《九三年》是雨果晚年的重要作品，这是他的最后一部小说。他在《笑面人》（一八六九）的序中说过，他还要写两部续集：《君主政治》和《九三年》。前者始终没有写成，后者写于一八七二年十二月至一八七三年六月，一八七四年出版。这时，雨果已经流亡归来；他在芒什海峡的泽西岛和盖尔内西岛度过了漫长的十九年，始终采取与倒行逆施的拿破仑三世誓不两立的态度，直到第二帝国崩溃，他才凯旋般返回巴黎。可是，一波未平一波又起：他要面对普法战争的悲惨战祸和巴黎公社社员的浴血斗争，眼前的现实给他留下难以忘怀的印象，再一次激发了他的人道主义思想。他回顾历史，法国大革命的史实给了他启发，他有心通过大革命时期旺代地区保王党人的叛乱，阐发自己的思想。这个念头早在一八六二年底至一八六三年初已经出现，如今写作时机成熟了。雨果在致友人的信中说：“天主会给我生命和力量，完成我的敌人称之为庞大得出奇的巨大计划吗？我年迈了一点，不能移动这些大山，而且是多么高耸的大山啊！《九三年》就是这样一座大山！”显而易见，在雨果的心目中，《九三年》分量很重，他轻易不肯动笔，因而酝酿的时间有十多年之久。雨果在写作之前阅读了尽可能多的材料，做了充分的了解历史背景的工作。关于大革命时期布列塔尼地区的叛乱，他看了皮伊才伯爵的《回忆录》（一八０三-一八０七），杜什曼·德斯波的《关于朱安党叛乱起源的通信》（一八二五），从中借用了人物、名字、方言土语、服装和生活方式的细节，还有各个事件。关于救国委员会的活动，他参阅了加拉、戈伊埃、兰盖、赛纳尔等人的回忆录。关于国民公会，他参阅了《日通报》汇编。他研读了米什莱、路易·布朗、梯也尔、博南的著作；博南的《法国大革命史》保留了一条书签，上写：“一七九三年五月三十一日，关键局势。”这一天成为小说的出发点。他还使用过拉马丁的《吉伦特党史》，阿梅尔的《罗伯斯比尔史》和他的朋友克拉尔蒂著述的《最后几个山岳党人史实》，另外，赛巴斯蒂安·梅尔西埃的《新巴黎》给他提供了一七九三年的法国生活和堡垒建筑的宝贵材料。雨果并没有让这一大堆材料所左右，而是驾驭这些材料，创作出一部生动而紧张的历史小说。应该说，雨果对法国大革命并不陌生，他生于一八０二年，父亲是拿破仑手下的一个将军，而母亲持有保王党观点。雨果的童年和青少年时期经历了大革命的变迁。对于这场人类历史上翻天覆地的社会变革，他有切身的感受。不过这时雨果早已改变了早年的保王派观点，他从四十年代末开始已成为共和派，他是以资产阶级共和派的眼光去看待这场革命的。雨果不想写作一部通俗的历史小说，他不满足于描写法国大革命的一般进程，而是想总结出某些历史经验。《九三年》这部历史小说的切入角度是独具慧眼的。雨果选取了大革命斗争最激烈的年代作为小说的背景。一七九三年是大革命处于生死存亡的一年：在巴黎，雅各宾派取代了吉伦特党，登上了历史舞台；面对着得到国外反法联盟支持的保王党发动的叛乱，以及蠢蠢欲动的各种敌人，雅各宾党实行革命的专政和恐怖政策，毫不留情地镇压敢于反抗的敌对分子；派出共和军前往旺代等地，平定叛乱，终于使共和国转危为安，巩固了大革命的成果。雨果在小说中指出：“九三年是欧洲对法兰西的战争，又是法兰西对巴黎的战争。革命怎样呢？那是法兰西战胜欧洲，巴黎战胜法兰西。这就是九三年这个恐怖的时刻之所以伟大的原因，它比本世纪的其余时刻更伟大。”他又说：“九三年是一个紧张的年头。风暴在这时期达到了最猛烈最壮观的程度。”以这一年发生的事件来描写大革命，确实能充分反映人类历史中最彻底的一次反封建的资产阶级革命。
雨果尊重历史，如实地展现了革命与反革命斗争的残酷性，描写出这场斗争激烈而壮伟的场面。在小说中，保王党叛军平均每天枪杀三十个蓝军，纵火焚烧城市，把所有的居民活活烧死在家里。他们的领袖提出“杀掉，烧掉，绝不饶恕”。保王主义在一些落后地区，如布列塔尼拥有广泛的基础，农民盲目地跟着领主走。他们愚昧无知，例如农妇米歇尔·弗莱夏既不知道自己是法国人，又分不清革命和反革命；她的丈夫为贵族卖命，断送了性命；乞丐泰尔马什明知政府悬赏六万法郎，捉拿叛军首领朗特纳克，却把他隐藏起来，帮助他逃走。农民的落后是贵族发动叛乱的基础，小说真实地反映了这种社会状况。面对贵族残忍的烧杀，共和军以牙还牙；绝不宽大敌人。在雅各宾派内部，三巨头--罗伯斯比尔、丹东、马拉，虽然政见有分歧，但都一致同意采取强有力的手段。他们选中主张“恐怖必须用恐怖来还击”的西穆尔丹为特派代表，颁布用极刑来对待放走敌人的严厉法令。因为要保存革命成果，就不得不用暴力来对付暴力。
其次，雨果正确评价了雅各宾党专政时期实行的一系列政策。他把国民公会喻为酿酒桶，桶里“虽然沸腾着恐怖，也酝酿着进步”。国民公会宣布了信仰自由，认为贫穷应受尊敬，残疾应受尊敬，母亲和儿童也应受尊敬；盲人和聋哑人成为受国家监护的人；谴责贩卖黑奴的罪恶行为；废除了奴隶制度；颁布了义务教育制；创立了工艺陈列馆和博物院；统一了法典和度量衡；创办了电报、老年人救济院、医院；创建了气象局、研究院。这一切措施都放射出灿烂的思想光芒，造福于人民。大革命所进行的乃是启蒙思想家的理想，是以先进的资产阶级文明代替愚昧落后的封建体制。至今，上述各项措施继续起着良好作用，并普及到世界各国。
对法国大革命和九三年的阶级生死搏斗的正确描写，是这部小说的基本价值所在。雨果捍卫法国大革命，包括雅各宾派一系列正确政策的立场，鲜明地表现了他的民主主义思想，体现出真知灼见。《九三年》以雄浑的笔触真实地再现了十八世纪末的法国历史面貌，是描绘法国大革命的一部史诗。不过，对于雅各宾派的所作所为，雨果并没有完全加以肯定。雅各宾派为什么会失败？人们有各种各样的看法，雨果也进行了哲理的沉思。在他看来，尽管一方面是刀光剑影，以暴力对付暴力，但另一方面，应有仁慈，要以人道对人道或非人道。他认为，雅各宾派滥杀无辜，没有实行人道主义政策，以致垮台。这一沉思表现在小说结尾。人们历来对这个结尾争论不休，难以得出结论，小说的魅力却很大程度来自于此。从艺术上看，《九三年》的结尾是出人意外的，同时写得扣人心弦。叛军首领、布列塔尼亲王朗特纳克被围困在图尔格城堡，他要求以被他劫走、作为人质的三个小孩来交换，请蓝军司令官戈万放了他，戈万断然拒绝。可是朗特纳克得到别人帮助，从地道逃了出来。突然他听到三个孩子的母亲痛苦的喊声：三个孩子快要被大火吞没了。朗特纳克毅然折回来，冒着危险，救出三个小孩，他自己则落到共和军手里。戈万震惊于朗特纳克舍己救人的人道主义精神，思想激烈斗争，认为应以人道对待人道，便放走了郎特纳克。特派代表西穆尔丹是戈万小时的老师，他不顾广大共和军战士的哀求，坚决执行“任何军事领袖如果放走一名捕获的叛军便要处以死刑”的法令，铁面无情地主张送戈万上断头台。就在戈万人头落地的一刹那，他也开枪自杀。
西穆尔丹、戈万和朗特纳克是小说中的三个主要人物，他们之间的纠葛从政治观点的敌对，转化而为是否实施人道主义的冲突。雨果认为：“慈悲心是人类共同生活的残余，一切人心里都有，连心肠最硬的人也有。”朗特纳克的情况就是这样，“那个母亲的喊声唤醒他内心的过时的慈悲心，”“他已经走入黑暗之中，再退回到光明里来。在造成罪行之后，他又自动破坏了那罪行。”对此，戈万在沉思时发现，“一个英雄从这个恶魔身上跳了出来”，朗特纳克不再是杀人者，而是救人者；不再是恶魔，这个拿着屠刀的人变成了“光明的天使”；他赎回了种种野蛮行为，救了自己的灵魂，变成无罪的人。
小说这种戏剧性的变化像异峰突起，使矛盾达到白热化。如何处置与评价朗特纳克和戈万的行为，构成了人物之间的冲突，也引起读者不同的看法。毫无疑义，与其说是戈万在沉思，不如说这是雨果的想法。倘若朗特纳克是个一般的保王党人或一般的叛军指挥官，他舍身去救三个处在大火包围中的小孩，那么这还是可以想像的。令人费解的是，朗特纳克是个异常冷酷的人，他出现时曾经毫不怜悯地枪杀蓝军中随军的女人，正是他劫走了三个尚不懂事的孩子，作为向共和军要挟的人质，也正是他要放火烧死他们，准备同归于尽。试问，这样铁石心肠的人，内心怎么还能容纳得下人道主义思想？他怎么会在一时之间改变本性，产生人道主义？雨果并没有描绘在这一瞬间，他内心的思想活动，因而读者也无从理解这一行动的可信性。不能不说，雨果没有拿出充分的依据去证明这个恶贯满盈的人（或者说恶魔）是怎么会放下屠刀，立地成佛的。所以，朗特纳克返回去救三个孩子的行动，只是对作者的“慈悲心连心肠最硬的人也有”这一观点十分概念化的图解。
至于戈万，他的行动倒是描写得有根有据的。雨果早有交代，说他在打仗时很坚强，可是过后很软弱；他待人慈悲为怀，宽恕敌人，保护修女，营救贵族的妻女，释放俘虏，给教士自由。他的宽大不是无原则的，他曾对西穆尔丹说，他赦免了战败后被俘获的三百个农民，因为这些农民是无知的，但他不会赦免朗特纳克，因为朗特纳克罪大恶极，即使是他的叔祖也罢。法兰西才是他的兄长，而朗特纳克是祖国的叛徒。他和朗特纳克誓不两立，只能你死我活。然而，他又有一些想法，与他的司令官身份很不相称。例如，他认为路易十六是一只被投到狮子堆里的羊，他想逃命和防卫是很自然的，虽然他一有可能便会咬人。最主要的是，他认为“恐怖政治会报害革命的名誉”，推翻帝制不是要用断头台来代替它，“打掉王冠，但是要保护人头。革命是和谐，不是恐怖……‘恕’字在我看来是人类语言中最美的一个字……在打仗的时候，我们必须做我们的敌人的敌人，胜利以后，我们就要做他们的兄弟。”这些话为他后来的行动按下了伏笔，虽然是雨果的观点，但与人物的思想是融合在一起的。
戈万的行动同雨果对雅各宾派的看法有关，雨果对雅各宾党的恐怖政治是颇有微词的。在他的笔下，雅各宾党三巨头狂热多于理智，只知镇压，不懂仁政，语言充满火药味，浑身散发出平民的粗俗气息。他们所执行的恐怖政治在一定条件下起了作用，但同时也包含着弊病。戈万认为对旧世界是要开刀的，然而外科医生需要冷静，而不是激烈，“恐怖政治会损害革命的名誉”。共和国不需要一个“怕人的外表”。从这种观点出发，戈万放走朗特纳克是顺理成章的。应该说，雨果在小说里发表的见解既非全对，亦非全错。对于保王党人的武装叛乱和残忍屠杀平民的行为，革命政权只有以眼还眼，这样才能保存自身。但也无可讳言，雅各宾党矫枉过正，存在滥杀现象，这就是为什么雅各宾党的专政维持不了多久，连罗伯斯比尔也上了断头台的原因。据马迪厄的《法国革命史》考证，一七九四年，当局嫌断头机行刑太慢，便辅之以炮轰、集体枪毙、沉船，一次就处死几百人。因此，雨果提出胜利后应实施宽大政策，是针对革命政权的极端政策而发的，具有合理、正确的因素。但戈万之所以放走朗特纳克，是基于这样的考虑：敌人也能实行人道主义，共和军就不能实行人道主义吗？这里，雨果走向了另一个极端。他的观点集中表现为这句话：“在绝对正确的革命之上，还有一个绝对正确的人道主义。”雨果将革命和人道主义割裂开来是错误的。革命与人道主义可以统一，而且应该统一起来。就拿资产阶级革命来说，这是对罪恶的、不人道的封建制度的清算，而代之以更人道的社会制度；自由、平等、博爱，就是以人道主义为基础的，比起封建主义的人身依附关系。贵族特权、森严的等级制度要前进一大步。然而，在有敌对阶级存在的社会中，尤其在尚未取得最终胜利的紧急关头，不可能也不应该实行宽大无边的、绝对的人道主义，否则就是对人民实行不人道。以朗特纳克来说，就算他果真救出三个孩子，自己束手就擒，对于革命的一方来说，完全可以根据他的情况作出合理的符合人民利益的判决，而不一定非要处以极刑。当然，共和军不会这样处理。但是，放走了他，后果会怎样呢？他必然与革命政府为敌，再次纠集叛军，攻打共和军，屠杀无辜的百姓，犯下非人道的罪行。从效果来说，戈万放走朗特纳克的行动，对人民来说，是不符合人道原则的。以上分析说明，无论雅各宾党，还是雨果本人，都未能处理好革命与人道的关系问题。西穆尔丹是作为戈万的对立面而出现的，虽然他也是一个革命者。小说中，他是革命政府的化身。尽管早先他是教士，但他爱憎分明，他能用嘴去吸一个病人喉部的脓疮，可他决“不会给国王干这件事”。他认识到革命的敌人是旧社会，“革命对这个敌人是毫不仁慈的”。然而他是一个“冷酷无情的人”，没有人看见他流过眼泪，他自认为不会犯错误，别人无可指摘。他既正直又可怕。他虽然崇高，“可是这种崇高和人是隔绝的，是在悬崖峭壁上的崇高，是灰色的、不亲近人的崇高；他的崇高的周围被悬崖峭壁包围着。”他忠于雅各宾党的信条和各项恐怖政策，他向委任于他的国民公会保证：“假如那委托给我的共和党领袖走错了一步，我也要判处他死刑。”他屡次警告戈万：“在我们所处的时代，仁慈可能成为卖国的一种形式。”他的誓言和警告都成了事实。在判处戈万死刑之后，他再一次同戈万交锋。戈万纵横捭阖，畅谈他的理想，西穆尔丹无言以对，败退下来。他承认戈万的话有道理，但是他不可能改变自己的观点，内心处于不可克服的矛盾之中。“他有着像箭一样的盲目的准确性，只对准目标一直飞去。在革命中没有什么比直线更可怕的了。西穆尔丹一往直前，这就注定了他的不幸。”他亲手处死了自己“精神上的儿子”和学生、他的战友，最后在痛苦与惶惑中开枪自尽。通过他的悲剧，雨果批判了只讲暴力，不讲人道，只知盲目执行，不会灵活处置的革命者。西穆尔丹是有代表意义的、相当真实的一个形象。
作为浪漫派的领袖，雨果的浪漫手法在《九三年》中得到了充分的表现。雨果的一个重要的浪漫手法是将无生命或非人的事物，描绘得如同有生命的物体一样神奇、动人心魄、令人惊叹。小说开篇对战舰上大炮的描写是一个很好的例证。在这艘名为巨剑号的军舰上，一尊二十四斤重弹的大炮从炮座上滑脱了，它变成了一头怪物，它在舰上滚来滚去，旋转，冲撞，击破，杀害，歼灭，又像握城锤在任性地撞击城墙：“这是物质获得了自由，也可以说这是永恒的奴隶找到了复仇的机会；一切仿佛是隐藏在我们所谓无生命的物体里的那种恶性突然爆发了出来；它那样子像是发了脾气，正在进行一种古怪的神秘的报复；再也没有比这种无生物的愤怒更无情的了。这个疯狂的庞然大物有豹子的敏捷，大象的重量，老鼠的灵巧，斧子的坚硬，波浪的突然，闪电的迅速，坟墓的痴聋。它重一万磅，却像小孩的皮球似的弹跳起来。……暴风可以停止，台风会吹过去，断掉的桅可以换一根，一个漏洞可以堵上，火灾可以扑灭；可是对这只庞大的青铜兽怎么办呢？”这门大炮完全解除了军舰的战斗力。雨果丰富的想像力将这个场面描绘得令人叹为观止。就是在这样一个悲壮的场面中，朗特纳克出现了，显出他的严厉、冷峻和刚毅。这个阴惨惨的、色彩神秘的开场给小说定下了悲剧的调子。雨果就以这样的笔法，营造出残酷的、命运捉摸不定的气氛，具有浓郁的浪漫色彩。雨果认为这种浪漫手法同样能达到真实，他在小说中说：‘流史有真实性，传奇也有真实性。传奇的真实和历史的真实在性质上是不同的。传奇的真实是在虚构中去反映现实。”浪漫手法与写实手法是殊途同归。
众所周知，雨果是运用对照手法的大师。他在《克伦威尔·序》中曾经指出：“丑在美的旁边，畸形靠近着优美，五怪藏在崇高背后，美与恶共存，光明与黑暗相伴。”这条准则始终指导着雨果的创作。《九三年》同样运用对照手法，不过，这部小说不像《巴黎圣母院》那样运用人物形体的对照或形体与、心灵的对照。小说三个主要人物的对照表现在思想上：朗特纳克性格残酷无情，顽固不化，具有不达目的不罢休的坚定，也具有成为领袖的威严和果敢。他心中并无一丝人道感情，只是在最后才人性复现。西穆尔丹同样坚定不移，朗特纳克坚信保王主义，他则坚信共和主义，特别是坚信恐怖政治。他反对实施仁慈，不相信人道主义是放之四海而皆准的原则。应该说，他比朗特纳克的心肠更硬，对维护自己的信念更加一丝不苟。这两个人物都受到雨果的批判。戈万既有实行革命的坚定性，又有面对复杂现实的灵活性。他是雨果心目中人道主义的化身：他为了人道主义而不惜牺牲自己的生命。这三个人物思想上的对照与矛盾，有力地推动了情节的发展。
雨果的小说技巧在《九三年》中达到了更成熟的地步。小说情节的进展异常紧凑，看不到多少闲笔和题外话，不像《巴黎圣母院》和《悲惨世界》那样，常常出现大段的议论或枝蔓的情节。作者的议论融合到人物的思想中，成为塑造人物不可或缺的部分，这是更高明的手法。从结构上说，小说环环相扣，一步步推向高潮。高潮以三个小孩的遭遇为核心，以三个主要人物的思想交锋为冲突，写得紧张而动人心弦。这部小说虽然篇幅不大，却堪与卷帙浩繁的历史小说相媲美，成为不可多得的上乘之作。
Plot
The action mainly takes place in western France, and in Paris, and to a lesser extent at sea off the Channel Islands, where Hugo latterly lived.
