their shirt-sleeves were enjoying a chat and the evening air in the doorway, when I entered. But the jailer said, "Come, boys, it is time to lock up"; and so they dispersed, and I heard the sound of their steps returning into the hollow apartments. My room-mate was introduced to me by the jailer as "a first-rate fellow and a clever man." When the door was locked, he showed me where to hang my hat, and how he managed matters there. The rooms were whitewashed once a month; and this one, at least, was the whitest, most simply furnished, and probably the neatest apartment in the town. He naturally wanted to know where I came from, and what brought me there; and, when I had told him, I asked him in my turn how he came there, presuming him to be an honest man, of course; and, as the world goes, I believe he was. "Why," said he, "they accuse me of burning a barn; but I never did it." As near as I could discover, he had probably gone to bed in a barn when drunk, and smoked his pipe there; and so a barn was burnt. He had the reputation of being a clever man, had been there some three months waiting for his trial to come on, and would have to wait as much longer; but he was quite domesticated and contented, since he got his board for nothing, and thought that he was well treated.
He occupied one window, and I the other; and I saw that if one stayed there long, his principal business would be to look out the window. I had soon read all the tracts that were left there, and examined where former prisoners had broken out, and where a grate had been sawed off, and heard the history of the various occupants of that room; for I found that even here there was a history and a gossip which never circulated beyond the walls of the jail. Probably this is the only house in the town where verses are composed, which are afterward printed in a circular form, but not published. I was shown quite a long list of verses which were composed by some young men who had been detected in an attempt to escape, who avenged themselves by singing them.
I pumped my fellow-prisoner as dry as I could, for fear I should never see him again; but at length he showed me which was my bed, and left me to blow out the lamp.
It was like travelling into a far country, such as I had never expected to behold, to lie there for one night. It seemed to me that I never had heard the town-clock strike before, nor the evening sounds of the village; for we slept with the windows open, which were inside the grating. It was to see my native village in the light of the Middle Ages, and our Concord was turned into a Rhine stream, and visions of knights and castles passed before me. They were the voices of old burghers that I heard in the streets. I was an involuntary spectator and auditor of whatever was done and said in the kitchen of the adjacent village-inn -- a wholly new and rare experience to me. It was a closer view of my native town. I was fairly inside of it. I never had seen its institutions before. This is one of its peculiar institutions; for it is a shire town. I began to comprehend what its inhabitants were about.
In the morning, our breakfasts were put through the hole in the door, in small oblong-square tin pans, made to fit, and holding a pint of chocolate, with brown bread, and an iron spoon. When they called for the vessels again, I was green enough to return what bread I had left; but my comrade seized it, and said that I should lay that up for lunch or dinner. Soon after he was let out to work at haying in a neighboring field, whither he went every day, and would not be back till noon; so he bade me good-day, saying that he doubted if he should see me again.
When I came out of prison -- for some one interfered, and paid that tax -- I did not perceive that great changes had taken place on the common, such as he observed who went in a youth and emerged a tottering and gray-headed man; and yet a change had to my eyes come over the scene -- the town, and State, and country -- greater than any that mere time could effect. I saw yet more distinctly the State in which I lived. I saw to what extent the people among whom I lived could be trusted as good neighbors and friends; that their friendship was for summer weather only; that they did not greatly propose to do right; that they were a distinct race from me by their prejudices and superstitions, as the Chinamen and Malays are; that in their sacrifices to humanity, they ran no risks, not even to their property; that after all they were not so noble but they treated the thief as he had treated them, and hoped, by a certain outward observance and a few prayers, and by walking in a particular straight though useless path from time to time, to save their souls. This may be to judge my neighbors harshly; for I believe that many of them are not aware that they have such an institution as the jail in their village.
It was formerly the custom in our village, when a poor debtor came out of jail, for his acquaintances to salute him, looking through their fingers, which were crossed to represent the grating of a jail window, "How do ye do?" My neighbors did not thus salute me, but first looked at me, and then at one another, as if I had returned from a long journey. I was put into jail as I was going to the shoemaker's to get a shoe which was mended. When I was let out the next morning, I proceeded to finish my errand, and, having put on my mended shoe, joined a huckleberry party, who were impatient to put themselves under my conduct; and in half an hour -- for the horse was soon tackled -- was in the midst of a huckleberry field, on one of our highest hills, two miles off, and then the State was nowhere to be seen.
This is the whole history of "My Prisons."
I have never declined paying the highway tax, because I am as desirous of being a good neighbor as I am of being a bad subject; and as for supporting schools, I am doing my part to educate my fellow-countrymen now. It is for no particular item in the tax-bill that I refuse to pay it. I simply wish to refuse allegiance to the State, to withdraw and stand aloof from it effectually. I do not care to trace the course of my dollar, if I could, till it buys a man or a musket to shoot one with -- the dollar is innocent -- but I am concerned to trace the effects of my allegiance. In fact, I quietly declare war with the State, after my fashion, though I will still make what use and get what advantage of her I can, as is usual in such cases.
If others pay the tax which is demanded of me, from a sympathy with the State, they do but what they have already done in their own case, or rather they abet injustice to a greater extent than the State requires. If they pay the tax from a mistaken interest in the individual taxed, to save his property, or prevent his going to jail, it is because they have not considered wisely how far they let their private feelings interfere with the public good.
This, then, is my position at present. But one cannot be too much on his guard in such a case, lest his action be biased by obstinacy or an undue regard for the opinions of men. Let him see that he does only what belongs to himself and to the hour.
I think sometimes, Why, this people mean well; they are only ignorant; they would do better if they knew how: why give your neighbors this pain to treat you as they are not inclined to? But I think, again, This is no reason why I should do as they do, or permit others to suffer much greater pain of a different kind. Again, I sometimes say to myself, When many millions of men, without heat, without ill-will, without personal feeling of any kind, demand of you a few shillings only, without the possibility, such is their constitution, of retracting or altering their present demand, and without the possibility, on your side, of appeal to any other millions, why expose yourself to this overwhelming brute force? You do not resist cold and hunger, the winds and the waves, thus obstinately; you quietly submit to a thousand similar necessities. You do not put your head into the fire. But just in proportion as I regard this as not wholly a brute force, but partly a human force, and consider that I have relations to those millions as to so many millions of men, and not of mere brute or inanimate things, I see that appeal is possible, first and instantaneously, from them to the Maker of them, and, secondly, from them to themselves. But, if I put my head deliberately into the fire, there is no appeal to fire or to the Maker of fire, and I have only myself to blame. If I could convince myself that I have any right to be satisfied with men as they are, and to treat them accordingly, and not according, in some respects, to my requisitions and expectations of what they and I ought to be, then, like a good Mussulman and fatalist, I should endeavor to be satisfied with things as they are, and say it is the will of God. And, above all, there is this difference between resisting this and a purely brute or natural force, that I can resist this with some effect; but I cannot expect, like Orpheus, to change the nature of the rocks and trees and beasts.
I do not wish to quarrel with any man or nation. I do not wish to split hairs, to make fine distinctions, or set myself up as better than my neighbors. I seek rather, I may say, even an excuse for conforming to the laws of the land. I am but too ready to conform to them. Indeed, I have reason to suspect myself on this head; and each year, as the tax-gatherer comes round, I find myself disposed to review the acts and position of the general and State governments, and the spirit of the people, to discover a pretext for conformity.
"We must affect our country as our parents,
And if at any time we alienate
Our love or industry from doing it honor,
We must respect effects and teach the soul
Matter of conscience and religion,
And not desire of rule or benefit."
I believe that the State will soon be able to take all my work of this sort out of my hands, and then I shall be no better a patriot than my fellow-countrymen. Seen from a lower point of view, the Constitution, with all its faults, is very good; the law and the courts are very respectable; even this State and this American government are, in many respects, very admirable and rare things, to be thankful for, such as a great many have described them; but seen from a point of view a little higher, they are what I have described them; seen from a higher still, and the highest, who shall say what they are, or that they are worth looking at or thinking of at all?
However, the government does not concern me much, and I shall bestow the fewest possible thoughts on it. It is not many moments that I live under a government, even in this world. If a man is thought-free, fancy-free, imagination-free, that which is not never for a long time appearing to be to him, unwise rulers or reformers cannot fatally interrupt him.
I know that most men think differently from myself; but those whose lives are by profession devoted to the study of these or kindred subjects, content me as little as any. Statesmen and legislators, standing so completely within the institution, never distinctly and nakedly behold it. They speak of moving society, but have no resting-place without it. They may be men of a certain experience and discrimination, and have no doubt invented ingenious and even useful systems, for which we sincerely thank them; but all their wit and usefulness lie within certain not very wide limits. They are wont to forget that the world is not governed by policy and expediency. Webster never goes behind government, and so cannot speak with authority about it. His words are wisdom to those legislators who contemplate no essential reform in the existing government; but for thinkers, and those who legislate for all time, he never once glances at the subject. I know of those whose serene and wise speculations on this theme would soon reveal the limits of his mind's range and hospitality. Yet, compared with the cheap professions of most reformers, and the still cheaper wisdom and eloquence of politicians in general, his are almost the only sensible and valuable words, and we thank Heaven for him. Comparatively, he is always strong, original, and, above all, practical. Still, his quality is not wisdom, but prudence. The lawyer's truth is not truth, but consistency or a consistent expediency. Truth is always in harmony with herself, and is not concerned chiefly to reveal the justice that may consist with wrong-doing. He well deserves to be called, as he has been called, the Defender of the Constitution. There are really no blows to be given by him but defensive ones. He is not a leader, but a follower. His leaders are the men of '87. "I have never made an effort," he says, "and never propose to make an effort; I have never countenanced an effort, and never mean to countenance an effort, to disturb the arrangement as originally made, by which the various States came into the Union." Still thinking of the sanction which the Constitution gives to slavery, he says, "Because it was a part of the original compact -- let it stand." Notwithstanding his special acuteness and ability, he is unable to take a fact out of its merely political relations, and behold it as it lies absolutely to be disposed of by the intellect -- what, for instance, it behooves a man to do here in America to-day with regard to slavery, but ventures, or is driven, to make some such desperate answer as the following, while professing to speak absolutely, and as a private man -- from which what new and singular code of social duties might be inferred? "The manner," says he, "in which the governments of those States where slavery exists are to regulate it is for their own consideration, under their responsibility to their constituents, to the general laws of propriety, humanity, and justice, and to God. Associations formed elsewhere, springing from a feeling of humanity, or any other cause, have nothing whatever to do with it. They have never received any encouragement from me, and they never will."
They who know of no purer sources of truth, who have traced up its stream no higher, stand, and wisely stand, by the Bible and the Constitution, and drink at it there with reverence and humility; but they who behold where it comes trickling into this lake or that pool, gird up their loins once more, and continue their pilgrimage toward its fountain-head.
No man with a genius for legislation has appeared in America. They are rare in the history of the world. There are orators, politicians, and eloquent men, by the thousand; but the speaker has not yet opened his mouth to speak who is capable of settling the much-vexed questions of the day. We love eloquence for its own sake, and not for any truth which it may utter, or any heroism it may inspire. Our legislators have not yet learned the comparative value of free-trade and of freedom, of union, and of rectitude, to a nation. They have no genius or talent for comparatively humble questions of taxation and finance, commerce and manufacturers and agriculture. If we were left solely to the wordy wit of legislators in Congress for our guidance, uncorrected by the seasonable experience and the effectual complaints of the people, America would not long retain her rank among the nations. For eighteen hundred years, though perchance I have no right to say it, the New Testament has been written; yet where is the legislator who has wisdom and practical talent enough to avail himself of the light which it sheds on the science of legislation?
The authority of government, even such as I am willing to submit to -- for I will cheerfully obey those who know and can do better than I, and in many things even those who neither know nor can do so well -- is still an impure one: to be strictly just, it must have the sanction and consent of the governed. It can have no pure right over my person and property but what I concede to it. The progress from an absolute to a limited monarchy, from a limited monarchy to a democracy, is a progress toward a true respect for the individual. Even the Chinese philosopher was wise enough to regard the individual as the basis of the empire. Is a democracy, such as we know it, the last improvement possible in government? Is it not possible to take a step further towards recognizing and organizing the rights of man? There will never be a really free and enlightened State until the State comes to recognize the individual as a higher and independent power, from which all its own power and authority are derived, and treats him accordingly. I please myself with imagining a State at least which can afford to be just to all men, and to treat the individual with respect as a neighbor; which even would not think it inconsistent with its own repose if a few were to live aloof from it, not meddling with it, nor embraced by it, who fulfilled all the duties of neighbors and fellow-men. A State which bore this kind of fruit, and suffered it to drop off as fast as it ripened, would prepare the way for a still more perfect and glorious State, which also I have imagined, but not yet anywhere seen.
běn shū wéi nǐ miáo huì liǎo cóng xìn xī shè huì zhuǎn biàn dào mèng xiǎng shè huì de chéng gōng lán tú, bìng zhǐ chū gōng zuò chǎng suǒ、 shì chǎng huán jìng yǐ jí xiū xián yú lè děng fāng miàn jiāng fā shēng de biàn huà。 běn shū jǐn xiàn gěi měi yī wèi yòu zhì cóng shāng de rén héng héng dì yī gè xī wàng liǎo jiě wèi lái shì chǎng zǒu xiàng de rén; dāng shì chǎng、 xiāo fèi zhě hé yuán gōng mendōu yuè rù mèng xiǎng shè huì shí, měi yī gè bù xiǎng dú zì zhì liú zài xìn xī shè huì de rén。 zhè běn shū shì hé měi yī wèi xīn xì wèi lái、 chōng jǐng 21 shì jì shēng huó de rén yuè dú。