The year is 1793. In Brittany during the Royalist insurrection of the Chouannerie, a troop of “Blues” (soldiers of the French Republic) encounter Michelle Fléchard, a peasant woman, and her three young children, who are fleeing from the conflict. She explains that her husband and parents have been killed. The troop’s commander, Sergeant Radoub, convinces them to look after the family.
Meanwhile, at sea, a group of Royalist “Whites” are planning to land the Marquis de Lantenac, a Breton aristocrat whose leadership could transform the fortunes of the rebellion. Their corvette is spotted by ships of the Republic. Lantenac slips away in a boat with one supporter, and the corvette distracts the Republican ships by provoking a battle it cannot win. The corvette is destroyed, but Lantenac lands safely in Brittany.
Lantenac is hunted by the Blues, but is protected by a local beggar, to whom he gave alms in the past. He meets up with his supporters, and they immediately launch an attack on the Blues. Part of the troop with the family is captured. Lantenac orders them all to be shot, including Michelle. He takes the children with him as hostages. The beggar finds the bodies, and discovers that Michelle is still alive. He nurses her back to health.
Lantenac’s ruthless methods have turned the revolt into a major threat to the Republic. In Paris, Danton, Robespierre and Marat argue about the threat, while also sniping at each other. They promulgate a decree that all rebels and anyone who helps them will be executed. Cimourdain, a committed revolutionary and former priest, is deputed to carry out their orders in Brittany. He is also told to keep an eye on Gauvain, the commander of the Republican troops there, who is related to Lantenac and thought to be too lenient to rebels. Unknown to the revolutionary leaders, Cimourdain was Gauvain’s childhood tutor, and thinks of him as a son.
Lantenac has taken control of Dol-de-Bretagne, in order to secure a landing place for British troops to be sent to support the Royalists. Gauvain launches a surprise attack and uses deception to dislodge and disperse them. Forced to retreat, Lantenac is constantly kept from the coast by Gauvain. With British troops unavailable his supporters melt away. Eventually he and a last few fanatical followers are trapped in his castle.
Meanwhile Michelle has recovered and goes in search of her children. She wanders aimlessly, but eventually hears that they are being held hostage in Lantenac’s castle. At the castle Sergeant Radoub, fighting with the besiegers, spots the children. He persuades Gauvain to let him lead an assault. He manages to break through the defences and kill several rebels, but Lantenac and a few survivors escape through a secret passage after setting fire to the building. As the fire takes hold, Michelle arrives, and sees that her children are trapped. Her hysterical cries of despair are heard by Lantenac. Struck with guilt, he returns through the passage to the castle and rescues the children, helped by Radoub. He then gives himself up.
Gauvain knows that Cimourdain will guillotine Lantenac after a show trial. He visits him in prison, where Lantenac expresses his uncompromising conservative vision of society ordered by hierarchy, deference and duty. Gauvain insists that humane values transcend tradition. To prove it, he allows Lantenac to escape and then gives himself up to the tribunal that was convened to try him. Gauvain is tried for treason. The tribunal comprises Cimourdain, Radoub and Gauvain’s deputy, Guéchamp. Radoub votes to acquit, but the others vote to condemn Gauvain to be executed. Visited by Cimourdain in prison, Gauvain outlines his own libertarian vision of a future society with minimal government, no taxes, technological progress and sexual equality. The following morning he is executed by guillotine. At the same moment, Cimourdain shoots himself.
Writing and reception
Hugo makes clear where he himself stands—in favor of the revolutionaries—in several explicit comments and remarks made by the omniscient narrator. Nevertheless, the Royalist counter-revolutionaries are in no way villainous or despicable. Quite the contrary: Republicans and Royalists alike are depicted as idealistic and high-minded, completely devoted to their respective antagonistic causes (though, to be sure, ready to perform sundry cruel and ruthless acts perceived as necessary in the ongoing titanic struggle). Among the considerable cast of characters, there is hardly any on either side depicted as opportunistic, mercenary or cynical.
However, while being fair to both Republicans and Monarchists, Hugo has been criticized for his portrayal of the Bretons, whom he describes as "savages" and as speaking "a dead language". A sympathetic portrait is however made of Michelle Flechard, the young Breton mother, who is originally loyal to the king, but is "adopted" by a revolutionary battalion. Her children are later saved by the French royalist leader. Michelle Flechard is a classical "civilian caught between parties".
The former priest who is considered by some to be the novel's villain, Cimourdain, purportedly "made a deep impression on a young Georgian seminarian named Dzhugashvili, who was confined to his cell for reading Ninety-Three and later changed his name to Stalin", according to a biographer of Hugo.
Ayn Rand greatly praised this book (and Hugo's writing in general), acknowledged it as a source of inspiration, and even wrote an introduction to one of its English-language editions. Its influence can be especially discernible in the passages describing the Russian Civil War in Rand's "We the Living"—where, highly uncharacteristic for this staunchly anti-Communist writer, "Reds" as well as "Whites" are given the courage of their convictions and presented as courageous and heroic.
雨果尊重历史，如实地展现了革命与反革命斗争的残酷性，描写出这场斗争激烈而壮伟的场面。在小说中，保王党叛军平均每天枪杀三十个蓝军，纵火焚烧城市，把所有的居民活活烧死在家里。他们的领袖提出“杀掉，烧掉，绝不饶恕”。保王主义在一些落后地区，如布列塔尼拥有广泛的基础，农民盲目地跟着领主走。他们愚昧无知，例如农妇米歇尔·弗莱夏既不知道自己是法国人，又分不清革命和反革命；她的丈夫为贵族卖命，断送了性命；乞丐泰尔马什明知政府悬赏六万法郎，捉拿叛军首领朗特纳克，却把他隐藏起来，帮助他逃走。农民的落后是贵族发动叛乱的基础，小说真实地反映了这种社会状况。面对贵族残忍的烧杀，共和军以牙还牙；绝不宽大敌人。在雅各宾派内部，三巨头--罗伯斯比尔、丹东、马拉，虽然政见有分歧，但都一致同意采取强有力的手段。他们选中主张“恐怖必须用恐怖来还击”的西穆尔丹为特派代表，颁布用极刑来对待放走敌人的严厉法令。因为要保存革命成果，就不得不用暴力来对付暴力。
其次，雨果正确评价了雅各宾党专政时期实行的一系列政策。他把国民公会喻为酿酒桶，桶里“虽然沸腾着恐怖，也酝酿着进步”。国民公会宣布了信仰自由，认为贫穷应受尊敬，残疾应受尊敬，母亲和儿童也应受尊敬；盲人和聋哑人成为受国家监护的人；谴责贩卖黑奴的罪恶行为；废除了奴隶制度；颁布了义务教育制；创立了工艺陈列馆和博物院；统一了法典和度量衡；创办了电报、老年人救济院、医院；创建了气象局、研究院。这一切措施都放射出灿烂的思想光芒，造福于人民。大革命所进行的乃是启蒙思想家的理想，是以先进的资产阶级文明代替愚昧落后的封建体制。至今，上述各项措施继续起着良好作用，并普及到世界各国。
对法国大革命和九三年的阶级生死搏斗的正确描写，是这部小说的基本价值所在。雨果捍卫法国大革命，包括雅各宾派一系列正确政策的立场，鲜明地表现了他的民主主义思想，体现出真知灼见。《九三年》以雄浑的笔触真实地再现了十八世纪末的法国历史面貌，是描绘法国大革命的一部史诗。不过，对于雅各宾派的所作所为，雨果并没有完全加以肯定。雅各宾派为什么会失败？人们有各种各样的看法，雨果也进行了哲理的沉思。在他看来，尽管一方面是刀光剑影，以暴力对付暴力，但另一方面，应有仁慈，要以人道对人道或非人道。他认为，雅各宾派滥杀无辜，没有实行人道主义政策，以致垮台。这一沉思表现在小说结尾。人们历来对这个结尾争论不休，难以得出结论，小说的魅力却很大程度来自于此。从艺术上看，《九三年》的结尾是出人意外的，同时写得扣人心弦。叛军首领、布列塔尼亲王朗特纳克被围困在图尔格城堡，他要求以被他劫走、作为人质的三个小孩来交换，请蓝军司令官戈万放了他，戈万断然拒绝。可是朗特纳克得到别人帮助，从地道逃了出来。突然他听到三个孩子的母亲痛苦的喊声：三个孩子快要被大火吞没了。朗特纳克毅然折回来，冒着危险，救出三个小孩，他自己则落到共和军手里。戈万震惊于朗特纳克舍己救人的人道主义精神，思想激烈斗争，认为应以人道对待人道，便放走了郎特纳克。特派代表西穆尔丹是戈万小时的老师，他不顾广大共和军战士的哀求，坚决执行“任何军事领袖如果放走一名捕获的叛军便要处以死刑”的法令，铁面无情地主张送戈万上断头台。就在戈万人头落地的一刹那，他也开枪自杀。
西穆尔丹、戈万和朗特纳克是小说中的三个主要人物，他们之间的纠葛从政治观点的敌对，转化而为是否实施人道主义的冲突。雨果认为：“慈悲心是人类共同生活的残余，一切人心里都有，连心肠最硬的人也有。”朗特纳克的情况就是这样，“那个母亲的喊声唤醒他内心的过时的慈悲心，”“他已经走入黑暗之中，再退回到光明里来。在造成罪行之后，他又自动破坏了那罪行。”对此，戈万在沉思时发现，“一个英雄从这个恶魔身上跳了出来”，朗特纳克不再是杀人者，而是救人者；不再是恶魔，这个拿着屠刀的人变成了“光明的天使”；他赎回了种种野蛮行为，救了自己的灵魂，变成无罪的人。
小说这种戏剧性的变化像异峰突起，使矛盾达到白热化。如何处置与评价朗特纳克和戈万的行为，构成了人物之间的冲突，也引起读者不同的看法。毫无疑义，与其说是戈万在沉思，不如说这是雨果的想法。倘若朗特纳克是个一般的保王党人或一般的叛军指挥官，他舍身去救三个处在大火包围中的小孩，那么这还是可以想像的。令人费解的是，朗特纳克是个异常冷酷的人，他出现时曾经毫不怜悯地枪杀蓝军中随军的女人，正是他劫走了三个尚不懂事的孩子，作为向共和军要挟的人质，也正是他要放火烧死他们，准备同归于尽。试问，这样铁石心肠的人，内心怎么还能容纳得下人道主义思想？他怎么会在一时之间改变本性，产生人道主义？雨果并没有描绘在这一瞬间，他内心的思想活动，因而读者也无从理解这一行动的可信性。不能不说，雨果没有拿出充分的依据去证明这个恶贯满盈的人（或者说恶魔）是怎么会放下屠刀，立地成佛的。所以，朗特纳克返回去救三个孩子的行动，只是对作者的“慈悲心连心肠最硬的人也有”这一观点十分概念化的图解。
至于戈万，他的行动倒是描写得有根有据的。雨果早有交代，说他在打仗时很坚强，可是过后很软弱；他待人慈悲为怀，宽恕敌人，保护修女，营救贵族的妻女，释放俘虏，给教士自由。他的宽大不是无原则的，他曾对西穆尔丹说，他赦免了战败后被俘获的三百个农民，因为这些农民是无知的，但他不会赦免朗特纳克，因为朗特纳克罪大恶极，即使是他的叔祖也罢。法兰西才是他的兄长，而朗特纳克是祖国的叛徒。他和朗特纳克誓不两立，只能你死我活。然而，他又有一些想法，与他的司令官身份很不相称。例如，他认为路易十六是一只被投到狮子堆里的羊，他想逃命和防卫是很自然的，虽然他一有可能便会咬人。最主要的是，他认为“恐怖政治会报害革命的名誉”，推翻帝制不是要用断头台来代替它，“打掉王冠，但是要保护人头。革命是和谐，不是恐怖……‘恕’字在我看来是人类语言中最美的一个字……在打仗的时候，我们必须做我们的敌人的敌人，胜利以后，我们就要做他们的兄弟。”这些话为他后来的行动按下了伏笔，虽然是雨果的观点，但与人物的思想是融合在一起的。
戈万的行动同雨果对雅各宾派的看法有关，雨果对雅各宾党的恐怖政治是颇有微词的。在他的笔下，雅各宾党三巨头狂热多于理智，只知镇压，不懂仁政，语言充满火药味，浑身散发出平民的粗俗气息。他们所执行的恐怖政治在一定条件下起了作用，但同时也包含着弊病。戈万认为对旧世界是要开刀的，然而外科医生需要冷静，而不是激烈，“恐怖政治会损害革命的名誉”。共和国不需要一个“怕人的外表”。从这种观点出发，戈万放走朗特纳克是顺理成章的。应该说，雨果在小说里发表的见解既非全对，亦非全错。对于保王党人的武装叛乱和残忍屠杀平民的行为，革命政权只有以眼还眼，这样才能保存自身。但也无可讳言，雅各宾党矫枉过正，存在滥杀现象，这就是为什么雅各宾党的专政维持不了多久，连罗伯斯比尔也上了断头台的原因。据马迪厄的《法国革命史》考证，一七九四年，当局嫌断头机行刑太慢，便辅之以炮轰、集体枪毙、沉船，一次就处死几百人。因此，雨果提出胜利后应实施宽大政策，是针对革命政权的极端政策而发的，具有合理、正确的因素。但戈万之所以放走朗特纳克，是基于这样的考虑：敌人也能实行人道主义，共和军就不能实行人道主义吗？这里，雨果走向了另一个极端。他的观点集中表现为这句话：“在绝对正确的革命之上，还有一个绝对正确的人道主义。”雨果将革命和人道主义割裂开来是错误的。革命与人道主义可以统一，而且应该统一起来。就拿资产阶级革命来说，这是对罪恶的、不人道的封建制度的清算，而代之以更人道的社会制度；自由、平等、博爱，就是以人道主义为基础的，比起封建主义的人身依附关系。贵族特权、森严的等级制度要前进一大步。然而，在有敌对阶级存在的社会中，尤其在尚未取得最终胜利的紧急关头，不可能也不应该实行宽大无边的、绝对的人道主义，否则就是对人民实行不人道。以朗特纳克来说，就算他果真救出三个孩子，自己束手就擒，对于革命的一方来说，完全可以根据他的情况作出合理的符合人民利益的判决，而不一定非要处以极刑。当然，共和军不会这样处理。但是，放走了他，后果会怎样呢？他必然与革命政府为敌，再次纠集叛军，攻打共和军，屠杀无辜的百姓，犯下非人道的罪行。从效果来说，戈万放走朗特纳克的行动，对人民来说，是不符合人道原则的。以上分析说明，无论雅各宾党，还是雨果本人，都未能处理好革命与人道的关系问题。西穆尔丹是作为戈万的对立面而出现的，虽然他也是一个革命者。小说中，他是革命政府的化身。尽管早先他是教士，但他爱憎分明，他能用嘴去吸一个病人喉部的脓疮，可他决“不会给国王干这件事”。他认识到革命的敌人是旧社会，“革命对这个敌人是毫不仁慈的”。然而他是一个“冷酷无情的人”，没有人看见他流过眼泪，他自认为不会犯错误，别人无可指摘。他既正直又可怕。他虽然崇高，“可是这种崇高和人是隔绝的，是在悬崖峭壁上的崇高，是灰色的、不亲近人的崇高；他的崇高的周围被悬崖峭壁包围着。”他忠于雅各宾党的信条和各项恐怖政策，他向委任于他的国民公会保证：“假如那委托给我的共和党领袖走错了一步，我也要判处他死刑。”他屡次警告戈万：“在我们所处的时代，仁慈可能成为卖国的一种形式。”他的誓言和警告都成了事实。在判处戈万死刑之后，他再一次同戈万交锋。戈万纵横捭阖，畅谈他的理想，西穆尔丹无言以对，败退下来。他承认戈万的话有道理，但是他不可能改变自己的观点，内心处于不可克服的矛盾之中。“他有着像箭一样的盲目的准确性，只对准目标一直飞去。在革命中没有什么比直线更可怕的了。西穆尔丹一往直前，这就注定了他的不幸。”他亲手处死了自己“精神上的儿子”和学生、他的战友，最后在痛苦与惶惑中开枪自尽。通过他的悲剧，雨果批判了只讲暴力，不讲人道，只知盲目执行，不会灵活处置的革命者。西穆尔丹是有代表意义的、相当真实的一个形象。