běn shū dì 1 zhāng jiè shào liǎo mèng xiǎng shè huì de luó ji。 gōng sī rú guǒ bù cǎi yòng zhè zhǒng xīn xíng luó ji jiù huì zuò shī jí jiāng chū xiàn de jù dà shì chǎng zēngzhǎng jī huì。 shì shí shàng, mèng xiǎng shè huì yǐ jīng xiàng bīng shān yī yàng qiǎo rán lái lín, suī chén zhe xú huǎn, què shì bù kě dǎng。 rú guǒ bù shùn shì 'ér wéi, kǒng pà yào bèi bīng shān niǎn píng。 dì 2 zhāng tàn tǎo liǎo shì chǎng lún kuò、 jiǎng shù gù shì yǐ jí liù zhǒng yǐ jīng chū jù chú xíng de qíng gǎn shì chǎng, tí chū liǎo yī zhǒng yòu zhù yú qǐ fā zhàn lüè xìng sī wéi de quán xīn luó ji, bìng zuǒ yǐ fēng fù shēng dòng de shì lì, xī wàng zhū lái rú yǐn gān quán。 dì 3 zhāng lùn shù de shì gōng sī jí qí yuán gōng héng héng wèi lái de gōng sī, qí shǐ mìng、 yuǎn jǐng hé zhàn lüè。 gōng sī bèi kàn zuò yī gè bù luò, chōng mǎn xíng xíng sè sè de yí shì, yòu zì jǐ de chuán qí yì wén。 dì 4 zhāng shè jí xiāo fèi zhě hé gōng sī yuán gōng de jiā jū xiū xián shí guāng。 zài zhè yī bù fēn, wǒ men xiǎng xiàng wèi lái de rén men zěn yàng dǎ fā xiū xián shí guāng, bìng tàn tǎo gōng zuò hé yè yú shí jiān de guān xì。 dì 5 zhāng fàng yǎn quán qiú, tàn tǎo liǎo fā dá guó jiā zhī jiān de guān xì、 zhú jiàn chéng xíng de quán qiú zhōng chǎn jiē jí yǐ jí fā zhǎn zhōng guó jiā de qíng kuàng, hái miáo shù liǎo zhàn 10 yì duō rén kǒu de fù yù xiāo fèi zhě yǐ jí lìng wài 40 yì zàn shí chǔyú luò hòu shuǐ píng de rén men。
gē běn hā gēn wèi lái yán jiū yuàn shì xiǎng yù quán qiú de wèi lái xué yán jiū shèng diàn, yī zhí yǐ xī lì mǐn ruì、 zhèn lóng fā kuì de yù cè 'ér dú shù yī zhì, běn shū suǒ miáo shù de“ mèng xiǎng shè huì” zé shì qí zhōng zuì jù yòu zhèn hàn xìng de jié chū yù yán zhī yī。
zài xìn xī shè huì duān ní chū xiàn zhī hòu bù jiǔ, tiān cái de wèi lái xué jiā jiù zài sī kǎo 'àn zhǒng 'ér lái de shè huì xíng tài。 zuò zhě xuān chēng: xìn xī shí dài yǐ jīng rì bó xī shān, rén lèi de fā zhǎn zài lì jīng yú liè wén míng、 nóng yè wén míng、 gōng yè wén míng hé mù qián yǐ jì suàn jī wéi biāo zhì de xìn xī shí dài zhī hòu, jí jiāng kuà rù dì wǔ zhǒng shè huì xíng tài: mèng xiǎng shè huì。
jí jiāng lái lín de mèng xiǎng shè huì, shì yī zhǒng wán quán xīn xíng de shè huì, qí zhōng de qǐ yè、 shè tuán hé gè réndōu píng jiè zì jǐ de gù shì yáng míng lì yè, ér bù zài jǐn jǐn yǐ lài yú shù jù hé xìn xī。 mèng xiǎng shè huì bìng fēi chī rén kuáng xiǎng, tā zài xǔ duō qǐ yè jǐ chū lù zhēng róng héng héng wèi lái chǎn pǐn bì xū dǎ dòng rén men de xīn líng, ér bù jǐn jǐn shì shuō fú rén men de tóu nǎo。 dāng qián zhèng shì wéi chǎn pǐn hé fú wù fù yú qíng gǎn jià zhí de dà hǎo shí jī。 běn shū tí gōng liǎo yī tào qǐ fā zhàn lüè xìng sī wéi de quán xīn luó ji, yòu zhù yú lǐ jiě wèi lái de qǐ yè hé shì chǎng, shì wèi lái shè huì bù kě huò quē de xiàng dǎo。
qián yán
1. wèi lái zhù yì yǔ mèng xiǎng shè huì de shí xiàn 2. gù shì hé gù shì jiǎng shù zhě de shì chǎng( yī)
2. gù shì hé gù shì jiǎng shù zhě de shì chǎng ( èr) 3. cóng kǔ bù kān yán dào lè qù shí zú
4. ài yì róng róng de jiā tíng gōng sī hé xīn xíng xiū xián shí guāng 5. quán qiú shāng yè gù shì
zhì xiè
běn shū dì 1 zhāng jiè shào liǎo mèng xiǎng shè huì de luó ji。 gōng sī rú guǒ bù cǎi yòng zhè zhǒng xīn xíng luó ji jiù huì zuò shī jí jiāng chū xiàn de jù dà shì chǎng zēngzhǎng jī huì。 shì shí shàng, mèng xiǎng shè huì yǐ jīng xiàng bīng shān yī yàng qiǎo rán lái lín, suī chén zhe xú huǎn, què shì bù kě dǎng。 rú guǒ bù shùn shì 'ér wéi, kǒng pà yào bèi bīng shān niǎn píng。 dì 2 zhāng tàn tǎo liǎo shì chǎng lún kuò、 jiǎng shù gù shì yǐ jí liù zhǒng yǐ jīng chū jù chú xíng de qíng gǎn shì chǎng, tí chū liǎo yī zhǒng yòu zhù yú qǐ fā zhàn lüè xìng sī wéi de quán xīn luó ji, bìng zuǒ yǐ fēng fù shēng dòng de shì lì, xī wàng zhū lái rú yǐn gān quán。 dì 3 zhāng lùn shù de shì gōng sī jí qí yuán gōng héng héng wèi lái de gōng sī, qí shǐ mìng、 yuǎn jǐng hé zhàn lüè。 gōng sī bèi kàn zuò yī gè bù luò, chōng mǎn xíng xíng sè sè de yí shì, yòu zì jǐ de chuán qí yì wén。 dì 4 zhāng shè jí xiāo fèi zhě hé gōng sī yuán gōng de jiā jū xiū xián shí guāng。 zài zhè yī bù fēn, wǒ men xiǎng xiàng wèi lái de rén men zěn yàng dǎ fā xiū xián shí guāng, bìng tàn tǎo gōng zuò hé yè yú shí jiān de guān xì。 dì 5 zhāng fàng yǎn quán qiú, tàn tǎo liǎo fā dá guó jiā zhī jiān de guān xì、 zhú jiàn chéng xíng de quán qiú zhōng chǎn jiē jí yǐ jí fā zhǎn zhōng guó jiā de qíng kuàng, hái miáo shù liǎo zhàn 10 yì duō rén kǒu de fù yù xiāo fèi zhě yǐ jí lìng wài 40 yì zàn shí chǔyú luò hòu shuǐ píng de rén men。
gē běn hā gēn wèi lái yán jiū yuàn shì xiǎng yù quán qiú de wèi lái xué yán jiū shèng diàn, yī zhí yǐ xī lì mǐn ruì、 zhèn lóng fā kuì de yù cè 'ér dú shù yī zhì, běn shū suǒ miáo shù de“ mèng xiǎng shè huì” zé shì qí zhōng zuì jù yòu zhèn hàn xìng de jié chū yù yán zhī yī。
zài xìn xī shè huì duān ní chū xiàn zhī hòu bù jiǔ, tiān cái de wèi lái xué jiā jiù zài sī kǎo 'àn zhǒng 'ér lái de shè huì xíng tài。 zuò zhě xuān chēng: xìn xī shí dài yǐ jīng rì bó xī shān, rén lèi de fā zhǎn zài lì jīng yú liè wén míng、 nóng yè wén míng、 gōng yè wén míng hé mù qián yǐ jì suàn jī wéi biāo zhì de xìn xī shí dài zhī hòu, jí jiāng kuà rù dì wǔ zhǒng shè huì xíng tài: mèng xiǎng shè huì。
jí jiāng lái lín de mèng xiǎng shè huì, shì yī zhǒng wán quán xīn xíng de shè huì, qí zhōng de qǐ yè、 shè tuán hé gè réndōu píng jiè zì jǐ de gù shì yáng míng lì yè, ér bù zài jǐn jǐn yǐ lài yú shù jù hé xìn xī。 mèng xiǎng shè huì bìng fēi chī rén kuáng xiǎng, tā zài xǔ duō qǐ yè jǐ chū lù zhēng róng héng héng wèi lái chǎn pǐn bì xū dǎ dòng rén men de xīn líng, ér bù jǐn jǐn shì shuō fú rén men de tóu nǎo。 dāng qián zhèng shì wéi chǎn pǐn hé fú wù fù yú qíng gǎn jià zhí de dà hǎo shí jī。 běn shū tí gōng liǎo yī tào qǐ fā zhàn lüè xìng sī wéi de quán xīn luó ji, yòu zhù yú lǐ jiě wèi lái de qǐ yè hé shì chǎng, shì wèi lái shè huì bù kě huò quē de xiàng dǎo。
qián yán
1. wèi lái zhù yì yǔ mèng xiǎng shè huì de shí xiàn 2. gù shì hé gù shì jiǎng shù zhě de shì chǎng( yī)
2. gù shì hé gù shì jiǎng shù zhě de shì chǎng ( èr) 3. cóng kǔ bù kān yán dào lè qù shí zú
4. ài yì róng róng de jiā tíng gōng sī hé xīn xíng xiū xián shí guāng 5. quán qiú shāng yè gù shì
zhì xiè
yī gè yóu yú fēng kuáng 'ér bèi jì niàn de shí dài .
yī gè rǎn mǎn zuì dān chún de nián qīng rén de xuè de shí dài.
yī gè máo zé dōng sī xiǎng hóng qí chā mǎn quán shì jiè de shí dài.
liù shí nián dài, shì jiè shàng bù jǐn jǐn yòu wǒ men, hái yòu fǎ guó hóng wèi bīng, rì běn xué shēng lián hé huì hé kuǎ diào de yī dài.
jì yì de sǐ wáng yuǎn bǐ shí jiān de liú shì gèng kě pà. zài fù bèi de yīn yǐng xià chéngzhǎng de wǒ men, zhōng yú huì yòu yī tiān qù yǎng shì huò fǔ shì zhè wú fǎ tì dài de shí nián.
beatles qù liǎo u.s.s.r, wǒ men huí dào liù shí nián dài.
yī gè rǎn mǎn zuì dān chún de nián qīng rén de xuè de shí dài.
yī gè máo zé dōng sī xiǎng hóng qí chā mǎn quán shì jiè de shí dài.
liù shí nián dài, shì jiè shàng bù jǐn jǐn yòu wǒ men, hái yòu fǎ guó hóng wèi bīng, rì běn xué shēng lián hé huì hé kuǎ diào de yī dài.
jì yì de sǐ wáng yuǎn bǐ shí jiān de liú shì gèng kě pà. zài fù bèi de yīn yǐng xià chéngzhǎng de wǒ men, zhōng yú huì yòu yī tiān qù yǎng shì huò fǔ shì zhè wú fǎ tì dài de shí nián.
beatles qù liǎo u.s.s.r, wǒ men huí dào liù shí nián dài.
yī míng jīng rén
zuò zhě: lài hóng yì
qián yán
shàng piān rén de míng shēng yǔ chéng míng
yī rén wèihé yào zhuī qiú míng shēng .