作为浪漫派的领袖，雨果的浪漫手法在《九三年》中得到了充分的表现。雨果的一个重要的浪漫手法是将无生命或非人的事物，描绘得如同有生命的物体一样神奇、动人心魄、令人惊叹。小说开篇对战舰上大炮的描写是一个很好的例证。在这艘名为巨剑号的军舰上，一尊二十四斤重弹的大炮从炮座上滑脱了，它变成了一头怪物，它在舰上滚来滚去，旋转，冲撞，击破，杀害，歼灭，又像握城锤在任性地撞击城墙：“这是物质获得了自由，也可以说这是永恒的奴隶找到了复仇的机会；一切仿佛是隐藏在我们所谓无生命的物体里的那种恶性突然爆发了出来；它那样子像是发了脾气，正在进行一种古怪的神秘的报复；再也没有比这种无生物的愤怒更无情的了。这个疯狂的庞然大物有豹子的敏捷，大象的重量，老鼠的灵巧，斧子的坚硬，波浪的突然，闪电的迅速，坟墓的痴聋。它重一万磅，却像小孩的皮球似的弹跳起来。……暴风可以停止，台风会吹过去，断掉的桅可以换一根，一个漏洞可以堵上，火灾可以扑灭；可是对这只庞大的青铜兽怎么办呢？”这门大炮完全解除了军舰的战斗力。雨果丰富的想像力将这个场面描绘得令人叹为观止。就是在这样一个悲壮的场面中，朗特纳克出现了，显出他的严厉、冷峻和刚毅。这个阴惨惨的、色彩神秘的开场给小说定下了悲剧的调子。雨果就以这样的笔法，营造出残酷的、命运捉摸不定的气氛，具有浓郁的浪漫色彩。雨果认为这种浪漫手法同样能达到真实，他在小说中说：‘流史有真实性，传奇也有真实性。传奇的真实和历史的真实在性质上是不同的。传奇的真实是在虚构中去反映现实。”浪漫手法与写实手法是殊途同归。
众所周知，雨果是运用对照手法的大师。他在《克伦威尔·序》中曾经指出：“丑在美的旁边，畸形靠近着优美，五怪藏在崇高背后，美与恶共存，光明与黑暗相伴。”这条准则始终指导着雨果的创作。《九三年》同样运用对照手法，不过，这部小说不像《巴黎圣母院》那样运用人物形体的对照或形体与、心灵的对照。小说三个主要人物的对照表现在思想上：朗特纳克性格残酷无情，顽固不化，具有不达目的不罢休的坚定，也具有成为领袖的威严和果敢。他心中并无一丝人道感情，只是在最后才人性复现。西穆尔丹同样坚定不移，朗特纳克坚信保王主义，他则坚信共和主义，特别是坚信恐怖政治。他反对实施仁慈，不相信人道主义是放之四海而皆准的原则。应该说，他比朗特纳克的心肠更硬，对维护自己的信念更加一丝不苟。这两个人物都受到雨果的批判。戈万既有实行革命的坚定性，又有面对复杂现实的灵活性。他是雨果心目中人道主义的化身：他为了人道主义而不惜牺牲自己的生命。这三个人物思想上的对照与矛盾，有力地推动了情节的发展。
雨果的小说技巧在《九三年》中达到了更成熟的地步。小说情节的进展异常紧凑，看不到多少闲笔和题外话，不像《巴黎圣母院》和《悲惨世界》那样，常常出现大段的议论或枝蔓的情节。作者的议论融合到人物的思想中，成为塑造人物不可或缺的部分，这是更高明的手法。从结构上说，小说环环相扣，一步步推向高潮。高潮以三个小孩的遭遇为核心，以三个主要人物的思想交锋为冲突，写得紧张而动人心弦。这部小说虽然篇幅不大，却堪与卷帙浩繁的历史小说相媲美，成为不可多得的上乘之作。
Plot
The action mainly takes place in western France, and in Paris, and to a lesser extent at sea off the Channel Islands, where Hugo latterly lived.
The year is 1793. In Brittany during the Royalist insurrection of the Chouannerie, a troop of “Blues” (soldiers of the French Republic) encounter Michelle Fléchard, a peasant woman, and her three young children, who are fleeing from the conflict. She explains that her husband and parents have been killed. The troop’s commander, Sergeant Radoub, convinces them to look after the family.
Meanwhile, at sea, a group of Royalist “Whites” are planning to land the Marquis de Lantenac, a Breton aristocrat whose leadership could transform the fortunes of the rebellion. Their corvette is spotted by ships of the Republic. Lantenac slips away in a boat with one supporter, and the corvette distracts the Republican ships by provoking a battle it cannot win. The corvette is destroyed, but Lantenac lands safely in Brittany.
Lantenac is hunted by the Blues, but is protected by a local beggar, to whom he gave alms in the past. He meets up with his supporters, and they immediately launch an attack on the Blues. Part of the troop with the family is captured. Lantenac orders them all to be shot, including Michelle. He takes the children with him as hostages. The beggar finds the bodies, and discovers that Michelle is still alive. He nurses her back to health.
Lantenac’s ruthless methods have turned the revolt into a major threat to the Republic. In Paris, Danton, Robespierre and Marat argue about the threat, while also sniping at each other. They promulgate a decree that all rebels and anyone who helps them will be executed. Cimourdain, a committed revolutionary and former priest, is deputed to carry out their orders in Brittany. He is also told to keep an eye on Gauvain, the commander of the Republican troops there, who is related to Lantenac and thought to be too lenient to rebels. Unknown to the revolutionary leaders, Cimourdain was Gauvain’s childhood tutor, and thinks of him as a son.
Lantenac has taken control of Dol-de-Bretagne, in order to secure a landing place for British troops to be sent to support the Royalists. Gauvain launches a surprise attack and uses deception to dislodge and disperse them. Forced to retreat, Lantenac is constantly kept from the coast by Gauvain. With British troops unavailable his supporters melt away. Eventually he and a last few fanatical followers are trapped in his castle.
Meanwhile Michelle has recovered and goes in search of her children. She wanders aimlessly, but eventually hears that they are being held hostage in Lantenac’s castle. At the castle Sergeant Radoub, fighting with the besiegers, spots the children. He persuades Gauvain to let him lead an assault. He manages to break through the defences and kill several rebels, but Lantenac and a few survivors escape through a secret passage after setting fire to the building. As the fire takes hold, Michelle arrives, and sees that her children are trapped. Her hysterical cries of despair are heard by Lantenac. Struck with guilt, he returns through the passage to the castle and rescues the children, helped by Radoub. He then gives himself up.
Gauvain knows that Cimourdain will guillotine Lantenac after a show trial. He visits him in prison, where Lantenac expresses his uncompromising conservative vision of society ordered by hierarchy, deference and duty. Gauvain insists that humane values transcend tradition. To prove it, he allows Lantenac to escape and then gives himself up to the tribunal that was convened to try him. Gauvain is tried for treason. The tribunal comprises Cimourdain, Radoub and Gauvain’s deputy, Guéchamp. Radoub votes to acquit, but the others vote to condemn Gauvain to be executed. Visited by Cimourdain in prison, Gauvain outlines his own libertarian vision of a future society with minimal government, no taxes, technological progress and sexual equality. The following morning he is executed by guillotine. At the same moment, Cimourdain shoots himself.
Writing and reception
Hugo makes clear where he himself stands—in favor of the revolutionaries—in several explicit comments and remarks made by the omniscient narrator. Nevertheless, the Royalist counter-revolutionaries are in no way villainous or despicable. Quite the contrary: Republicans and Royalists alike are depicted as idealistic and high-minded, completely devoted to their respective antagonistic causes (though, to be sure, ready to perform sundry cruel and ruthless acts perceived as necessary in the ongoing titanic struggle). Among the considerable cast of characters, there is hardly any on either side depicted as opportunistic, mercenary or cynical.
However, while being fair to both Republicans and Monarchists, Hugo has been criticized for his portrayal of the Bretons, whom he describes as "savages" and as speaking "a dead language". A sympathetic portrait is however made of Michelle Flechard, the young Breton mother, who is originally loyal to the king, but is "adopted" by a revolutionary battalion. Her children are later saved by the French royalist leader. Michelle Flechard is a classical "civilian caught between parties".
The former priest who is considered by some to be the novel's villain, Cimourdain, purportedly "made a deep impression on a young Georgian seminarian named Dzhugashvili, who was confined to his cell for reading Ninety-Three and later changed his name to Stalin", according to a biographer of Hugo.
Ayn Rand greatly praised this book (and Hugo's writing in general), acknowledged it as a source of inspiration, and even wrote an introduction to one of its English-language editions. Its influence can be especially discernible in the passages describing the Russian Civil War in Rand's "We the Living"—where, highly uncharacteristic for this staunchly anti-Communist writer, "Reds" as well as "Whites" are given the courage of their convictions and presented as courageous and heroic.
作家因不朽的作品而不朽，作品因永生的人物而永生。雨果和《巴黎圣母院》就是这样。
雄伟壮丽的巴黎圣母院,这座世界上最庄严、最完美、最富丽堂皇的哥特式建筑，虽然已经历了八百余年的风雨沧桑，但其非凡的气势和精美的雕饰仍旧丰韵犹存，令人叹为观止。
整个巴黎圣母院的建筑虽然错落参差，但却庄严、和谐，倔傲与灵秀巧妙搭配，浑然一体，在宏大和巍峨的主体造型中透出一种庄严的神圣感和神秘的奇幻性。整个建筑分为3层，从正面看，最下一层是一座尖形拱门，中间一层是3扇硕大的窗子，第三层是一簇排列有序的美丽的栏杆，栏杆上面是两座尖顶的钟楼，各高达69米。南钟楼悬一巨钟，重达13吨；北钟楼则匠心独运地特设了一个187级的楼梯。在两座钟楼的中间偏后位置上，半峥嵘半畏葸地露出一个高达90米的尖塔。这钟楼和尖塔与分置于底层拱门旁的诸多圣经人物雕像、中层窗子旁的亚当、夏娃的雕塑像，以及那扇由37块玻璃组成的圆形巨窗前面所雕刻的“圣处女像”配合在一起，显得高深迷离，神秘莫测。
巴黎圣母院不仅建筑时间早，而且建筑时间长，从1163年动工，到1250年完成，并在14世纪和17世纪分别进行过两次重大修复。它的建设，几乎牵动了全巴黎、全法国人的心。据说，南塔楼上那13吨重的巨钟，在铸料中所加入的大量金、银成分，就是用当时巴黎的妇女们慷慨而虔诚地捐献出来的金银首饰熔成的。另外，巴黎圣母院所在的位置为巴黎的核心，巴黎的先民高卢———罗马人，最早就是在这里建立了巴黎的城市雏形，所以至今计算巴黎到法国全国各地的里程都是以巴黎圣母院为起点的。
尽管巴黎圣母院以其建筑宏伟、历史悠久、雕塑精美、地理位置重要而赢得了永久的光辉和不衰的声誉，但真正为这座建筑物增色敷彩、投光注煌的，还当首推维克多·雨果的长篇小说《巴黎圣母院》。由于这部长篇小说所涵负的积极的思想意义、深刻的社会内容和对理想与正义的不懈追求与憧憬，而使巴黎圣母院远远超越了它作为“建筑”和“教堂”的意义，而赋有了全新的社会价值和思想内涵，成为人们心目中革新与保守、拓进与妥协、正义与邪恶、美奂与丑窳进行抗争并战而胜之的试金石与分水岭，成为向上精神的圣地和先进思想的熔炉，成为一种对生活和未来的美好的象征和积极的向往。
的确，雨果和他的《巴黎圣母院》为这座声名远播的建筑平添了无限的活力与魅力，举凡来到这里的人，无不怀着对作家人格形象与精神旗帜的景仰与尊崇。《巴黎圣母院》之所以能够为巴黎圣母院构筑筋骨、铸造灵魂，使其成为道义与良知的象征，成为纯洁与善良的所在，成为信仰与追求的寄托，成为对“恶”的鞭挞和对“美”的讴歌的形象化的见证，就因为雨果是一个非凡的作家。他的非凡，主要表现在积极、热情、顽强、坚韧，对国家、民族和人民充满了责任心，一往无前地投入社会变革，用无限的真诚和坦率，明辨是非和支持正义，不顾一切地追求真理。尽管《巴黎圣母院》是雨果青年时期的作品，创作这部长篇小说的时候，雨果还没有经过在根西岛上被流放18年的“炼狱”，他的思想的深刻性还远不如写作《悲惨世界》、《九三年》等作品时那样炉火纯青。但即使这样，《巴黎圣母院》仍旧是现实主义文学创作的一次巨大和极富创新意义的突破。外貌丑陋但内心善良的敲钟人卡西莫多和美丽的吉卜赛女郎艾丝米拉达已成为不朽的文学形象，而它所代表的社会意义和思想意义，则使巴黎圣母院成为一部永远耐人寻味和含义无穷的书。
Hugo began to write Hunchback in 1829. The agreement with his original publisher, Gosselin, was that the book would be finished that same year. However, Hugo was constantly delayed due to the demands of other projects. By the summer of 1830, Gosselin demanded the book to be completed by February 1831. And so beginning in September 1830, Hugo worked non-stop on the project; he bought a new bottle of ink, a woollen cloak, [citation needed] and cloistered himself in his room refusing to leave his house (except for nightly visits to the cathedral). The book was finished six months later.