( yī) míng shēng ―― zhǒng rén shēng guān;( èr) zhuī qiú míng shēng yòu hé hǎo chù;( sān) wèishénme
yào zhuī qiú míng shēng
èr yī gè rén rú hé chéng míng
( yī) chéng míng de sān jiē duàn;( èr) rú hé lì zhì hé shù lì chóng bài 'ǒu xiàng;( sān) rú hé
mó fǎng chóng bài 'ǒu xiàng;( sì) rú hé gǎn chāo míng rén hé chéng míng;( wǔ) dǎo zhì chéng míng de yī
xiē yīn sù
sān lùn gè dà lǐng yù de chéng míng fāng fǎ
( yī) zhèng zhì;( èr) zōng jiào chuàng lì hé gǎi gé;( sān) sī xiǎng hé shè huì kē xué;( sì)
zì rán kē xué;( wǔ) fā míng;( liù) jūn shì;( qī) wén xué;( bā) yīnyuè;( jiǔ) huì
huà;( shí) diàn yǐng;( shí yī) fù wēng hé qǐ yè jiā;( shí 'èr) yǔ háng hé tàn xiǎn;( shí
sān) tǐ yù;( shí sì) tōng sú wén xué;( shí wǔ) liú xíng yīnyuè;( shí liù) míng rén pèi 'ǒu
huò qíng lǚ;( shí qī) liè qí。
sì rén de míng shēng de dà xiǎo、 hǎo huài
( yī) míng shēng de shí zhì;( èr) míng qì dà xiǎo de héng liàng;( sān) shénme yàng de rén zuì yòu
míng qì;( sì) jué dìng míng qì dà xiǎo de shí gè yīn sù;( wǔ) yǐng xiǎng míng shēng hǎo huài de yīn
sù;( liù) míng rén de děng jí
wǔ kuò dà hé chuán bō míng shēng de fāng fǎ
( yī) àn zì jǐ de tè diǎn sù zào chū dú tè de xíng xiàng;( èr) qǐ míng xū zhī;( sān) dà
bàn cí shàn shì yè, shè jiǎng huò jī jīn huì, shè lì zǔ zhì jī gòu、 xīng jiàn xué xiào, bìng yǐ zì
jǐ míng zì mìng míng;( sì) zhēng qǔ yǐ zì jǐ de míng zì mìng míng yī zhǒng lǐ lùn, guān diǎn、 sī
xiǎng、 fā xiàn、 fā míng、 jìliáng dān wèi、 zì rán jǐng wù、 zì rán xiàn xiàng hé shì wù、 jié rì、
jī gòu、 xué xiào、 zǔ zhì、 tuán tǐ、 pài bié děng;( wǔ) xiě yī běn shēn shòu huān yíng de zìzhuàn;
( liù) jiàn lì jì niàn xìng jiàn zhù;( qī) zhì zào gè zhǒng shén qí yòu qù de chuán shuō、 yì shì,
zài mín jiān guǎng fàn liú chuán, yǐ tí gāo zì jǐ de míng wàng;( bā) yǐ zhuān zhì huò qiáng bù shǒu duàn
chuán bō míng shēng;( jiǔ) gōng chéng shēn tuì;( shí) yǒng bù zì mǎn, bù duàn chuàng xīn, bù duàn qǔ dé
xīn chéng jiù
liù rén yīngdāng rú hé shēng huó
( yī) shí jiān yǔ shì yè;( èr) zhù yì jiàn kāng;( sān) duì dài jīn qián;( sì) rú hé zé
ǒu;( wǔ( rú hé yìng chóu shè jiāo huó dòng;( liù) jiā tíng guān xì
qī nǚ xìng yǔ chéng míng
( yī) nǚ xìng de cái néng;( èr) nǚ xìng chéng míng yào kè fú de zhàng 'ài;( sān) nǚ xìng chéng míng
yìng jù bèi de sù zhì;( sì) nǚ xìng chéng míng kě xuǎn qǔ de bàn fǎ
bā míng rén chǎn zhù de lì shǐ qū shì
jiǔ yòu guān chéng míng míng shēng de shì yán、 jǐng jù
xià piān gè dà wén míng、 mín zú hé guó jiā de míng rén
yī lìng rén jīng tàn de yóu tài mín zú
( yī) yóu tài wěi rén yǔ míng rén;( èr) yóu tài rén zhuī qiú chéng gōng de dòng lì;( sān) yóu tài
rén zài jīng shén wén huà lǐng yù wěi rén bèi chū de yuán yīn;( sì) yóu tài rén zài shāng yè shàng de
chéng gōng
èr gèn gǔ mián yán de zhōng huá wén míng
( yī) zài shì jiè shàng zuì fù shèng míng de shí wèi zhōng guó rén:( èr) qí tā fù yòu guó jì shèng
míng de zhōng guó rén;( sān) jǐ wèi dà zhèng zhì jiā de wèi lái dì wèi;( sì) zhōng guó wén míng de
shuāi luò, miàn lín de nán tí, zhōng guó jiāng lái de wěi rén
sān chóng shàng yǒng héng yǔ fēi bào lì de yìn dù rén
( yī) wén míng、 zhé xué yǔ shè huì;( èr) wěi dà zhèng zhì jiā de yáo lán;( sān) dà zōng jiào
zǔ shī yé zhé xué jiā de gù xiāng;( sì) dōng fāng wén xué yì shù de wáng guó;( wǔ) kē xué jiè
sì tuán jié líng qiǎo de rì běn rén
( yī) rì běn rén―― yǒng yú biàn gé yǔ shàn yú xué xí de mín zú;( èr) jí tǐ zhù yì
de rì běn rén;( sān) wú néng wéi lì de dān gè rì běn rén;( sì) rì běn jìn xiàn dài huà chéng
gōng de yuán yīn;( wǔ) zhù míng de rì běn rén
wǔ zhōng shì jì zuì xìng yùn de 'ā lā bó rén
( yī) zhèng jiào rén wù;( èr) ā lā bó wén huà de huáng jīn shí dài chū xiàn de yuán yīn;
( sān) wén xué chéng gōng de yuán yīn yǔ jié chū de wén háo;( sì) kē xué yǔ xué shù de xīn jì
yuán
liù huī huáng de xī là wén míng hé xī là huà wén míng
( yī) xī là wén míng;( èr) xī là huà wén míng
qī jīn gē tiě mǎ de luó mǎ wén míng
bā 'ōu zhōu zhōng shì jì de jīng yuàn wén huà
( yī) zhōng shì jì zǎo qī de xī 'ōu wén míng;( èr) bài zhàn tíng wén míng jí qí míng rén
jiǔ 'ōu jù jìn xiàn dài wén míng de xiān qū yīng guó rén
( yī) yīng guó de zhōng shì jì zhèng zhì jiā hé shè huì huó dòng jiā;( èr) yīng guó wén huà、 mín zú
xìng gé yǔ jìn xiàn dài zhèng zhì jiā;( sān) yīng guó duì rén lèi de wěi dà gòng xiàn yǔ kē xué wén
huà míng rén
shí 'ōu zhōu wén huà de lǎo dà gē fǎ guó rén
( yī) fǎ guó rén de wén huà zì fù qíng jié;( èr) zhù míng de zhèng zhì huó dòng jiā hé fǎ guó
xīng shuāi shǐ;( sān) fǎ guó de kē jì wěi rén;( sì) fǎ guó de sī xiǎng jiā、 shè huì kē xué
jiā;( wǔ) wén xué、 yì shù jiā
shí yī lìng rén jìng wèi de dé guó rén
( yī) dé yì zhì de mín zú zhèng zhì wén huà hé zhèng zhì zōng jiào míng rén;( èr) dé guó mín
zú xìng gé yǔ jīng jì chéng jiù;( sān) dé guó mín zú xìng gé yǔ wén huà xué shù míng rén
shí 'èr wén yì fù xīng de yáo lán yì dà lì
( yī) yì dà lì de lì shǐ hé mín zú xìng gé;( èr) zhōng shì jì de yì dà lì rén;
( sān) wén yì fù xīng shí dài;( sì) wén yì fù xīng hòu yì dà lì de xīng shuāi shǐ;
( wǔ) wén yì fù xīng hòu yì dà lì zhù míng de kē jì wén huà rén wù
shí sān tè zhū de 'ōu zhōu dà guó 'é sū
( yī) é sū de tū chū tè diǎn;( èr) é sū de zhèng zhì míng rén lù;( sān) é sū de
kē jì jiè míng rén;( sì) é sū de sī xiǎng zhé xué chéng jiù;( wǔ) é sū de kē xué
jiā;( liù) é sū de wén xué yì shù
shí sì quán néng bà zhù měi guó rén
( yī) lì shǐ zuì dú tè de guó jiā yǔ quán néng de bà zhù;( èr) lì shǐ yǔ zhèng zhì huó
dòng jiā、 jūn shì jiā;( sān) měi lì jiān mín zú xìng gé;( sì) měi guó rén zài kē xué yǔ
yán jiū shàng qǔ dé chéng gōng de yuán yīn;( wǔ) měi guó de sī xiǎng jiè yǔ rén wén kē xué jiè;
( liù) zì rán kē xué jiè míng rén bǎng;( qī) wén yì jiè jù jiàng
shí wǔ qí tā wén míng、 mín zú hé dì qū
zuò zhě: lài hóng yì
qián yán
shàng piān rén de míng shēng yǔ chéng míng
yī rén wèihé yào zhuī qiú míng shēng .