Synopsis
The story dates back to January 6, 1482 in Paris, France, the day of the 'Festival of Fools' in Paris. Quasimodo, the deformed bell-ringer of Notre Dame, is introduced by his crowning as Pope of Fools.
Esmeralda, a beautiful Gypsy with a kind and generous heart, captures the hearts of many men but especially those of Quasimodo and his adopted father, Claude Frollo, the Archdeacon of Notre Dame. Frollo is torn between his lust and the rules of the church. He orders Quasimodo to kidnap her and then abandons him when he is caught and whipped and ordered to be tied down in the heat. Esmeralda, seeing his thirst, offers the hunchback water. It saves her, for she captures the heart of Quasimodo.
Esmeralda is later charged with the attempted murder of Phoebus, whom Frollo attempted to kill in jealousy, and is sentenced to death by hanging. Crazy with frustrated lust, Frollo has her condemned to death when she refuses to be his. As she is being led to the gallows, Quasimodo swings down by the bell rope of Notre Dame and carries her off to the cathedral under the law of sanctuary. Clopin rallies the Truands (criminals of Paris) to charge the cathedral and rescue Esmeralda. The King, seeing the chaos, vetoes the law of sanctuary and commands his troops to take Esmeralda out and kill her. When Quasimodo sees the Truands, he assumes they are there to hurt Esmeralda, so he drives them off. Frollo betrays Esmeralda by handing her to the troops and watches while she is hanged. Quasimodo pushes him from the heights of Notre Dame to his death. Quasimodo then goes to a mass grave, lies next to her corpse, crawls off to Esmeralda's tomb with his arms around her body and eventually dies of starvation. Two years later, excavationists find the skeletons of Esmeralda with a broken neck and Quasimodo locked in an embrace.
Characters
Major
* Quasimodo, the titular protagonist of the story. He is a barely verbal hunchback bell-ringer of Notre Dame. Ringing the church bells has made him deaf. When he was a hideous and abandoned baby, he was adopted by Claude Frollo. Quasimodo's life within the confines of the cathedral and his only two outlets—ringing the bells and his love and devotion for Frollo—are described. He ventures outside the Cathedral rarely, since people despise and shun him for his appearance. The notable occasions when he does leave are his taking part in the Festival of Fools—during which he is elected Fools'-Pope due to his perfect hideousness—and his subsequent attempt to kidnap Esmeralda, his rescue of Esmeralda from the gallows, his attempt to bring Phoebus to Esmeralda, and his final abandonment of the cathedral at the end of the novel. It is revealed in the story that the baby Quasimodo was left by the Gypsies in place of Esmeralda, whom they abducted.
* Esmeralda, the protagonist of the story. She is a beautiful young barefoot Gypsy dancer, innocent, close to nature, and naturally compassionate and kind. She is the center of the human drama within the story. A popular focus of the citizens' attentions, she experiences their changeable attitudes, being first adored as an entertainer, then hated as a witch, before being lauded again for her dramatic rescue by Quasimodo; when the King finally decides to put her to death, he does so in the belief that the Parisian mob want her dead. She is loved by both Quasimodo and Claude Frollo, but falls deeply in love with Captain Phoebus, a handsome military man who only has a passing infatuation with her and whom she believes will protect her. She is the only character to show the hunchback a moment of human kindness: as he is being whipped for punishment and jeered by a horrid rabble, she approaches the public stock and gives him a drink of water. Because of this, he falls fiercely in love with her, even though she is too disgusted by his ugliness even to let him kiss her hand.
* Claude Frollo is the Archdeacon of Notre Dame. Despite his celibacy vows as a priest, he finds himself madly in love with Esmeralda. He nearly murders Phoebus in a jealous rage from seeing Phoebus on top of Esmeralda. He is killed when Quasimodo pushes him off the cathedral. His dour attitude and his alchemical experiments scared and alienated him from the Parisians, who believed him a sorcerer, and so he lived without family, save for Quasimodo and his spoiled brother Jehan. He serves as the novel's main antagonist.
* Pierre Gringoire is a struggling poet. He mistakenly finds his way into the "Court of Miracles", the secret lair of the Gypsies. In order to preserve the secrecy, Gringoire must either be killed by hanging, or marry a Gypsy. Although Esmeralda does not love him, and in fact believes him a coward rather than a true man (he, unlike Phoebus, failed in his attempt to rescue her from Quasimodo), she takes pity on his plight and marries him—although, much to his disappointment, she refuses to let him touch her.
* Phoebus de Chateaupers is the Captain of the King's Archers. After he saves Esmeralda from abduction, she becomes infatuated with him, and he is intrigued by her. He is already betrothed, but just wants to lie with her. As he continues talking to and kissing her, Frollo comes from behind and stabs him. Esmeralda faints and upon waking up, finds that she has been framed with killing him. After the events of the novel, he suffers the 'tragedy' of marriage to the beautiful but spiteful Fleur-de-Lys de Gondelaurier.
* Clopin Trouillefou is the King of Truands. He rallies the Court of Miracles to rescue Esmeralda from Notre Dame after the idea is suggested by Gringoire. He is eventually killed during the attack by the King's soldiers.
Minor
* Djali (pronounced like "Jolly") is Esmeralda's pet goat. She performs tricks such as writing the word "Phoebus" in moveable letter-blocks, and tapping the number of beats to indicate the month and hour of the day. These tricks delight the citizens at first, but later horrify them, causing them to believe Esmeralda is a witch.
* Fleur-de-Lys de Gondelaurier is a beautiful and wealthy socialite engaged to Phoebus. Phoebus's attentions to Esmeralda make her insecure and jealous, and she and her friends respond by treating Esmeralda with contempt and spite. Fleur-de-Lys later neglects to inform Phoebus that Esmeralda has not been executed, which serves to deprive the pair of any further contact. Phoebus and Fleur-de-Lys marry at the end of the novel.
* Jehan Frollo is Claude Frollo's over-indulged, scallywag younger brother. He is a troublemaker and a student at the university. He is dependent on his brother for money, which he then proceeds to squander on alcohol. Quasimodo kills him during the attack on the cathedral.
* Sister Gudule, formerly named Paquette la Chantefleurie, is an anchorite, who lives in seclusion in an exposed cell in central Paris. She is tormented by the loss of her daughter Agnes, whom she believes to have been cannibalised by Gypsies as a baby, and devotes her life to mourning her. Her long-lost daughter turns out to be Esmeralda.
* Louis XI is the King of France. Appears briefly when he is brought the news of the rioting at Notre Dame.
* Tristan l'Hermite is a friend of King Louis XI. He leads the band that goes to capture Esmeralda.
* Henriet Cousin is the city executioner.
* Florian Barbedienne is the judge who sentences Quasimodo to be tortured. He is also deaf.
* Jacques Charmolue gets Esmeralda to falsely confess to killing Phoebus. He then has her executed.
Major themes
The original French title, Notre-Dame de Paris (the formal title of the Cathedral) indicates that the Cathedral itself is the most significant aspect of the novel, both the main setting and the focus of the story's themes. Nearly every event in the novel takes place in the cathedral, atop the cathedral or can be witnessed by a character standing within or atop the cathedral. The Cathedral had fallen into disrepair at the time of writing, which Hugo wanted to point out. The book portrays the Gothic era as one of extremes of architecture, passion, and religion. The theme of determinism (fate and destiny) is explored as well as revolution and social strife. The severe distinction of the social classes is shown by the relationships of Quasimodo and Esmeralda with higher-caste people in the book. Hugo is also very concerned with justice, and description of religious fanaticism.
The main theme as said in the Disney's adpatation is "Who is the Monster and who is the Man?????"
Architecture
Architecture is a major concern of Hugo's in Notre-Dame de Paris, not just as embodied in the cathedral itself, but as representing throughout Paris and the rest of Europe an artistic genre which, Hugo argued, was about to disappear with the arrival of the printing press. Claude Frollo's portentous phrase, ‘Ceci tuera cela’ ("This will kill that", as he looks from a printed book to the cathedral building), sums up this thesis, which is expounded on in Book V, chapter 2. Hugo writes that ‘quiconque naissait poète se faisait architecte’ ("whoever is born a poet becomes an architect"), arguing that while the written word was heavily censored and difficult to reproduce, architecture was extremely prominent and enjoyed considerable freedom.
Il existe à cette époque, pour la pensée écrite en pierre, un privilége tout-à-fait comparable à notre liberté actuelle de la presse. C'est la liberté de l'architecture.
There exists in this era, for thoughts written in stone, a privilege absolutely comparable to our current freedom of the press. It is the freedom of architecture.
—Book V, Chapter 2
With the recent introduction of the printing press, it became possible to reproduce one's ideas much more easily on paper, and Hugo considered this period to represent the last flowering of architecture as a great artistic form. As with many of his books, Hugo was interested in a time which seemed to him to be on the cusp between two types of society.
Literary significance and reception
The enormous popularity of the book in France spurred the nascent historical preservation movement in that country and strongly encouraged Gothic revival architecture. Ultimately it led to major renovations at Notre-Dame in the 19th century led by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. Much of the cathedral's present appearance is a result of this renovation.
Allusions and references
Allusions to actual history, geography and current science
In The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Victor Hugo makes frequent reference to the architecture of the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris.
He also mentions the invention of the printing press, when the bookmaker near the beginning of the work speaks of "the German pest."
Victor Hugo lived a few homes away from Victor of Aveyron, the first well-documented feral child, although the inspiration for Quasimodo's character is not directly linked to him.
Allusions in other works
The name Quasimodo has become synonymous with "a courageous heart beneath a grotesque exterior."
Film, TV, or theatrical adaptations
To date, all of the film and TV adaptations have strayed somewhat from the original plot, some going as far as to give it a happy ending. The 1956 film is one of the only ones to end exactly like the novel, although it changes other parts of the story. Unlike most adaptations, the Disney version has the ending that's inspired by an opera created by Hugo himself.
Film
* Esmeralda (1905 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1911 film)
* The Darling of Paris (1917 film)
* Esmeralda (1922 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1956 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996 film)
* The Hunchback (1997 film)
* Quasimodo d'El Paris (1999 film)
* Saeed Khan Rangeela a Pakistani comedian turned director made a movie named Kubra Aashiq in 1973 inspired from The Hunchback of Notre-Dame, with himself in the lead role of Quasimodo. However it did not fulfill the expectations of the audience and literary circles also did not appreciate it.
Television
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1966 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1977 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1982 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1986 film)
Theatre
* In 1977, an adaptation by Ken Hill was commissioned and staged by the National Theatre in London.
Music
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame by Alec R. Costandinos and the Syncophonic Orchestra from 1977, a lush orchestral disco 28 minute epic re-telling the tale of Quasimodo and Esmeralda.
Musical theatre
* Opera "La Esmeralda", by Louise Bertin (1836), libretto by Victor Hugo.
* Opera "Esmeralda", by Arthur Goring Thomas (1883) based on the Victor Hugo novel.
* Opera Esmeralda, by Dargomyzhsky (1847), also based on the same Victor Hugo novel.
* "Notre Dame", romantic Opera in two acts, text after Victor Hugo by Franz Schmidt and Leopold Wilk; composed: 1902-4, 1st perf.: Vienna 1914
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1993), an Off Broadway musical with music by Byron Janis, lyrics by Hal Hackady and book by Anthony Scully
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1993), a dramatic sung-through musical with book and lyrics by Gary Sullivan and music by John Trent Wallace. After a production at the Mermaid Theatre in London it was published by Samuel French Ltd in 1997 and has received several UK productions as well as productions in New Zealand and Australia. In 2010 it was re-written as a conventional musical, with the new title Notre Dame.
* In 1999, "Notre Dame de Paris (musical)" opened in Paris and became an instant success. It is considered the most successful adaptation of any novel except for "The Phantom of the Opera" and "Les Misérables." It was also adapted for the stage by Nicholas DeBaubien.
* From 1999 to 2002, the Disney film was adapted into a darker, more Gothic musical production called Der Glöckner von Notre Dame (translated in English as The Bellringer of Notre Dame), re-written and directed by James Lapine and produced by the Disney theatrical branch, in Berlin, Germany. A cast recording was also recorded in German. There has been discussion of an American revival of the musical.
* A rock musical version was released in Seattle, Washington in 1998 titled "Hunchback" with music and script by C. Rainey Lewis.
* A musical version, scored by Dennis DeYoung, will open in Chicago at the Bailiwick Reperatory in the summer of 2008
Ballet
* Notre-Dame de Paris A ballet choreographed by Roland Petit. First performed in 1965 at the Paris Opera.
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1998) – choreography and direction by Michael Pink and original music score by Philip Feeney. Currently in the repertoire of Milwaukee Ballet, Boston Ballet, Royal New Zealand Ballet, Atlanta Ballet and Colorado Ballet.
* Ringaren i Notre Dame (Swedish for The Bellringer of Notre Dame; 2009) – choreography by Pär Isberg and original music score by Stefan Nilsson. Its first performance was on 3 April 2009, by the Royal Swedish Ballet at the Royal Swedish Opera, Stockholm.
Radio
The book was twice adapted and broadcast by BBC Radio 4 as its Classic Serial:
* in 5 parts from 6 January to 3 February 1989, with Jack Klaff as Quasimodo
* in 2 parts on 30 November and 7 December 2008, with deaf actor David Bower playing Quasimodo.
Translation history
The Hunchback of Notre-Dame has been translated into English many times. Translations are often reprinted by various publisher imprints. Some translations have been revised over time.
* 1833. Translated by Frederic Shoberl as The Hunchback of Notre Dame. Later revisions.
* 1833. Translated by William Hazlitt as Notre Dame: A Tale of the Ancien Regime. Later revisions.
* 1888. Translated by Isabel F. Hapgood as Notre-Dame de Paris.
* 1895. Translated by M.W. Artois et al., part of the 28-vol The Novels of Victor Hugo, re-printed in the 20th century under other titles.
* 1964. Translated by Walter J. Cobb. In multiple editions, see for example Signet Classics ISBN 0451527887, Pub date 10 April 2001, paperback.
* 1978. Translated by John Sturrock. In multiple editions, see for example Penguin Classics ISBN 0140443533, Pub date 26 October 1978, paperback.
* 1993. Translated by Alban J. Krailsheim as Notre-Dame de Paris. See Oxford World's Classics ISBN 978-0199555802
* 2002. Revised translation by Catherine Liu of an anonymous 19th century translation. See Modern Library Classics ISBN 0679642579, Pub date 8 October 2002.
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Quotations
* A description of Quasimodo upon his election as the fool's pope: "We shall not attempt to give the reader an idea of that tetrahedron nose- that horse-shoe mouth- that small left eye over-shadowed by a red bushy brow, while the right eye disappeared entirely under an enormous wart- of those straggling teeth with breaches here and there like the battlements of a fortress- of that horny lip, over which one of those teeth projected like the tusk of an elephant- of that forked chin- and, above all, of the expression spread over all this-that expression of mingled malice, amazement and sadness." (p. 62)
* On the connection between architecture and culture: "When a man understands the art of seeing, he can trace the spirit of an age and the features of a king even in the knocker on a door." (p. 184)
* Quasimodo's reaction to Esmeralda's gift of a drink of water while he is being heckled on the pillory: "Then from that eye, hitherto so dry and burning, was seen to roll a big tear, which fell slowly down that deformed visage so long contracted by despair. Perhaps it was the first that the unfortunate creature had ever shed." (p. 322)
* Quasimodo, explaining why he won't enter Esmeralda's cell: "The owl goes not into the nest of the lark." (p. 502)
* After Esmeralda's execution: "Quasimodo then lifted his eye to look upon the Gypsy girl, whose body, suspended from the gibbet, he beheld quivering afar, under its white robes, in the last struggles of death; then again he dropped it upon the archdeacon, stretched a shapeless mass at the foot of the tower, and he said with a sob that heaved his deep breast to the bottom, 'Oh-all that I've ever loved!'"
雄伟壮丽的巴黎圣母院,这座世界上最庄严、最完美、最富丽堂皇的哥特式建筑，虽然已经历了八百余年的风雨沧桑，但其非凡的气势和精美的雕饰仍旧丰韵犹存，令人叹为观止。
整个巴黎圣母院的建筑虽然错落参差，但却庄严、和谐，倔傲与灵秀巧妙搭配，浑然一体，在宏大和巍峨的主体造型中透出一种庄严的神圣感和神秘的奇幻性。整个建筑分为3层，从正面看，最下一层是一座尖形拱门，中间一层是3扇硕大的窗子，第三层是一簇排列有序的美丽的栏杆，栏杆上面是两座尖顶的钟楼，各高达69米。南钟楼悬一巨钟，重达13吨；北钟楼则匠心独运地特设了一个187级的楼梯。在两座钟楼的中间偏后位置上，半峥嵘半畏葸地露出一个高达90米的尖塔。这钟楼和尖塔与分置于底层拱门旁的诸多圣经人物雕像、中层窗子旁的亚当、夏娃的雕塑像，以及那扇由37块玻璃组成的圆形巨窗前面所雕刻的“圣处女像”配合在一起，显得高深迷离，神秘莫测。
巴黎圣母院不仅建筑时间早，而且建筑时间长，从1163年动工，到1250年完成，并在14世纪和17世纪分别进行过两次重大修复。它的建设，几乎牵动了全巴黎、全法国人的心。据说，南塔楼上那13吨重的巨钟，在铸料中所加入的大量金、银成分，就是用当时巴黎的妇女们慷慨而虔诚地捐献出来的金银首饰熔成的。另外，巴黎圣母院所在的位置为巴黎的核心，巴黎的先民高卢———罗马人，最早就是在这里建立了巴黎的城市雏形，所以至今计算巴黎到法国全国各地的里程都是以巴黎圣母院为起点的。
尽管巴黎圣母院以其建筑宏伟、历史悠久、雕塑精美、地理位置重要而赢得了永久的光辉和不衰的声誉，但真正为这座建筑物增色敷彩、投光注煌的，还当首推维克多·雨果的长篇小说《巴黎圣母院》。由于这部长篇小说所涵负的积极的思想意义、深刻的社会内容和对理想与正义的不懈追求与憧憬，而使巴黎圣母院远远超越了它作为“建筑”和“教堂”的意义，而赋有了全新的社会价值和思想内涵，成为人们心目中革新与保守、拓进与妥协、正义与邪恶、美奂与丑窳进行抗争并战而胜之的试金石与分水岭，成为向上精神的圣地和先进思想的熔炉，成为一种对生活和未来的美好的象征和积极的向往。
的确，雨果和他的《巴黎圣母院》为这座声名远播的建筑平添了无限的活力与魅力，举凡来到这里的人，无不怀着对作家人格形象与精神旗帜的景仰与尊崇。《巴黎圣母院》之所以能够为巴黎圣母院构筑筋骨、铸造灵魂，使其成为道义与良知的象征，成为纯洁与善良的所在，成为信仰与追求的寄托，成为对“恶”的鞭挞和对“美”的讴歌的形象化的见证，就因为雨果是一个非凡的作家。他的非凡，主要表现在积极、热情、顽强、坚韧，对国家、民族和人民充满了责任心，一往无前地投入社会变革，用无限的真诚和坦率，明辨是非和支持正义，不顾一切地追求真理。尽管《巴黎圣母院》是雨果青年时期的作品，创作这部长篇小说的时候，雨果还没有经过在根西岛上被流放18年的“炼狱”，他的思想的深刻性还远不如写作《悲惨世界》、《九三年》等作品时那样炉火纯青。但即使这样，《巴黎圣母院》仍旧是现实主义文学创作的一次巨大和极富创新意义的突破。外貌丑陋但内心善良的敲钟人卡西莫多和美丽的吉卜赛女郎艾丝米拉达已成为不朽的文学形象，而它所代表的社会意义和思想意义，则使巴黎圣母院成为一部永远耐人寻味和含义无穷的书。
Hugo began to write Hunchback in 1829. The agreement with his original publisher, Gosselin, was that the book would be finished that same year. However, Hugo was constantly delayed due to the demands of other projects. By the summer of 1830, Gosselin demanded the book to be completed by February 1831. And so beginning in September 1830, Hugo worked non-stop on the project; he bought a new bottle of ink, a woollen cloak, [citation needed] and cloistered himself in his room refusing to leave his house (except for nightly visits to the cathedral). The book was finished six months later.
Synopsis
The story dates back to January 6, 1482 in Paris, France, the day of the 'Festival of Fools' in Paris. Quasimodo, the deformed bell-ringer of Notre Dame, is introduced by his crowning as Pope of Fools.
Esmeralda, a beautiful Gypsy with a kind and generous heart, captures the hearts of many men but especially those of Quasimodo and his adopted father, Claude Frollo, the Archdeacon of Notre Dame. Frollo is torn between his lust and the rules of the church. He orders Quasimodo to kidnap her and then abandons him when he is caught and whipped and ordered to be tied down in the heat. Esmeralda, seeing his thirst, offers the hunchback water. It saves her, for she captures the heart of Quasimodo.
Esmeralda is later charged with the attempted murder of Phoebus, whom Frollo attempted to kill in jealousy, and is sentenced to death by hanging. Crazy with frustrated lust, Frollo has her condemned to death when she refuses to be his. As she is being led to the gallows, Quasimodo swings down by the bell rope of Notre Dame and carries her off to the cathedral under the law of sanctuary. Clopin rallies the Truands (criminals of Paris) to charge the cathedral and rescue Esmeralda. The King, seeing the chaos, vetoes the law of sanctuary and commands his troops to take Esmeralda out and kill her. When Quasimodo sees the Truands, he assumes they are there to hurt Esmeralda, so he drives them off. Frollo betrays Esmeralda by handing her to the troops and watches while she is hanged. Quasimodo pushes him from the heights of Notre Dame to his death. Quasimodo then goes to a mass grave, lies next to her corpse, crawls off to Esmeralda's tomb with his arms around her body and eventually dies of starvation. Two years later, excavationists find the skeletons of Esmeralda with a broken neck and Quasimodo locked in an embrace.
Characters
Major
* Quasimodo, the titular protagonist of the story. He is a barely verbal hunchback bell-ringer of Notre Dame. Ringing the church bells has made him deaf. When he was a hideous and abandoned baby, he was adopted by Claude Frollo. Quasimodo's life within the confines of the cathedral and his only two outlets—ringing the bells and his love and devotion for Frollo—are described. He ventures outside the Cathedral rarely, since people despise and shun him for his appearance. The notable occasions when he does leave are his taking part in the Festival of Fools—during which he is elected Fools'-Pope due to his perfect hideousness—and his subsequent attempt to kidnap Esmeralda, his rescue of Esmeralda from the gallows, his attempt to bring Phoebus to Esmeralda, and his final abandonment of the cathedral at the end of the novel. It is revealed in the story that the baby Quasimodo was left by the Gypsies in place of Esmeralda, whom they abducted.
* Esmeralda, the protagonist of the story. She is a beautiful young barefoot Gypsy dancer, innocent, close to nature, and naturally compassionate and kind. She is the center of the human drama within the story. A popular focus of the citizens' attentions, she experiences their changeable attitudes, being first adored as an entertainer, then hated as a witch, before being lauded again for her dramatic rescue by Quasimodo; when the King finally decides to put her to death, he does so in the belief that the Parisian mob want her dead. She is loved by both Quasimodo and Claude Frollo, but falls deeply in love with Captain Phoebus, a handsome military man who only has a passing infatuation with her and whom she believes will protect her. She is the only character to show the hunchback a moment of human kindness: as he is being whipped for punishment and jeered by a horrid rabble, she approaches the public stock and gives him a drink of water. Because of this, he falls fiercely in love with her, even though she is too disgusted by his ugliness even to let him kiss her hand.
* Claude Frollo is the Archdeacon of Notre Dame. Despite his celibacy vows as a priest, he finds himself madly in love with Esmeralda. He nearly murders Phoebus in a jealous rage from seeing Phoebus on top of Esmeralda. He is killed when Quasimodo pushes him off the cathedral. His dour attitude and his alchemical experiments scared and alienated him from the Parisians, who believed him a sorcerer, and so he lived without family, save for Quasimodo and his spoiled brother Jehan. He serves as the novel's main antagonist.
* Pierre Gringoire is a struggling poet. He mistakenly finds his way into the "Court of Miracles", the secret lair of the Gypsies. In order to preserve the secrecy, Gringoire must either be killed by hanging, or marry a Gypsy. Although Esmeralda does not love him, and in fact believes him a coward rather than a true man (he, unlike Phoebus, failed in his attempt to rescue her from Quasimodo), she takes pity on his plight and marries him—although, much to his disappointment, she refuses to let him touch her.
* Phoebus de Chateaupers is the Captain of the King's Archers. After he saves Esmeralda from abduction, she becomes infatuated with him, and he is intrigued by her. He is already betrothed, but just wants to lie with her. As he continues talking to and kissing her, Frollo comes from behind and stabs him. Esmeralda faints and upon waking up, finds that she has been framed with killing him. After the events of the novel, he suffers the 'tragedy' of marriage to the beautiful but spiteful Fleur-de-Lys de Gondelaurier.
* Clopin Trouillefou is the King of Truands. He rallies the Court of Miracles to rescue Esmeralda from Notre Dame after the idea is suggested by Gringoire. He is eventually killed during the attack by the King's soldiers.
Minor
* Djali (pronounced like "Jolly") is Esmeralda's pet goat. She performs tricks such as writing the word "Phoebus" in moveable letter-blocks, and tapping the number of beats to indicate the month and hour of the day. These tricks delight the citizens at first, but later horrify them, causing them to believe Esmeralda is a witch.
* Fleur-de-Lys de Gondelaurier is a beautiful and wealthy socialite engaged to Phoebus. Phoebus's attentions to Esmeralda make her insecure and jealous, and she and her friends respond by treating Esmeralda with contempt and spite. Fleur-de-Lys later neglects to inform Phoebus that Esmeralda has not been executed, which serves to deprive the pair of any further contact. Phoebus and Fleur-de-Lys marry at the end of the novel.
* Jehan Frollo is Claude Frollo's over-indulged, scallywag younger brother. He is a troublemaker and a student at the university. He is dependent on his brother for money, which he then proceeds to squander on alcohol. Quasimodo kills him during the attack on the cathedral.
* Sister Gudule, formerly named Paquette la Chantefleurie, is an anchorite, who lives in seclusion in an exposed cell in central Paris. She is tormented by the loss of her daughter Agnes, whom she believes to have been cannibalised by Gypsies as a baby, and devotes her life to mourning her. Her long-lost daughter turns out to be Esmeralda.
* Louis XI is the King of France. Appears briefly when he is brought the news of the rioting at Notre Dame.
* Tristan l'Hermite is a friend of King Louis XI. He leads the band that goes to capture Esmeralda.
* Henriet Cousin is the city executioner.
* Florian Barbedienne is the judge who sentences Quasimodo to be tortured. He is also deaf.
* Jacques Charmolue gets Esmeralda to falsely confess to killing Phoebus. He then has her executed.
Major themes
The original French title, Notre-Dame de Paris (the formal title of the Cathedral) indicates that the Cathedral itself is the most significant aspect of the novel, both the main setting and the focus of the story's themes. Nearly every event in the novel takes place in the cathedral, atop the cathedral or can be witnessed by a character standing within or atop the cathedral. The Cathedral had fallen into disrepair at the time of writing, which Hugo wanted to point out. The book portrays the Gothic era as one of extremes of architecture, passion, and religion. The theme of determinism (fate and destiny) is explored as well as revolution and social strife. The severe distinction of the social classes is shown by the relationships of Quasimodo and Esmeralda with higher-caste people in the book. Hugo is also very concerned with justice, and description of religious fanaticism.
The main theme as said in the Disney's adpatation is "Who is the Monster and who is the Man?????"
Architecture
Architecture is a major concern of Hugo's in Notre-Dame de Paris, not just as embodied in the cathedral itself, but as representing throughout Paris and the rest of Europe an artistic genre which, Hugo argued, was about to disappear with the arrival of the printing press. Claude Frollo's portentous phrase, ‘Ceci tuera cela’ ("This will kill that", as he looks from a printed book to the cathedral building), sums up this thesis, which is expounded on in Book V, chapter 2. Hugo writes that ‘quiconque naissait poète se faisait architecte’ ("whoever is born a poet becomes an architect"), arguing that while the written word was heavily censored and difficult to reproduce, architecture was extremely prominent and enjoyed considerable freedom.
Il existe à cette époque, pour la pensée écrite en pierre, un privilége tout-à-fait comparable à notre liberté actuelle de la presse. C'est la liberté de l'architecture.
There exists in this era, for thoughts written in stone, a privilege absolutely comparable to our current freedom of the press. It is the freedom of architecture.
—Book V, Chapter 2
With the recent introduction of the printing press, it became possible to reproduce one's ideas much more easily on paper, and Hugo considered this period to represent the last flowering of architecture as a great artistic form. As with many of his books, Hugo was interested in a time which seemed to him to be on the cusp between two types of society.
Literary significance and reception
The enormous popularity of the book in France spurred the nascent historical preservation movement in that country and strongly encouraged Gothic revival architecture. Ultimately it led to major renovations at Notre-Dame in the 19th century led by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. Much of the cathedral's present appearance is a result of this renovation.
Allusions and references
Allusions to actual history, geography and current science
In The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Victor Hugo makes frequent reference to the architecture of the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris.