( yī) míng shēng ―― zhǒng rén shēng guān;( èr) zhuī qiú míng shēng yòu hé hǎo chù;( sān) wèishénme
yào zhuī qiú míng shēng
èr yī gè rén rú hé chéng míng
( yī) chéng míng de sān jiē duàn;( èr) rú hé lì zhì hé shù lì chóng bài 'ǒu xiàng;( sān) rú hé
mó fǎng chóng bài 'ǒu xiàng;( sì) rú hé gǎn chāo míng rén hé chéng míng;( wǔ) dǎo zhì chéng míng de yī
xiē yīn sù
sān lùn gè dà lǐng yù de chéng míng fāng fǎ
( yī) zhèng zhì;( èr) zōng jiào chuàng lì hé gǎi gé;( sān) sī xiǎng hé shè huì kē xué;( sì)
zì rán kē xué;( wǔ) fā míng;( liù) jūn shì;( qī) wén xué;( bā) yīnyuè;( jiǔ) huì
huà;( shí) diàn yǐng;( shí yī) fù wēng hé qǐ yè jiā;( shí 'èr) yǔ háng hé tàn xiǎn;( shí
sān) tǐ yù;( shí sì) tōng sú wén xué;( shí wǔ) liú xíng yīnyuè;( shí liù) míng rén pèi 'ǒu
huò qíng lǚ;( shí qī) liè qí。
sì rén de míng shēng de dà xiǎo、 hǎo huài
( yī) míng shēng de shí zhì;( èr) míng qì dà xiǎo de héng liàng;( sān) shénme yàng de rén zuì yòu
míng qì;( sì) jué dìng míng qì dà xiǎo de shí gè yīn sù;( wǔ) yǐng xiǎng míng shēng hǎo huài de yīn
sù;( liù) míng rén de děng jí
wǔ kuò dà hé chuán bō míng shēng de fāng fǎ
( yī) àn zì jǐ de tè diǎn sù zào chū dú tè de xíng xiàng;( èr) qǐ míng xū zhī;( sān) dà
bàn cí shàn shì yè, shè jiǎng huò jī jīn huì, shè lì zǔ zhì jī gòu、 xīng jiàn xué xiào, bìng yǐ zì
jǐ míng zì mìng míng;( sì) zhēng qǔ yǐ zì jǐ de míng zì mìng míng yī zhǒng lǐ lùn, guān diǎn、 sī
xiǎng、 fā xiàn、 fā míng、 jìliáng dān wèi、 zì rán jǐng wù、 zì rán xiàn xiàng hé shì wù、 jié rì、
jī gòu、 xué xiào、 zǔ zhì、 tuán tǐ、 pài bié děng;( wǔ) xiě yī běn shēn shòu huān yíng de zìzhuàn;
( liù) jiàn lì jì niàn xìng jiàn zhù;( qī) zhì zào gè zhǒng shén qí yòu qù de chuán shuō、 yì shì,
zài mín jiān guǎng fàn liú chuán, yǐ tí gāo zì jǐ de míng wàng;( bā) yǐ zhuān zhì huò qiáng bù shǒu duàn
chuán bō míng shēng;( jiǔ) gōng chéng shēn tuì;( shí) yǒng bù zì mǎn, bù duàn chuàng xīn, bù duàn qǔ dé
xīn chéng jiù
liù rén yīngdāng rú hé shēng huó
( yī) shí jiān yǔ shì yè;( èr) zhù yì jiàn kāng;( sān) duì dài jīn qián;( sì) rú hé zé
ǒu;( wǔ( rú hé yìng chóu shè jiāo huó dòng;( liù) jiā tíng guān xì
qī nǚ xìng yǔ chéng míng
( yī) nǚ xìng de cái néng;( èr) nǚ xìng chéng míng yào kè fú de zhàng 'ài;( sān) nǚ xìng chéng míng
yìng jù bèi de sù zhì;( sì) nǚ xìng chéng míng kě xuǎn qǔ de bàn fǎ
bā míng rén chǎn zhù de lì shǐ qū shì
jiǔ yòu guān chéng míng míng shēng de shì yán、 jǐng jù
xià piān gè dà wén míng、 mín zú hé guó jiā de míng rén
yī lìng rén jīng tàn de yóu tài mín zú
( yī) yóu tài wěi rén yǔ míng rén;( èr) yóu tài rén zhuī qiú chéng gōng de dòng lì;( sān) yóu tài
rén zài jīng shén wén huà lǐng yù wěi rén bèi chū de yuán yīn;( sì) yóu tài rén zài shāng yè shàng de
chéng gōng
èr gèn gǔ mián yán de zhōng huá wén míng
( yī) zài shì jiè shàng zuì fù shèng míng de shí wèi zhōng guó rén:( èr) qí tā fù yòu guó jì shèng
míng de zhōng guó rén;( sān) jǐ wèi dà zhèng zhì jiā de wèi lái dì wèi;( sì) zhōng guó wén míng de
shuāi luò, miàn lín de nán tí, zhōng guó jiāng lái de wěi rén
sān chóng shàng yǒng héng yǔ fēi bào lì de yìn dù rén
( yī) wén míng、 zhé xué yǔ shè huì;( èr) wěi dà zhèng zhì jiā de yáo lán;( sān) dà zōng jiào
zǔ shī yé zhé xué jiā de gù xiāng;( sì) dōng fāng wén xué yì shù de wáng guó;( wǔ) kē xué jiè
sì tuán jié líng qiǎo de rì běn rén
( yī) rì běn rén―― yǒng yú biàn gé yǔ shàn yú xué xí de mín zú;( èr) jí tǐ zhù yì
de rì běn rén;( sān) wú néng wéi lì de dān gè rì běn rén;( sì) rì běn jìn xiàn dài huà chéng
gōng de yuán yīn;( wǔ) zhù míng de rì běn rén
wǔ zhōng shì jì zuì xìng yùn de 'ā lā bó rén
( yī) zhèng jiào rén wù;( èr) ā lā bó wén huà de huáng jīn shí dài chū xiàn de yuán yīn;
( sān) wén xué chéng gōng de yuán yīn yǔ jié chū de wén háo;( sì) kē xué yǔ xué shù de xīn jì
yuán
liù huī huáng de xī là wén míng hé xī là huà wén míng
( yī) xī là wén míng;( èr) xī là huà wén míng
qī jīn gē tiě mǎ de luó mǎ wén míng
bā 'ōu zhōu zhōng shì jì de jīng yuàn wén huà
( yī) zhōng shì jì zǎo qī de xī 'ōu wén míng;( èr) bài zhàn tíng wén míng jí qí míng rén
jiǔ 'ōu jù jìn xiàn dài wén míng de xiān qū yīng guó rén
( yī) yīng guó de zhōng shì jì zhèng zhì jiā hé shè huì huó dòng jiā;( èr) yīng guó wén huà、 mín zú
xìng gé yǔ jìn xiàn dài zhèng zhì jiā;( sān) yīng guó duì rén lèi de wěi dà gòng xiàn yǔ kē xué wén
huà míng rén
shí 'ōu zhōu wén huà de lǎo dà gē fǎ guó rén
( yī) fǎ guó rén de wén huà zì fù qíng jié;( èr) zhù míng de zhèng zhì huó dòng jiā hé fǎ guó
xīng shuāi shǐ;( sān) fǎ guó de kē jì wěi rén;( sì) fǎ guó de sī xiǎng jiā、 shè huì kē xué
jiā;( wǔ) wén xué、 yì shù jiā
shí yī lìng rén jìng wèi de dé guó rén
( yī) dé yì zhì de mín zú zhèng zhì wén huà hé zhèng zhì zōng jiào míng rén;( èr) dé guó mín
zú xìng gé yǔ jīng jì chéng jiù;( sān) dé guó mín zú xìng gé yǔ wén huà xué shù míng rén
shí 'èr wén yì fù xīng de yáo lán yì dà lì
( yī) yì dà lì de lì shǐ hé mín zú xìng gé;( èr) zhōng shì jì de yì dà lì rén;
( sān) wén yì fù xīng shí dài;( sì) wén yì fù xīng hòu yì dà lì de xīng shuāi shǐ;
( wǔ) wén yì fù xīng hòu yì dà lì zhù míng de kē jì wén huà rén wù
shí sān tè zhū de 'ōu zhōu dà guó 'é sū
( yī) é sū de tū chū tè diǎn;( èr) é sū de zhèng zhì míng rén lù;( sān) é sū de
kē jì jiè míng rén;( sì) é sū de sī xiǎng zhé xué chéng jiù;( wǔ) é sū de kē xué
jiā;( liù) é sū de wén xué yì shù
shí sì quán néng bà zhù měi guó rén
( yī) lì shǐ zuì dú tè de guó jiā yǔ quán néng de bà zhù;( èr) lì shǐ yǔ zhèng zhì huó
dòng jiā、 jūn shì jiā;( sān) měi lì jiān mín zú xìng gé;( sì) měi guó rén zài kē xué yǔ
yán jiū shàng qǔ dé chéng gōng de yuán yīn;( wǔ) měi guó de sī xiǎng jiè yǔ rén wén kē xué jiè;
( liù) zì rán kē xué jiè míng rén bǎng;( qī) wén yì jiè jù jiàng
shí wǔ qí tā wén míng、 mín zú hé dì qū
fù rén bìng bù guāng róng, qióng rén bìng bù kě chǐ。 xiàn dài rén bù wán quán yǐ wù zhì biāo zhǔn qù píng pàn yī gè rén de jià zhí, ér qiě rén de shēng huó fāng shì fēng fù duō cǎi, bìng fēi fù rén jiù shì kuài lè de, qióng rén jiù hěn tòng kǔ, rén shēng de xìng fú hěn duō shí hòu yǔ qióng fù wú guān。
duō qióng cái shì qióng rén? duō fù cái shì fù rén? yòu méi yòu yī gè jù tǐ de liàng huà biāo zhǔn?
tàn tǎo qióng fù wèn tí, hěn duō shí hòu zhǐ shì yī zhǒng xīn lǐ fēn xī, zài tóng yàng de shè huì huán jìng zhōng, nǐ, wèishénme shì qióng rén ní? huò zhě, wèishénme gǎn jué zì jǐ shì gè qióng rén? shuídōu kě yǐ wèn wèn zì jǐ。 wǒ? wèishénme shì qióng rén? shuí hái zài wéi shí wù cāo xīn, shuí jiù shì qióng rén。 shēng huó duì fù rén lái shuō cái shì shēng huó, duì qióng rén lái shuō zhǐ shì shēng cún。
nǐ shì fù rén má? nǐ shì qióng rén má? nǐ bù shì qióng rén má?
nǐ kě zhī dào, nǐ wèishénme shì qióng rén? shì shénme zào chéng liǎo nǐ de qióng? qióng gěi nǐ hé nǐ shēn biān de rén dài lái liǎo shénme? qióng rén de qián tú zài nǎ lǐ? qióng rén zěn yàng cái néng biàn chéng fù rén? fù dào shénme chéng dù cái suàn gòu? rén shēng zěn yàng cái suàn xìng fú?
bù yòng zài kǔ kǔ de zhuī wèn zì jǐ, gāi chàng xiāo xīn zuò yóu xué zhě gǔ gǔ zhuàn xiě, guān zhù bìng fēn xī liǎo zhè xiē wèn tí。 wén zì jiǎn liàn、 yōu měi, bǐ fēng xī lì, kě dú xìng qiáng。
duō qióng cái shì qióng rén? duō fù cái shì fù rén? yòu méi yòu yī gè jù tǐ de liàng huà biāo zhǔn?
tàn tǎo qióng fù wèn tí, hěn duō shí hòu zhǐ shì yī zhǒng xīn lǐ fēn xī, zài tóng yàng de shè huì huán jìng zhōng, nǐ, wèishénme shì qióng rén ní? huò zhě, wèishénme gǎn jué zì jǐ shì gè qióng rén? shuídōu kě yǐ wèn wèn zì jǐ。 wǒ? wèishénme shì qióng rén? shuí hái zài wéi shí wù cāo xīn, shuí jiù shì qióng rén。 shēng huó duì fù rén lái shuō cái shì shēng huó, duì qióng rén lái shuō zhǐ shì shēng cún。
nǐ shì fù rén má? nǐ shì qióng rén má? nǐ bù shì qióng rén má?
nǐ kě zhī dào, nǐ wèishénme shì qióng rén? shì shénme zào chéng liǎo nǐ de qióng? qióng gěi nǐ hé nǐ shēn biān de rén dài lái liǎo shénme? qióng rén de qián tú zài nǎ lǐ? qióng rén zěn yàng cái néng biàn chéng fù rén? fù dào shénme chéng dù cái suàn gòu? rén shēng zěn yàng cái suàn xìng fú?
bù yòng zài kǔ kǔ de zhuī wèn zì jǐ, gāi chàng xiāo xīn zuò yóu xué zhě gǔ gǔ zhuàn xiě, guān zhù bìng fēn xī liǎo zhè xiē wèn tí。 wén zì jiǎn liàn、 yōu měi, bǐ fēng xī lì, kě dú xìng qiáng。
běn shū shì sūn zhōng shān guān yú sān mín zhù yì de lùn zhù。
sān mín zhù yì bāo kuò mín zú zhù yì、 mín quán zhù yì hé mín shēng zhù yì。 mín zú zhù yì yào qiú zhōng guó mín zú jiě fàng, gè mín zú píng děng, fǎn duì dì guó zhù yì de zhí mín zhèng cè; mín quán zhù yì yào qiú zhù quán zài mín, jiàn lì fǎ zhì guó jiā, rén mín yōng yòu zhèng quán, zhèng fǔ zhǐ yōng yòu zhì quán, shí xíng lì fǎ、 sī fǎ、 xíng zhèng、 kǎo shì、 jiān chá wǔ quán fēn lì; mín shēng zhù yì yào qiú píng jūn dì quán, gēng zhě yòu qí tián, jié zhì zī běn, ràng pǔ tōng mín zhòng dū chīde bǎo chuān dé nuǎn yòu shì zuò,“ mín shēng zhù yì jiù shì shè huì zhù yì, jiù shì gòng chǎn zhù yì, jiù shì dà tóng shì jiè”。
sān mín zhù yì bāo kuò mín zú zhù yì、 mín quán zhù yì hé mín shēng zhù yì。 mín zú zhù yì yào qiú zhōng guó mín zú jiě fàng, gè mín zú píng děng, fǎn duì dì guó zhù yì de zhí mín zhèng cè; mín quán zhù yì yào qiú zhù quán zài mín, jiàn lì fǎ zhì guó jiā, rén mín yōng yòu zhèng quán, zhèng fǔ zhǐ yōng yòu zhì quán, shí xíng lì fǎ、 sī fǎ、 xíng zhèng、 kǎo shì、 jiān chá wǔ quán fēn lì; mín shēng zhù yì yào qiú píng jūn dì quán, gēng zhě yòu qí tián, jié zhì zī běn, ràng pǔ tōng mín zhòng dū chīde bǎo chuān dé nuǎn yòu shì zuò,“ mín shēng zhù yì jiù shì shè huì zhù yì, jiù shì gòng chǎn zhù yì, jiù shì dà tóng shì jiè”。
jīng jì yǔ shè huì : zài zhì dù yuē shù hé gè rén lì yì zhī jiān bó yì
《 jīng jì yǔ shè huì》 quán shū liǎng juàn。 1921~ 1922 nián chū bǎn。 yīng wén běn yóu duō wèi wéi bó yán jiū zhuān jiā hé zuò fān yì, bìng jiā yòu cháng piān dǎo yán hé zhù shì, yú 1968 nián chū bǎn。 wéi bó zài shū zhōng quán miàn 'ér xì tǒng dì biǎo shù liǎo tā de shè huì xué guān diǎn hé duì xiàn dài wén míng běn zhì de jiàn jiě。 shǒu xiān duì shè huì xué de dìng yì、 duì xiàng、 fāng fǎ yǐ jí yī xiē jī běn fàn chóu hé gài niàn zuò liǎo xiáng xì chǎn shì, tǒng chēng wéi shè huì xué de jī chǔ。 rán hòu fēn bié yòu hù yòu jiāo chā dì chǎn fā liǎo tā de jīng jì shè huì xué、 fǎ lǜ shè huì xué、 zhèng zhì shè huì xué hé zōng jiào shè huì xué sī xiǎng。 wéi bó zài shū zhōng guǎng fàn dì yuán yǐn shì jiè lì shǐ zī liào, bǎ fā shēng zài bù tóng shí dài、 bù tóng wén míng hé bù tóng shè huì zhōng de jīng jì xíng shì、 fǎ lǜ xíng shì、 tǒng zhì xíng shì hé zōng jiào xíng shì nà rù tā dú tè de gài niàn tǐ xì, fēn mén bié lèi dì zuò chū lèi xíng huà bǐ jiào yán jiū hé xì tǒng huà yīn guǒ fēn xī。
《 jīng jì yǔ shè huì》 quán shū liǎng juàn。 1921~ 1922 nián chū bǎn。 yīng wén běn yóu duō wèi wéi bó yán jiū zhuān jiā hé zuò fān yì, bìng jiā yòu cháng piān dǎo yán hé zhù shì, yú 1968 nián chū bǎn。 wéi bó zài shū zhōng quán miàn 'ér xì tǒng dì biǎo shù liǎo tā de shè huì xué guān diǎn hé duì xiàn dài wén míng běn zhì de jiàn jiě。 shǒu xiān duì shè huì xué de dìng yì、 duì xiàng、 fāng fǎ yǐ jí yī xiē jī běn fàn chóu hé gài niàn zuò liǎo xiáng xì chǎn shì, tǒng chēng wéi shè huì xué de jī chǔ。 rán hòu fēn bié yòu hù yòu jiāo chā dì chǎn fā liǎo tā de jīng jì shè huì xué、 fǎ lǜ shè huì xué、 zhèng zhì shè huì xué hé zōng jiào shè huì xué sī xiǎng。 wéi bó zài shū zhōng guǎng fàn dì yuán yǐn shì jiè lì shǐ zī liào, bǎ fā shēng zài bù tóng shí dài、 bù tóng wén míng hé bù tóng shè huì zhōng de jīng jì xíng shì、 fǎ lǜ xíng shì、 tǒng zhì xíng shì hé zōng jiào xíng shì nà rù tā dú tè de gài niàn tǐ xì, fēn mén bié lèi dì zuò chū lèi xíng huà bǐ jiào yán jiū hé xì tǒng huà yīn guǒ fēn xī。