He also mentions the invention of the printing press, when the bookmaker near the beginning of the work speaks of "the German pest."
Victor Hugo lived a few homes away from Victor of Aveyron, the first well-documented feral child, although the inspiration for Quasimodo's character is not directly linked to him.
Allusions in other works
The name Quasimodo has become synonymous with "a courageous heart beneath a grotesque exterior."
Film, TV, or theatrical adaptations
To date, all of the film and TV adaptations have strayed somewhat from the original plot, some going as far as to give it a happy ending. The 1956 film is one of the only ones to end exactly like the novel, although it changes other parts of the story. Unlike most adaptations, the Disney version has the ending that's inspired by an opera created by Hugo himself.
Film
* Esmeralda (1905 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1911 film)
* The Darling of Paris (1917 film)
* Esmeralda (1922 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1956 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996 film)
* The Hunchback (1997 film)
* Quasimodo d'El Paris (1999 film)
* Saeed Khan Rangeela a Pakistani comedian turned director made a movie named Kubra Aashiq in 1973 inspired from The Hunchback of Notre-Dame, with himself in the lead role of Quasimodo. However it did not fulfill the expectations of the audience and literary circles also did not appreciate it.
Television
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1966 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1977 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1982 film)
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1986 film)
Theatre
* In 1977, an adaptation by Ken Hill was commissioned and staged by the National Theatre in London.
Music
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame by Alec R. Costandinos and the Syncophonic Orchestra from 1977, a lush orchestral disco 28 minute epic re-telling the tale of Quasimodo and Esmeralda.
Musical theatre
* Opera "La Esmeralda", by Louise Bertin (1836), libretto by Victor Hugo.
* Opera "Esmeralda", by Arthur Goring Thomas (1883) based on the Victor Hugo novel.
* Opera Esmeralda, by Dargomyzhsky (1847), also based on the same Victor Hugo novel.
* "Notre Dame", romantic Opera in two acts, text after Victor Hugo by Franz Schmidt and Leopold Wilk; composed: 1902-4, 1st perf.: Vienna 1914
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1993), an Off Broadway musical with music by Byron Janis, lyrics by Hal Hackady and book by Anthony Scully
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1993), a dramatic sung-through musical with book and lyrics by Gary Sullivan and music by John Trent Wallace. After a production at the Mermaid Theatre in London it was published by Samuel French Ltd in 1997 and has received several UK productions as well as productions in New Zealand and Australia. In 2010 it was re-written as a conventional musical, with the new title Notre Dame.
* In 1999, "Notre Dame de Paris (musical)" opened in Paris and became an instant success. It is considered the most successful adaptation of any novel except for "The Phantom of the Opera" and "Les Misérables." It was also adapted for the stage by Nicholas DeBaubien.
* From 1999 to 2002, the Disney film was adapted into a darker, more Gothic musical production called Der Glöckner von Notre Dame (translated in English as The Bellringer of Notre Dame), re-written and directed by James Lapine and produced by the Disney theatrical branch, in Berlin, Germany. A cast recording was also recorded in German. There has been discussion of an American revival of the musical.
* A rock musical version was released in Seattle, Washington in 1998 titled "Hunchback" with music and script by C. Rainey Lewis.
* A musical version, scored by Dennis DeYoung, will open in Chicago at the Bailiwick Reperatory in the summer of 2008
Ballet
* Notre-Dame de Paris A ballet choreographed by Roland Petit. First performed in 1965 at the Paris Opera.
* The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1998) – choreography and direction by Michael Pink and original music score by Philip Feeney. Currently in the repertoire of Milwaukee Ballet, Boston Ballet, Royal New Zealand Ballet, Atlanta Ballet and Colorado Ballet.
* Ringaren i Notre Dame (Swedish for The Bellringer of Notre Dame; 2009) – choreography by Pär Isberg and original music score by Stefan Nilsson. Its first performance was on 3 April 2009, by the Royal Swedish Ballet at the Royal Swedish Opera, Stockholm.
Radio
The book was twice adapted and broadcast by BBC Radio 4 as its Classic Serial:
* in 5 parts from 6 January to 3 February 1989, with Jack Klaff as Quasimodo
* in 2 parts on 30 November and 7 December 2008, with deaf actor David Bower playing Quasimodo.
Translation history
The Hunchback of Notre-Dame has been translated into English many times. Translations are often reprinted by various publisher imprints. Some translations have been revised over time.
* 1833. Translated by Frederic Shoberl as The Hunchback of Notre Dame. Later revisions.
* 1833. Translated by William Hazlitt as Notre Dame: A Tale of the Ancien Regime. Later revisions.
* 1888. Translated by Isabel F. Hapgood as Notre-Dame de Paris.
* 1895. Translated by M.W. Artois et al., part of the 28-vol The Novels of Victor Hugo, re-printed in the 20th century under other titles.
* 1964. Translated by Walter J. Cobb. In multiple editions, see for example Signet Classics ISBN 0451527887, Pub date 10 April 2001, paperback.
* 1978. Translated by John Sturrock. In multiple editions, see for example Penguin Classics ISBN 0140443533, Pub date 26 October 1978, paperback.
* 1993. Translated by Alban J. Krailsheim as Notre-Dame de Paris. See Oxford World's Classics ISBN 978-0199555802
* 2002. Revised translation by Catherine Liu of an anonymous 19th century translation. See Modern Library Classics ISBN 0679642579, Pub date 8 October 2002.
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Quotations
* A description of Quasimodo upon his election as the fool's pope: "We shall not attempt to give the reader an idea of that tetrahedron nose- that horse-shoe mouth- that small left eye over-shadowed by a red bushy brow, while the right eye disappeared entirely under an enormous wart- of those straggling teeth with breaches here and there like the battlements of a fortress- of that horny lip, over which one of those teeth projected like the tusk of an elephant- of that forked chin- and, above all, of the expression spread over all this-that expression of mingled malice, amazement and sadness." (p. 62)
* On the connection between architecture and culture: "When a man understands the art of seeing, he can trace the spirit of an age and the features of a king even in the knocker on a door." (p. 184)
* Quasimodo's reaction to Esmeralda's gift of a drink of water while he is being heckled on the pillory: "Then from that eye, hitherto so dry and burning, was seen to roll a big tear, which fell slowly down that deformed visage so long contracted by despair. Perhaps it was the first that the unfortunate creature had ever shed." (p. 322)
* Quasimodo, explaining why he won't enter Esmeralda's cell: "The owl goes not into the nest of the lark." (p. 502)
* After Esmeralda's execution: "Quasimodo then lifted his eye to look upon the Gypsy girl, whose body, suspended from the gibbet, he beheld quivering afar, under its white robes, in the last struggles of death; then again he dropped it upon the archdeacon, stretched a shapeless mass at the foot of the tower, and he said with a sob that heaved his deep breast to the bottom, 'Oh-all that I've ever loved!'"
由于悲惨世界这部小说对法国而言简直就像中国人对三国演义那样熟悉，所以在改编时许多枝枝节节都已删除，採重要片段串成带状故事，起自冉阿让的假释与领悟，终於充满希望的追寻光明，十分动人。以下是按著时间的顺序来介绍这部巨作:
序曲：1815年·笛涅(Digne)
冉阿让，罪犯24601身陷牢狱与手铐脚镣相伴十九年之后，终于获得一纸假释令，得以离开不见天日的生活，然而这张黄色的自由状纸，并未让他在社会上取自由，反而处处引来歧视，使他流浪街头，只有笛涅的主教米礼爱好心收留了他。夜半时分，多年来穷困的习惯让他故态復萌，偷走了主教家的一只银烛台，不料半途被抓到，警方把他带到主教的面前对质，令他讶异的是主教非但没有揭发，反倒为他撒谎说是他赠送的，警方悻悻然走後，冉阿让跪求原谅，主教只要他宣誓将灵魂交付上帝，自此重新做人，并将另一只烛台也送给他。冉阿让感受到慈悲的力量，撕毁假释令，决心再创新生。
1823年·近海的蒙特里(Montreuil- sur-mer)
八年过去了，冉阿让的确履行了当年的誓言，彻底改头换面，不但易名为麦道临，并且成了蒙特里受人爱戴的市长兼工厂厂长，以慈善闻名。这时，在他工厂里的一名女工芳婷正遭受著凄惨的际遇，她年轻因一时热情，怀了个女孩，岂知负心郎一走了之，留下她们母女，为了小小珂赛特，只有把她寄养一途了；把女儿安顿在汤乃第家之后，芳婷放心的上巴黎去做女工，对珂赛特的思念给了她无尽的力量，挣来的钱都寄回汤家，只盼女儿生活过得宽裕，那儿知道汤家在信上所说生病一事都是假的，所有的钱都进了汤家的口袋和他们的艾潘妮嘴里，现在芳婷又再次接到这样一封讨钱信，一不小心落入同事手里，人人鄙夷她，联合工头将她赶走，不知情的冉阿让签下公文，芳婷就此流浪街头。芳婷一心只想到女儿的药钱，在卖了项上的项鍊盒和一头长髮之後，走投无路的困境下，她加入了码头区的妓女行列，痛苦地贩卖灵肉，直到有一天她因拒绝一位无礼的客人，和他发生拉扯，恰好新上任的警长贾维到任，不分青红皂白就定她的罪，目睹此景的市长出言制止，命贾维放走了芳婷，并送她到医院休养。
当贾维欲与市长争论职责时，街上有位老人被松脱的马车压住，冉阿让立即冲上前顶起了车子，异常的力气勾起贾维对编号24601罪犯犟烈的记忆，他已经追缉 24601多年始终无功，但怀疑一位人见人爱的市长显然不正当，这使他非常困惑，想不到警方不知去那儿抓了一位无辜的铁匠来定罪，贾维以为自己错怪市长还向冉阿让致歉，正直的冉阿让不能容忍自己的懦弱造成平民的委屈，于是来到法庭坦承自己的身分─犯人24601。贾维立刻就想逮捕他，但冉阿让心繫芳婷的病体，情急之下打昏贾维逃逸。
在病榻上，芳婷充满感激的将珂赛特的未来交给冉阿让，他也一一允诺，芳婷悲哀的一生在对珂赛特的思念中结束之後，身负责任的冉阿让即刻马不停蹄赶向芳婷所说的小镇蒙佛梅，去解救她可怜的遗孤。
1823年·蒙佛梅(Monfermei)