rù shì xiū xíng héng héng mǎ kè sī · wěi bó tuō mó shì jiè lǐ xìng jí
1918 nián, gāng gāng táo lí rén huò de 'ōu zhōu rén, yòu tān shàng liǎo tiān zāi: yīcháng shǐ wú qián lì de liú xíng xìng gǎn mào xíjuǎn liǎo dà lù。 sǐ yú zhè chǎng wēn yì de rén shù, jù shuō chāo guò liǎo qián 4 nián zhàn zhēng zhōng sǐ wáng rén shù de zǒng hé。 wǒ men bù xìng de zuò zhě gǎn shàng liǎo zhè chǎng wēn yì de yú wēi, 1920 nián xià chū, wéi bó bìng dǎo liǎo, chí xù gāo shāo bù tuì, yī zhōu hòu, zhuǎn wéi fèi yán, yī shēng shù shǒu wú cè, rú tóng jīn tiān miàn duì yī wèi 'ái zhèng wǎn qī bìng rén yī yàng。 6 yuè 14 rì, xīng qī yī, huáng hūn, jīng guò tòng kǔ dì zhēngzhá, wéi bó kè rán cháng shì liǎo。 nà jiān fáng zǐ zài mù ní hēi yīng guó gōng yuán bàng biān de hú jiē 3 hào, jīn tiān gǎi chéng liǎo 16 hào。 tā qù shí, wài miàn xià zhe léi yǔ, dào dào shǎn diàn huá pò hūn 'àn, zhào liàng liǎo tā de guī chéng。 qīn rén bǎ tā sòng huí hǎi dé bǎo, ràng tā 'ān xī zài xīn 'ài de shān shuǐ zhī jiān。 mù ní hēi dà xué de xué shēng men, yǒng yuǎn shī qù liǎo yī wèi ruì zhì de liáng shī。 tā yuán lái dāyìng xià xué qī wèitā men kāi shè huì zhù yì kè, què cōng cōng qù liǎo……
1918 nián, gāng gāng táo lí rén huò de 'ōu zhōu rén, yòu tān shàng liǎo tiān zāi: yīcháng shǐ wú qián lì de liú xíng xìng gǎn mào xíjuǎn liǎo dà lù。 sǐ yú zhè chǎng wēn yì de rén shù, jù shuō chāo guò liǎo qián 4 nián zhàn zhēng zhōng sǐ wáng rén shù de zǒng hé。 wǒ men bù xìng de zuò zhě gǎn shàng liǎo zhè chǎng wēn yì de yú wēi, 1920 nián xià chū, wéi bó bìng dǎo liǎo, chí xù gāo shāo bù tuì, yī zhōu hòu, zhuǎn wéi fèi yán, yī shēng shù shǒu wú cè, rú tóng jīn tiān miàn duì yī wèi 'ái zhèng wǎn qī bìng rén yī yàng。 6 yuè 14 rì, xīng qī yī, huáng hūn, jīng guò tòng kǔ dì zhēngzhá, wéi bó kè rán cháng shì liǎo。 nà jiān fáng zǐ zài mù ní hēi yīng guó gōng yuán bàng biān de hú jiē 3 hào, jīn tiān gǎi chéng liǎo 16 hào。 tā qù shí, wài miàn xià zhe léi yǔ, dào dào shǎn diàn huá pò hūn 'àn, zhào liàng liǎo tā de guī chéng。 qīn rén bǎ tā sòng huí hǎi dé bǎo, ràng tā 'ān xī zài xīn 'ài de shān shuǐ zhī jiān。 mù ní hēi dà xué de xué shēng men, yǒng yuǎn shī qù liǎo yī wèi ruì zhì de liáng shī。 tā yuán lái dāyìng xià xué qī wèitā men kāi shè huì zhù yì kè, què cōng cōng qù liǎo……
zài《 xīn jiào lún lǐ yǔ zī běn zhù yì jīng shén》 yī shū zhōng, wéi bó zhù yào kǎo chá liǎo1 6 shì jì zōng jiào gǎi gé yǐ hòu de jī dū jiào xīn jiào de zōng jiào lún lǐ yǔ xiàn dài zī běn zhù yì de qīn hé guān xì。 zài wéi bó kàn lái,“ zī běn zhù yì” bù jǐn jǐn shì yī gè jīng jì xué hé zhèng zhì xué de fàn chóu, ér qiě hái shì yī gè shè huì xué hé wén huà xué de fàn chóu。 tā bǎ“ zī běn zhù yì” dāng zuò yī zhǒng zhěng tǐ xìng de wén míng lái lǐ jiě, rèn wéi tā shì18 shì jì yǐ lái zài 'ōu zhōu kē xué、 jì shù、 zhèng zhì、 jīng jì、 fǎ lǜ、 yì shù、 zōng jiào zhōng zhàn zhù dǎo dì wèi de lǐ xìng zhù yì jīng shén fā zhǎn de jiēguǒ, shì xiàn dài xī fāng wén míng de běn zhì tǐ xiàn。 zài zhè yàng yī zhǒng wén míng zhōng, yǐ kào qín miǎn、 kè kǔ、 lì yòng jiàn quán de kuàijì zhì dù hé jīng xīn pán suàn, bǎ zī běn tóu rù shēng chǎn hé liú tōng guò chéng, cóng 'ér huò qǔ yù qī de lì rùn, suǒ yòu zhè yī qiē gòu chéng liǎo yī gè jīng jì hé lǐ xìng de guān niàn。 zhè zhǒng hé lǐ xìng guān niàn hái biǎo xiàn zài shè huì de qí tā lǐng yù, xíng chéng wéi yī zhǒng dài yòu pǔ biàn xìng de shè huì jīng shén qì zhì huò shè huì xīn tài, mí màn yú jìn dài 'ōu zhōu, zhè jiù shì wéi bó suǒ shuō de“ zī běn zhù yì jīng shén”。 tā zuò wéi jìn dài 'ōu zhōu suǒ dú jù de jià zhí tǐ xì, qū dòng zhe rén men 'àn zhào hé lǐ huà yuán zé jìn xíng shè huì xíng dòng, zuì zhōng dǎo zhì liǎo zī běn zhù yì de chǎn shēng。
zài wéi bó kàn lái, zī běn zhù yì jīng shén de chǎn shēng shì yǔ xīn jiào lún lǐ fēn bù kāi de。 xīn jiào jiā 'ěr wén jiào pài suǒ xìn fèng de“ yù dìng lùn” rèn wéi, shàng dì suǒ yào jiù shú de bìng fēi quán bù shì rén, ér zhǐ shì qí zhōng de“ xuǎn mín”。 shuí jiāng yào chéng wéi“ xuǎn mín” ér dé dào jiù shú huò shuí jiāng bèi qì jué, dōushì shàng dì yù xiān què dìng liǎo de, gè rén de xíng wéi duì yú jiě jiù zì jǐ wú néng wéi lì。 cóng biǎo miàn shàng kàn,“ yù dìng lùn” de luó ji jiēguǒ bì rán dǎo zhì sù mìng lùn。 dàn zài wéi bó kàn lái,“ yù dìng lùn” rèn wéi gè rén duì yú gǎi biàn zì jǐ de mìng yùn wú néng wéi lì, zhè jiù zài xīn jiào tú de nèi xīn shēn chù chǎn shēng liǎo qiáng liè de jǐn zhāng hé jiāo lǜ, jiào tú zhǐ néng yǐ shì sú zhí yè shàng de chéng jiù lái què dìng shàng dì duì zì jǐ de 'ēn chǒng bìng yǐ cǐ zhèng míng shàng dì de cún zài。 yú shì chuàng zào chū zì chéng liǎo yī zhǒng shén shèng de tiān zhí, shì sú jīng jì xíng wéi de chéng gōng bù shì wèile chuàng zào kě gōng yú xiǎng shòu hé huī huò de cái fù, ér shì wèile zhèng shí shàng dì duì zì jǐ de 'ēn chǒng。 cóng 'ér,“ yù dìng lùn” de zōng jiào lún lǐ jiù dǎo zhì liǎo qín miǎn kè kǔ, bǎ chuàng zào cái fù shì wéi yī zhuāng yán sù shì yè de zī běn zhù yì jīng shén。 zhè jiù shì wéi bó zài běn shū zhōng de zhù yào lùn diǎn。