小珂赛特已经在经营酒馆的汤乃第家寄养了五年，她一直以来不断受到可怕的虐待，成天像女佣般被来去差使，同年的酒馆老闆女儿艾潘妮，却受尽宠爱，两个女孩的生活如天渊之别，但珂赛特并未养成怨天尤人的个性，她只默默期待梦中的母亲有一天能来接她回家。冉阿让来到汤家时，她正吃力地在黑暗中打水，他当下决定??狠敲诈了一番，珂赛特终於能脱离苦痛，真正享受起一个孩子应享的快乐生活。冉阿让把她带回巴黎，以父爱呵护她长大，天伦之乐带给这两个曾受命运折磨的人莫大的满足，然而贾维的阴影依旧笼罩在冉阿让身上，挥之不去……
1832年‧巴黎(Paris)
九年过后的巴黎，充满着动盪的气氛，以往的首善之都已然与地狱无异，政府里惟一关怀穷人的将军拉马克(Lamarque)又病危，人民的前途堪虞，社会涌动著一股革命的暗潮。小加夫罗契是一群妓女和市区乞丐中的中坚分子，连汤乃第夫妇也沦入丐帮生活，有一回还抢上冉阿让父女，因此还让贾维和万犟见上一面，只不过贾维当时没有认出来，发现之後气愤极了，再度立誓拘捕冉阿让。
这时的艾潘妮已是青春少女，她暗自喜欢著同学马里欧，可是马里欧的心思已经全部放在街上撞见的珂赛特身上了，无奈的艾潘妮答应要去打听珂赛特的消息。
革命青年们，包括马里欧，经常在一家ABC咖啡馆集会，他们的理想高昂，计画在拉马克将军过世那一天爆发革命，人人都在为这一天而兴奋著，陷入恋爱的马里欧却格外的迷失、脆弱，毕竟在动乱中的每一个明天都是希望，也都是迷惑。这一天，很快的来临了。加夫罗契冲进店里，宣布将军的死讯，青年一齐涌上街头，寻求大众的支持。
亭亭玉立的珂赛特也为了对马里欧的相思而苦，冉阿让逐渐能感受到女儿的转变，但他依然不愿透露她的身世，珂赛特对此不甚谅解；另一方面，由於马里欧为情所苦，艾潘妮不忍心只好带他来找珂赛特，两人终於能互诉衷曲，艾潘妮在旁边忍受著悲伤，还阻止了丐帮的抢劫，著实是个坚犟的女孩。此时冉阿让考量革命的乱象和贾维的威胁，决心带珂赛特离开巴黎，这对恋人就生生地分离了，对他们而言，这革命的前夕显得多么晦暗哪！情人害怕永别，暗恋者痛失希望，逃亡者冀求安全，惟一能有一丝丝愉快的，大概只有像汤乃第这种等著捡死人便宜的人吧。
革命的工作一步步的进展，学生开始建筑防御工事，艾潘妮决心陪伴马里欧到底，所以加入了青年们的工作，马里欧看到她喜出望外，派她送信给珂赛特，却落入为父的手里，为了女儿的幸福，他想要去劝阻马里欧参加起义，却发现冒充同志的贾维被加夫罗契认出，而捆绑在地，他自愿料理贾维，其实是故意的放走他。
革命爆发，领袖恩佐拉在枪林弹雨中丧命，加夫罗契为收集弹药中弹而亡，同志也大都牺牲殆尽，马里欧也受伤昏厥，幸而有犟壮的冉阿让救了他。在下水道里，冉阿让先後遇见汤乃第和贾维，他恳求贾维放他走，受了他高尚人格的感动，贾维让出路来，可是一生的坚持并不容易扭转，他内心受到极度的煎熬，终於无法自解，投河自尽。
马里欧逐渐康復，他并不了解是谁救了他一命，只好把一切归功于珂赛特的照料，冉阿让将他的过去对马里欧坦白，并表示为了不妨碍他们的未来，他宁愿独居终老。在婚礼上，汤乃第夫妇带来一项他们自认是丑闻的消息：冉阿让在下水道盗过尸。并取出一只金戒指，马里欧立刻认出是他的，随即了解到自己一向误解的岳父就是神秘的救命恩人，夫妻俩赶到冉阿让处时，只剩下那一对银烛台陪伴著他，两个年轻人在微光中了解了自己的身世。老人终於走了，他的灵魂和芳婷、艾潘妮、和所有在革命中死去的人相聚，庇护著一对爱人，迎向光明的明天。
人物简介
冉阿让(Jean Valjean)
因为偷一条面包救济外甥而坐牢十九年的囚犯，原本只判五年徒刑，但由於他并不信任法律，屡屡越狱以致罪刑加重，他倔犟不惧犟权的个性使探长贾维对他深恶痛绝，他过人的气力也使贾维对他印象深刻，两人遂结下一生相互追逐之缘。假释後他受神父启发向上，改名当上市长，为人慈悲，帮助女工芳婷抚养女儿珂赛特，救了女儿的情人─革命青年马里欧，在女儿有了好归宿之後，带著赎罪的爱离开了人间。
芳婷(Fantine)
冉阿让工厂里的一名女工，她有段坎坷的青春，在怀了男友的骨肉之後却被恶意遗弃，为了女儿的生活，只好忍下心把她寄养在蒙佛梅一位酒馆老闆的家里，自己来到巴黎谋生并定时寄钱回去，但由於她有私生女的事被同事揭发，被赶出工厂，只好卖了首饰、长髮，甚至灵肉，幸好遇见冉阿让，托付了女儿的未来才安心的逝去。
珂赛特(Cosette)
芳婷可怜的女儿，当初虽然被母亲恳求般的托付给酒馆一家，却没有享受到一天童年的无忧生活，反而被当成女佣一般，成天埋头做杂活，母亲攒下的钱几乎全用来栽培酒馆老闆的亲生女儿。不过她苦命的日子比起母亲是少了许多，冉阿让把她视如己出，使她能忘却童年回忆，後来她和青年马里欧恋爱，有情人终成眷属。
贾维(Javert)
正义的坚持者，也是正义的顽固者，他相信慈悲是罪犯的根苗，特别是像冉阿让这样的人。所以穷其一生誓将他抓回牢狱，却发现冉阿让的本性是多么善良，这对一个抱持人性本恶论的警探而言，是非常残酷的一件事，因此他在下水道放走背负马里欧的冉阿让之後，由於无法再面对自己持守多年的信念，选择跳河一途结束他充满殉道意味的一生。
汤乃第夫妇 (Thenardier)
小镇蒙佛梅一家酒馆的老闆，典型的中下阶级人物，贪财、自私、卑鄙，个性倒也十分逗趣，夫妇俩可谓天造地设，互相挖苦，对珂赛特一致的欺压，对女儿艾潘妮一致的溺爱，後来汤乃第先生沦为丐帮帮主，在义勇军後方搜括死亡者身上的值钱物品，最後两人还在珂赛特的婚礼上著实耍宝了一阵，真是不改其性。
艾潘妮(Eponine)
汤家的独生女，自小倍受宠爱，是挺瞧不起珂赛特的，但也许是受教育的缘故，她比父母有良知多了，虽然暗恋对象马里欧并不爱她，她仍然愿意为他打听珂赛特的消息、为他送情书，又为要和他共存亡而跑回战区，中弹在马里欧怀中断了气，也算得上是为她的父母赎罪吧。
马里欧(Marius)
十九世纪标准革命青年，为理想热血奔腾，为珂赛特纯情洋溢，在起事中负伤昏迷，被冉阿让所救，虽说同伴大多牺牲令人无限感伤，但最终如愿娶得珂赛特，也是美事一椿。
恩佐拉 (Enjolras)
革命青年的领袖，风度翩翩，在策动的起事中壮烈身亡。
加夫罗契(Gavroche)
革命时代下早熟的孩子，聪明有主见，是个包打听。
主教米礼爱(Bishop Myriel)
笛涅地区的主教，是冉阿让出狱後惟一愿意收容他的人，以爱心和宽容转瞬间感动了冉阿让，也就此改变了他的一生。
名家评论
悲悯胸怀的呈现－悲惨世界
薛介维
只要是法律与习俗所造成的社会压迫还存在一天，在文明昌盛时期因人为因素使人间变成地狱，并使人类与生俱来的幸福遭受不可避免的灾祸，只要－贫困使男人潦倒、飢饿使女人堕落、黑暗使小孩孱弱－这三个问题尚未获得解决；只要在某些地区还可能发生社会的毒害，换言之，只要这世界上还有愚昧与悲惨，那么，像本书这样的作品，也许不会是没有用的吧！
-- 维克多·雨果 一八六二年一月一日於奥特维别墅
这是雨果在「悲惨世界」一书中所写的序文。法国大文豪维克多‧雨果（Victor Hugo）一八○二年二月二十六日出生于法国的Besancon（但是他认为巴黎是他「灵魂的出生地」），父亲曾经是拿破崙麾下的将军。他从幼年起就在各地旅行，少年时期，他的文学底子就相当厚实，对於各类学问也广泛地吸收，也很早下了决心要当文学家。他二十岁与青梅竹马的女友Ade Foucher结婚，同年发表第一本诗集「颂歌集」（Odes et poies diverses），开始了他的作家生涯。一八三一年，二十九岁的雨果发表了「巴黎圣母院（又译：钟楼怪人）」（Nortre Dame de Paris），这部小说生动地描绘了一四八二年法国的社会情形，也对人性的层面提出了严肃且深刻的问题。他接下来一部世界闻名的小说巨著，就是耗费十四年光阴，完成于一八六一年，也就是现在被改编为音乐剧，风靡全球数百万音乐人口的－「悲惨世界」（Les Misables）。
成功的改编 「悲惨世界」是一部大部头的小说，当年出版时厚达一千两百页，而依本地远景出版社钟文的译本，更是厚达五册共2119页，一百二十万字，这样一部时空背景横亘二十年的长篇小说，要将之改成三个多小时就演完的音乐剧，委实不易，但Claude-Michel Schberg与Alain Boublil两人却做到了。??经在巴黎推出「法国大革命」一剧，结果相当成功，一九八○年两人再度推出「悲惨世界」，造成更大的轰动。伦敦音乐剧制作人Cameron Mackintosh认为这齣剧相当有潜力，於是请了Kretzmer、Fenton与两位原作者合作，改编成伦敦与百老匯的英文版。一九八五年十月八日，「悲惨世界」在伦敦的巴比肯中心举行英文版的世界首演，推出之后佳评如潮，获得观众极大的迴响，随後更在世界各地上演，至今仍然票房鼎盛。此外，「悲」剧也获得乐评青睐，夺得八项「东尼奖」，真可说是叫座又叫好了。
剧情大纲
由于「悲」剧原著时间横亘长达二十年，音乐剧不可能将所有的内容包括进来，因此改编成音乐剧的「悲惨世界」分成了：序幕－1815年「Digne」、第一幕－1823年「Montreuil-Sur-Mer」、第二幕－1823年「Montfermeil」、第三幕－1832年「Paris」四个部分。由於「悲惨世界」有环球版、伦敦版、百老匯版等数个录音版本，以下便综合三个版本，以歌曲为经纬，介绍整齣剧的剧情发展：
序幕，1815年，Digne 「工作之歌」（Work Song）
序幕开始，地点是一八一五年法国土隆（Toulon）的一处监狱，犯人在烈日下劳动，一边唱著「工作之歌」（Work Song），狱吏Javert高声喊著编号24601的囚犯Valjean，他可以假释出狱了。Valjean因为偷了一条面包要给他姊姊快要饿死的小孩，被判五年徒刑，但由於多次试图越狱，刑期延长到十九年，如今方才重获自由。出狱的Valjean在农场工作与旅店投宿时皆遭受歧视，被赶了出来，万念俱灰之际，Digne地方的主教收留了他，并供给他一顿晚餐。
「Valjean的逮捕与宽恕」（Valjean Arrested/Valjean Forgiven）
Valjean半夜偷走银制餐杯离开，但白天时却被两个警察扭送回来，主教慈悲为怀，告诉警方Valjean手中银器乃是他相赠之物，并且还拿了一对银烛臺送给Valjean。警察离去後，主教告诫Valjean要重新做人，并替他祝福。
「我做了什么事？」（What have I done?）
这时舞台上留下Valjean独自一人，他懊恼於自己的所作所为，感嘆自己为何如此糊涂，成为一个夜贼；继而想起仁慈的主教待他如平常人一般，称他为兄弟，抚慰他的灵魂，受到感动的Valjean决定痛改前非，於是撕去了代表重刑犯的黄色身份证明，昔日的Valjean已经不復存在，一个改头换面的新人於焉重生。
第一幕，1823 年，Montreuil-Sur-Mer 「一日将尽」（At the end of the day）
八年後，Valjean变成了 Madelaine先生，此时他已经是一家工厂的老闆，并且成为Montreuil-Sur-Mer这个地方的市长。这天工人们下了工，唱起了「一日将尽」（At the end of the day），工人之中有一位女工名为Fantine，她收到女儿养父母的来信，信中说孩子生病，需要医药费…，而这信被另外一名好事的女工抢了过去，於是两人为了抢信开始扭打了起来，Valjean闻声从工厂走出，要工头平息这场喧闹。众人知道了她这件不名誉的事，起闹要求将她解职，於是，Fantine失业了。
「我做了一个梦」（I dreamed a dream）
丢了工作的Fantine失望极了，在弦乐与竖琴的伴奏下，缓缓唱出「我做了一个梦」（I dreamed a dream），歌词中回忆年轻时丈夫尚未抛弃她们的美好时光。
「漂亮的小妞们」（Lovely ladies）
接下来场景换到码头，水手、妓女、嫖客四处可见，水手与妓女们唱著「漂亮的小妞们」（Lovely ladies）相互调情，Fantine到此想要卖掉她的首饰，但是对方出价太低。此时有一位乾瘦的老太婆看上她亮丽的秀髮，出价十法郎，Fantine 想到如此可以负担女儿的费用，便答应了。在其他莺燕的怂恿之下，Fantine竟然也沦落风尘，出卖起自己的灵肉。
「Fantine被捕」（Fantine's Arrest）
Fantine与一位寻芳客发生了冲突，不幸的Fantine随後被捕，逮捕她的是警官 Javert，此时Valjean在人群中看到这情形，便上前了解情况。当Valjean知道了Fantine的故事，便答应送她去医院，并且帮她照顾女儿。
「失控的马车」（The Runaway Cart）
这时在一旁发生了车祸事故，一辆失控的马车压住了路人，马车十分沈重，没有人能动得了它。Valjean欲上前一试，在众人直说不可声中，将马车抬了起来，救了轮下人一命。警官Javert看到这一幕大感惊奇，将市长拉到一旁，说市长此举令他想到他以前苦苦追捕的一个假释犯Jean Valjean，因此人也是孔武有力，现在这个嫌犯终於在日前就逮，说完便扬长而去。
「我是谁？」（Who am I － The Trial）
Valjean听到Javert这样说，便知道Javert捉错人了，此时他内心展开一番天人交战－如果自首，那么他又将被判刑，但如果不自首，害得别人无辜受累，自己良心又将受谴责。於是他自问：「我是谁？我能一辈子隐姓埋名吗？我如何再度面对自己？」经过一番内心挣扎，他走进法庭，褪去衣衫露出胸前刺青，高喊：「我就是Jean Valjean，犯人编号24601！」
「Fantine之死」（Fantine's Death）
场景接著转换到医院，在病榻上的Fantine梦见她的女儿Cosette，她正如慈母般地叮咛著，并且要唱催眠曲给孩子听。接著Valjean进来，虚弱的Fantine将女儿託付给Valjean之後，含笑而终。
「冲突」（The Confrontation）
此时，Javert走了进来，Valjean请对方宽限三天的时间，将Fantine女儿 Cosette的事情安顿好後，他将会自动归案，但是Javert并不相信昔日的罪犯如今已经洗心革面，认为「牛牵到北京还是牛」。Valjean随手捉起一把椅子，将之打碎并以尖锐的木片与Javert对峙，并对著一旁的Fantine发誓会照顾她的女儿。两个汉子接下来一阵扭打，Javert被击倒，Valjean趁隙逃脱。
第二幕，1823年，Montfermeil 「云端的城堡」（Castle on a cloud）
地点转换到Montfermeil这个地方，小Cosette与Thardiers夫妇同住在他们开的旅店当中已有五年，Thardiers夫妇对待Cosette相当苛薄，简直就是拿她当下人使唤。此时Cosette正在打扫，她一边打扫一边梦想著：「啊！我好希望在梦中去那个在云上面的城堡，那边没有地板可扫，只有一个有好多好多玩具的房间，还有许多小朋友；然後，有一个全身穿著白衣的阿姨，搂著我，唱催眠曲给我听，而且说她好爱我…。」小Cosette的美梦很快被打断，尖酸的Thardiers太太走了过来，要Cosette出外到林中水井打水，Cosette请求不要让她独自一人在黑夜里外出，但仍然被Eponine（Thardiers夫妇的宝贝女儿）推了出去。
「屋子的主人」（Master of The House）
另一边在店中，几名酒客聚集，店老板Thardiers先生正穿梭在客人之中服务，大伙齐声高唱「屋子的主人」（Master of The House），闲聊嚼舌一番。
「协商」（The Bargain）
屋外，Valjean在林中恰巧碰上了外出取水的Cosette，於是便牵著她的手回到旅店，准备付一笔钱带走她。Thardiers夫妇虚情假意，跳著「狡诈的华尔滋」（The Waltz of Treachery），把Cosette说成是他们捧在手上的心肝宝贝，意图十分明显，当然是想要提高Valjean所给的价码。Valjean最後给了两人一千五百法郎，顺利带走Cosette。
第三幕，1832年，巴黎 「向下看」（Look Down）
时光流转，接下来的第三幕从九年後的巴黎开始，幕启时街上乞丐、流浪儿、妓女、学生到处走动，唱出「向下看」（Look Down）。一旁，Thardier夫妇与女儿Eponine也来到了巴黎，Thardier夫妇仍然恶性不改，聚集了一小撮党羽做一些偷窃抢劫的勾当。俗话说得好：「不是冤家不聚头。」，正当Thardier先生向一位迎面而来jean，於是上前便拉住他，两人展开一阵拉扯。
「Javert 干涉」（Javert's Intervention）
巧的是，这时巡逻的警员刚好经过，带头者正是Javert，Eponine见状大呼一声，众人作鸟兽散，Valjean也趁机拉著在旁边的Cosette溜走了。Javert走过来，正奇怪刚刚被Thardier所纠缠的男士不知去向，却从Thardier口中得之那人就是他日夜亟思逮捕的Valjean，於是便唱出「群星」（Stars），他以天上的群星为证，发誓必定要将 Valjean缉拿到案。接著广场上只剩Eponine一人，她记起方才那少女原来就是小时候寄住自家的Cosette，此时学生群的头头Marius走过来，问她是否认识那女孩（指Cosette），并请求Eponine替她打听Cosette的下落，这委託就成了「Eponine的差事」（Eponine's Errand）。
「ABC咖啡厅」（The ABC Caf耎ed and Black）
在 ABC咖啡厅（註一）中，以Enjolras为首的学生们正在讨论革命大计，他们需要一个共同的信号来传达起事的指令，以便於指挥群众，最後便讨论出以「红」、「黑」两种颜色来作为革命旗帜的颜色－红色代表愤怒人民的鲜血与黎明前的世界，黑色则代表过去黑暗的岁月与漆黑的夜。就在大家激昂兴奋地讨论之际，小男孩Gavroche冲进来告诉大家一个坏消息－Lamarque将军死了！学生领袖Enjolras化悲愤为力量，打算在Lamarque的丧礼上利用聚集的人群举事，他并且带领大家激动地唱出「你听到人民的歌声了吗？」（Do you hear the people sing?）歌词大意为：「不甘为奴隶的人民唱出愤怒的歌，心跳与鼓声相互激盪，当明日来临，新的生活即将展开！」
「Rue Plumet街」（Rue Plumet-In my life）
佈景转到Rue Plumet街，Cosette独自在花园，她发觉她自己恋爱了，就在与Marius一见钟情之後。她第一次发现爱情离她如此之近。接著Valjean走近安慰她，随即离开。而Marius在Eponine的带领下，来到了花园门口；即将与所爱的人相见，Marius欣喜之情溢於言表，而Eponine却显得落落寡欢，因为自己所爱的人现在却要和别人相会。
「一颗心充满著爱」（A Heart full of Love）
Marius 走进花园，与Cosette互诉情衷，Eponine在外面听了心如针刺，她多么希望Marius的甜言蜜语是对著她说啊！
「攻击 Rue Plumet街」（The Attack on Rue Plumet）
此时Eponine的父亲Thardier带著他的手下也来到了花园之外，想要向Valjean抢夺一些财物，Eponine为了不让父亲得逞，遂大叫一声，众人见事机败露，四下散去。Marius见状随即离去，Valjean听到惊呼声匆忙赶来，Cosette骗父亲说她因看到墙外有三人鬼鬼祟祟而尖叫，Valjean以为阴魂不散的Javert又找上门来，认为此地不宜久留，决定带著Cosette离开。
「再多一天吧！」（One day more!）
由 Valjean带头开唱的「再多一天吧！」道尽众人心事：Valjean心想只要再多一天，他就能带著Cosette远走高飞；Marius与 Cosette把握最後一天相处的机会，Eponine在一旁黯然神伤；Javert等待著要混入学生们的阵容中，伺机从中破坏；Enjolras与学生们期待明天起义举事，高举著自由的大纛，推翻专制的政权，让每个人都当主人！
「防御工事地点」（At the Barricade）
起义之师选定了建筑防御工事的地点，Enjolras正对著群众发表谈话。Marius发现Eponine竟然女扮男装混在人群中，便劝她赶紧离开，并请她带信给Cosette。Eponine将信交给Valjean，Valjean展信读了一遍，便走回屋内，留下Eponine。
「独自一人」（On My Own）
这是Eponine独自一人所唱出的「爱之歌」，表达出她对Marius的无限爱意，但是由於Marius 的心上人不是她，所以歌声中透露著无奈与落寞：「我爱他，但我却单独一人在此…。」
「防御工事建造完成」（Building the Barricade）
防御工事已经建造完成，学生们誓言守住此地，并战斗到底。在防御工事的另一面传来军官的呼喊声，劝学生们放下武器，学生们当然置之不理。此时Javert从工事外翻了进来，告诉大家他所探得的敌情「Javert到来」（Javert's Arrival）。无巧不巧，他的真实身分刚好被小傢伙Gavroche识出「小傢伙」（Little People），诡计於焉被拆穿，Javert被大夥捆绑了起来。
「小雨不足惧」（A Little Fall of Rain）