wéi bó zhè zhǒng yǐ jīng shén、 sī xiǎng de yīn sù lái jiě shì lì shǐ jìn chéng de fāng fǎ, gù rán shì jiǎo xīn yíng 'ér fù yú qǐ fā xìng, dàn zài gēn běn shàng shì tā de wéi xīn shǐ guān de fǎn yìng。
【 zuò zhě jiǎn jiè】 mǎ kè sī · wéi bó (1846-1920), dé guó zhù míng shè huì xué jiā, běn shì jì xī fāng zuì yòu yǐng xiǎng de shè huì kē xué jiā zhī yī, xiàn dài wén huà bǐ jiào yán jiū de xiān qū rén wù。 tā yī shēng zhì lì yú kǎo chá“ shì jiè gè zōng jiào de jīng jì lún lǐ”, yì jí shì tú cóng bǐ jiào de jiǎo dù, qù tàn tǎo shì jiè gè zhù yào mín zú de jīng shén wén huà qì zhì yǔ gāi mín zú de shè huì jīng jì fā zhǎn zhī jiān de nèi zài guān xì。 1920 nián zhèng shì chū bǎn de《 xīn jiào lún lǐ yǔ zī běn zhù yì jīng shén》 shì wéi bó zuì fù shèng míng de dài biǎo zuò, sān lián shū diàn 1987 nián chū bǎn liǎo yú xiǎo děng rén de zhōng yì běn。
dǎo lùn
shàng piān wèn tí
dì yī zhāng zōng jiào pài bié hé shè huì fēn céng
dì 'èr zhāng zī běn zhù yì jīng shén
dì sān zhāng lù dé de“ zhí yè” gài niàn( běn shū de yán jiū rèn wù)
xià piān jìn yù zhù yì xīn jiào zhū fēn zhī de shí jiàn lún lǐ guān
dì sì zhāng shì sú jìn yù zhù yì de zōng jiào jī chǔ
dì wǔ zhāng jìn yù zhù yì yǔ zī běn zhù yì jīng shén
zài wéi bó kàn lái, zī běn zhù yì jīng shén de chǎn shēng shì yǔ xīn jiào lún lǐ fēn bù kāi de。 xīn jiào jiā 'ěr wén jiào pài suǒ xìn fèng de“ yù dìng lùn” rèn wéi, shàng dì suǒ yào jiù shú de bìng fēi quán bù shì rén, ér zhǐ shì qí zhōng de“ xuǎn mín”。 shuí jiāng yào chéng wéi“ xuǎn mín” ér dé dào jiù shú huò shuí jiāng bèi qì jué, dōushì shàng dì yù xiān què dìng liǎo de, gè rén de xíng wéi duì yú jiě jiù zì jǐ wú néng wéi lì。 cóng biǎo miàn shàng kàn,“ yù dìng lùn” de luó ji jiēguǒ bì rán dǎo zhì sù mìng lùn。 dàn zài wéi bó kàn lái,“ yù dìng lùn” rèn wéi gè rén duì yú gǎi biàn zì jǐ de mìng yùn wú néng wéi lì, zhè jiù zài xīn jiào tú de nèi xīn shēn chù chǎn shēng liǎo qiáng liè de jǐn zhāng hé jiāo lǜ, jiào tú zhǐ néng yǐ shì sú zhí yè shàng de chéng jiù lái què dìng shàng dì duì zì jǐ de 'ēn chǒng bìng yǐ cǐ zhèng míng shàng dì de cún zài。 yú shì chuàng zào chū zì chéng liǎo yī zhǒng shén shèng de tiān zhí, shì sú jīng jì xíng wéi de chéng gōng bù shì wèile chuàng zào kě gōng yú xiǎng shòu hé huī huò de cái fù, ér shì wèile zhèng shí shàng dì duì zì jǐ de 'ēn chǒng。 cóng 'ér,“ yù dìng lùn” de zōng jiào lún lǐ jiù dǎo zhì liǎo qín miǎn kè kǔ, bǎ chuàng zào cái fù shì wéi yī zhuāng yán sù shì yè de zī běn zhù yì jīng shén。 zhè jiù shì wéi bó zài běn shū zhōng de zhù yào lùn diǎn。
wéi bó zhè zhǒng yǐ jīng shén、 sī xiǎng de yīn sù lái jiě shì lì shǐ jìn chéng de fāng fǎ, gù rán shì jiǎo xīn yíng 'ér fù yú qǐ fā xìng, dàn zài gēn běn shàng shì tā de wéi xīn shǐ guān de fǎn yìng。
【 zuò zhě jiǎn jiè】 mǎ kè sī · wéi bó (1846-1920), dé guó zhù míng shè huì xué jiā, běn shì jì xī fāng zuì yòu yǐng xiǎng de shè huì kē xué jiā zhī yī, xiàn dài wén huà bǐ jiào yán jiū de xiān qū rén wù。 tā yī shēng zhì lì yú kǎo chá“ shì jiè gè zōng jiào de jīng jì lún lǐ”, yì jí shì tú cóng bǐ jiào de jiǎo dù, qù tàn tǎo shì jiè gè zhù yào mín zú de jīng shén wén huà qì zhì yǔ gāi mín zú de shè huì jīng jì fā zhǎn zhī jiān de nèi zài guān xì。 1920 nián zhèng shì chū bǎn de《 xīn jiào lún lǐ yǔ zī běn zhù yì jīng shén》 shì wéi bó zuì fù shèng míng de dài biǎo zuò, sān lián shū diàn 1987 nián chū bǎn liǎo yú xiǎo děng rén de zhōng yì běn。
dǎo lùn
shàng piān wèn tí
dì yī zhāng zōng jiào pài bié hé shè huì fēn céng
dì 'èr zhāng zī běn zhù yì jīng shén
dì sān zhāng lù dé de“ zhí yè” gài niàn( běn shū de yán jiū rèn wù)
xià piān jìn yù zhù yì xīn jiào zhū fēn zhī de shí jiàn lún lǐ guān
dì sì zhāng shì sú jìn yù zhù yì de zōng jiào jī chǔ
dì wǔ zhāng jìn yù zhù yì yǔ zī běn zhù yì jīng shén
shí jì quán lì = zhèng shì quán lì + yǐn quán lì
yǐn quán lì de dú tè shì yě xià, quán shì quán lì tǐ xì de xuán jī
《 yǐn quán lì》 shì wú gōu xiān shēng shuài xiān tí chū“ yǐn quán lì” gài niàn bìng jìn xíng xì tǒng chǎn shù de zhù zuò, wén zhāng duō qǔ cái yú míng qīng bǐ jì yǔ guān chǎng xiǎo shuō, yǐ shēng dòng de wén zì yǔ gù shì, tàn tǎo yī zhǒng yǐn cáng zài lì shǐ huī 'àn chù què yòu fēi cháng qiáng dà de bó yì lì liàng。
yǐn quán lì de dú tè shì yě xià, quán shì quán lì tǐ xì de xuán jī
《 yǐn quán lì》 shì wú gōu xiān shēng shuài xiān tí chū“ yǐn quán lì” gài niàn bìng jìn xíng xì tǒng chǎn shù de zhù zuò, wén zhāng duō qǔ cái yú míng qīng bǐ jì yǔ guān chǎng xiǎo shuō, yǐ shēng dòng de wén zì yǔ gù shì, tàn tǎo yī zhǒng yǐn cáng zài lì shǐ huī 'àn chù què yòu fēi cháng qiáng dà de bó yì lì liàng。