一个男孩从工事外爬了进来，原来是Eponine，她身负重伤，倒在Marius的怀中。虽然身子已然虚弱，但倒在所爱的人怀中，Eponine却露出欣喜之情，外面纵然枪林弹雨，也不足惧。虽然Marius不断地安慰，但最後她还是死在他的双臂中。
「悲愤的夜晚」（Night of Anguish）
众人同仇敌忾，宣言不让Eponine的鲜血白流。Valjean在这个时候身著军装爬了进来，准备与学生们并肩作战，Enjolras给了他一把枪。此时外面的军队派人接近，双方展开「第一次交战」（First Attack），对方一名狙击手瞄准Enjolras，但是被Valjean撂倒。众志成城，第一次的战斗竟然将军队击退，大家雀跃不已，Valjean 请求将Javert交给他处理，Enjolras应允。Javert以为Valjean要藉机復仇，於是凛然面对，没想到Valjean割断他身上的绳索，要他速速离去。事情大出Javert之所料，最後Valjean对空放了一枪，Javert迅速离去。
「带他回家」（Bring him home）
夜深了，担任斥候的学生饮酒唱歌「与我共饮」（Drink with me），Marius心中惦记著Cosette，不多时便沈沈睡去。Valjean看著Marius，看他是如此的年轻，於是便唱出「带他回家」（Bring him home），祈求上苍保护这个年轻人，让他能平安度过，如果上帝要取走任何人的性命，那就取我Valjean的罢！
「第二次交战，Gavroche之死」（The Second Attack, Death of Gavroche）
黎明时分，双方发生第二次交战，Enjolras要手下报告己方情况，发现弹药已缺乏。在Marius与Valjean争著出去收集弹药时，Gavroche已经爬到工事之外，就在他快要成功时，忽闻一声枪响－一颗子弹击中了他！接著他又连挨了两三枪，终於不支倒地而亡。
「最后一战」（The Final Battle）
工事外军官又再度喊话，要学生们放下武器，学生们当然不从，由Enjolras带领著向外攻击；一时枪炮声不绝於耳，火光交错，战况十分惨烈。这一役学生一方几乎全军覆没，Enjolras命丧工事之顶，Marius身负重伤但一息尚存，被Valjean发觉後由下水道扛离。Javert到现场未发觉Valjean的尸体，判定他一定从下水道溜走，於是循缐又追了去。
「下水道，狗噬狗」（The Sewers-Dog eats Dog）
在下水道，坏心眼的Thardier又在干著令人不齿的勾当－搜寻死者尸体上值钱的财物。扛著Marius的Valjean因为体力不足，双双倒卧在地。Thardier一路搜来，拿走了Marius的戒指，当发现躺在旁边的人竟然是 Valjean，他狂笑数声，消失在下水道的彼端。Valjean抬著Marius继续前行，被Javert赶上，两个冤家再度相逢；由於Marius伤势严重急须就医，Valjean请求Javert网开一面，两人的帐容後再算。Javert终於动了慈悲心，让Valjean带著Marius离开。
「Javert 自尽」（Javert's Suicide）
放走了Valjean，Javert感触良多；是Valjean放他一马，他才能活到今天，他开始怀疑，难道追逐了这许多年，Valjean竟然是一个慈悲为怀的人？百感交集之下，他认为他已无处可去，於是投身塞纳河（Seine River）自尽。战事过後，女人们来到街上，她们质疑地问：「改变了吗？」（Turning），当然，什么也没变，一切彷彿兜圈圈般，又回到原点。
「人事全非」（Empty Chairs at Empty Tables）
回想起以前在ABC咖啡厅与友人们相聚高谈阔论，而今景物依旧，但同伴们却已然去世，Marius不禁悲从中来，激动地唱出「人事全非」（Empty Chairs at Empty Tables），在他歌唱的同时，同伴们的魂魄现而復隐，好似听见了他的呼喊；接著Cosette来到了身边，安抚Marius起伏的情绪，两人共同歌咏出爱的二重唱「每一日」（Every Day），回忆起初见的那一夜，心中充满爱意。Valjean走了进来，形成一阕短小的三重唱。
「Valjean 的告白」（Valjean's Confession）
Cosette暂时离开，剩下Marius与Valjean二人。 Valjean向Marius表明身世，说明自己曾经是小偷，带罪之身一直不敢让Cosette知情，如果再被捉到只会使Cosette蒙羞，让她更伤心。现在Cosette已经有心上人照料，因此他必须离开，请Marius告诉Cosette他去远方旅行，并且千万不要让她知道真相。Marius忍痛答应。
「结婚礼赞」（The Wedding Chorale）
Marius与Cosette终於如愿步上结婚礼堂，众人在两旁歌唱祝福。圆舞曲乐音响起，旋律竟然取自第二幕「狡诈的华尔滋」，原来Thardier夫妇又出现了。这次他们厚著脸皮来向Marius 要钱，索价五百法郎，宣称握有Valjean在下水道搜括死人财物的証据；Thardier从怀里拿出一只戒指，正是当夜从Marius身上取下之物，Marius顿时明白Valjean就是那晚的救命恩人。他一拳将Thardier打倒，也顾不得正在举行婚礼，拉著Cosette寻找 Valjean去了。婚礼遂成了「乞丐的盛宴」（Beggars At the Feast）。
「终曲」（Epilogue, Finale）
气若游丝的Valjean独自一人，身旁放著一个木制十字架，他在为Cosette与Marius，也为自己祈祷。Fantine的灵魂现身，感谢代为养育之恩，并为他祈福，这时Marius与Cosette赶了进来。最後Eponine与战事中死亡的魂魄纷纷出现，大夥合唱「终曲」（Epilogue, Finale），不幸的人们，终究会有光明的一天！
关于「悲惨世界」的版本
「悲惨世界」在台湾可以找到好几个录音版本，由於我手边没有法文版，也不懂法文，因此无法向读者介绍。英文发音的版本起码有三个，首先介绍的当然是最完整的环球版（3CDs），这个版本是集合了来自世界各地演唱「悲惨世界」的要角，六十五位英国爱乐管弦乐团成员，七十馀位合唱团员，在伦敦、雪梨、纳许维尔、洛杉矶等地分别录制，再制作母带而成。唱片解说中制作人Cameron Mackintosh与David Caddick详述了这套唱片录制的念头与过程，相当有意思。我只特别提出一点，这套唱片中饰唱Eponine一角的日籍女歌手Kaho Shimada几乎不会讲英文，为了录这个角色还特别请了翻译与她沟通，但是她在唱片中的英文咬字发音、歌声表情、情感诠释都极为出色，令人激赏！其他的角色也都是一时之选，表现非常杰出。两片装分别有伦敦（Original London Cast Recording）与百老匯（Original Broadway Cast Recording）两个版本，这两套唱片的主角Jean Valjean都是由著名的音乐剧演员Colm Wilkinson演唱，Eponine也是同一人，其他的唱角虽然不同，但表现大致在伯仲之间，没有太大的差异；不过伦敦版在每一首歌词之间有剧情解说串连，在这一点上是要比百老匯版略胜一筹的。除了以上三个版本之外，市面上还可以发现一张精选版，这张「Highlights from Les Misables」是由Woodford Music公司所出版，收录了取自「悲惨世界」的十七段音乐；CD之中除了曲名与演唱者人名之外，并无其他解说，伴奏只用了简单的电子合成乐器，听来贫弱而缺乏旋律性，合唱团演唱的部分明显地可以听出只有几个人在撑场面。所以除非你对这齣音乐剧情有独锺，否则前面的三套「悲惨世界」足够满足一般人的需求。
悲惨世界-悲惨世界读后感
在书中，出狱后的冉阿让背负着囚犯的身份，饱受着他人的歧视。社会的不公与排斥，一点点的磨灭了他重新做人的希望，改过向善的信心。是慈悲为怀的主教伸出慷慨的，无私的援助之手收容了走投无路的冉阿让。他不仅不计较冉阿让偷他的银器具，反而将那一对银制烛台送给了他并叮嘱道：“答应我一定要把这些钱用到好的地方。把这些银器卖掉，用这些钱让自己过得好一些。”
我开始深深的感悟到，原来，在当时那个无情的资本主义社会竟然也有这样的世外圣人存在，正是主教的宽大和仁慈深深感化了冉阿让，是他重新燃起了冉阿让心中那快熄灭的希望之火，使他彻底悔悟，开始新的生活。所以说，冉阿让的命运并不是永远都是那么的悲惨，悲惨的是那时候的整个世界观，就是因为有了主教这样的人，整个世界才有了救世主，整个世界才有可能在水生火热之中艰苦摸索前进。
在主教的感化下，冉阿让开始变得乐于助人，见义勇为得到人民的爱戴，摇身一变成了受人尊敬的市长。 这一切得转变使我既倍感欣慰。从囚犯到市长，简直是天壤之别，这无疑是人性的巨大转变。
面对着穷困潦倒，世态炎凉，将会产生两种人：第一种是卑微低劣的人。他们丑陋、自私、贪婪的本性再也无法隐藏。就如书中的德纳第，他为了钱财不惜一切，一会声称是演员，一会儿又变成了画家，但他再高明也无论如何掩盖不住他丑陋本性的事实。 另一种是无论在什么情况下都能永保光明、善良、宽容的拥有高尚情操的人。洗新革面后的冉阿让变得宽大、善良。正是那个慈悲为怀的心感化了冷酷、固执，曾一味追捕他的警长沙威。
其实，在当今社会也不乏有一些为了眼前利益而不择手段的卑鄙小人。如一些凭借职权贪污受贿者；在重大赛事中为得到好成绩而服用兴奋剂者；还有小到考试作弊的人……
作者想告诉我们的是：做一个真正的自己，任何刻意的伪装都将被识破，虚伪在事实面前只有被革灭。我再一次被人性的巨大力量所震撼。愿我们身边多一些主教般光明的使者，愿他们像纯洁的天使般永远守护着人们心中那份慈悲为怀的心，更希望有更多的人能加入到助人为乐、见义勇为的队伍中来。社会需要这样的人，世界需要这样的人。只有这样，我们才能创造我们的生活，创造出一个善良、和睦、光明的世界。
The novel focuses on the struggles of ex-convict Jean Valjean and his experience of redemption. It examines the nature of law and grace, and expounds upon the history of France, architecture of Paris, politics, moral philosophy, antimonarchism, justice, religion, and the types and nature of romantic and familial love. The story is historical fiction because it contains factual and historic events.
Les Misérables is known to many through its numerous stage and screen adaptations, most notably the stage musical of the same name, sometimes abbreviated "Les Mis" (pronounced /leɪ ˈmɪz/).
Novel form
Les Misérables contains many plots, but the main thread is the story of ex-convict, Jean Valjean (known by his prison number, 24601), who becomes a force for good in the world, but cannot escape his dark past. The novel is divided into five volumes, each volume divided into books, and subdivided into chapters (for a total of 365 chapters). Each chapter is relatively short, usually no longer than a few pages. Nevertheless, the book as a whole is quite lengthy by common standards, even exceeding 1,400 pages in unabridged editions (1900 pages in French). Within the borders of the novel's story, Hugo fills many pages with his thoughts on religion, politics, and society, including his three lengthy digressions, one being a discussion on enclosed religious orders, another being on argot, and most famously, his retelling of the Battle of Waterloo.
Plot
Volume I – Fantine
The story starts in 1815 in Digne. The peasant Jean Valjean has just been released from imprisonment in the Bagne of Toulon after nineteen years: five for stealing bread for his starving sister and her family, and fourteen more for numerous escape attempts. Upon being released, he is required to carry a yellow passport that marks him as a convict, despite having already paid his debt to society by serving his time in jail. Rejected by innkeepers, who do not want to take in a convict, Valjean sleeps on the street. This makes him even angrier and more bitter. However, the benevolent Bishop Myriel, the Bishop of Digne, takes him in and gives him shelter. In the middle of the night, he steals the bishop’s silverware and runs. He is caught, but the bishop rescues him by claiming that the silverware was a gift and at that point gives him his two silver candlesticks as well, chastising him to the police for leaving in such a rush that he forgot these most valuable pieces. The bishop then "reminds" him of the promise, which Valjean has no recollection of making, to use the silver to make an honest man of himself. As Valjean broods over these words, he steals a child's silver coin purely out of habit. He chases the boy away (Petit Gervais), but, soon after, he repents and decides to follow the bishop's advice. He searches the city for the child whose money he accidentally stole. At the same time, his theft is reported to the authorities, who now look for him as a repeat offender. If Valjean is caught, he will be forced to spend the rest of his life in prison, so he hides from the police.
Six years pass and Valjean, having assumed the pseudonym Monsieur Madeleine to avoid capture, has become a wealthy factory owner and is appointed mayor of his adopted town of Montreuil-sur-Mer. While walking down the street one day, he sees a man named Fauchelevent pinned under the wheels of his cart. When no one volunteers to lift the cart, he decides to rescue Fauchelevent himself. He crawls underneath the cart and manages to lift it, freeing him. The town's police inspector Javert, who was an adjutant guard at the Bagne of Toulon during Valjean's imprisonment, becomes suspicious of the mayor after witnessing his heroics. He knows the ex-convict Jean Valjean is also capable of such strength.
Years earlier in Paris, a grisette named Fantine was very much in love with a man named Félix Tholomyès. His friends Listolier, Fameuil, and Blachevelle were also paired with Fantine’s friends Dahlia, Zéphine, and Favourite. They later abandon the women as a joke, leaving Fantine to bear and care for Tholomyès' daughter, Cosette, by herself. When Fantine arrives at Montfermeil, she leaves Cosette in the care of the Thénardiers, a corrupt innkeeper and his selfish, cruel wife. Fantine is unaware that they abuse her daughter and use her as forced labor for their inn, and continues to try to pay their growing, extortionate demands for her upkeep. She is later fired from her job at Valjean's factory, due to the discovery of her illegitimate daughter, and is forced to resort to prostitution to pay for her daughter's care. Fantine is also slowly dying from an unnamed disease (probably tuberculosis). While roaming the streets, a dandy named Bamatabois harasses Fantine and puts snow down her back. She reacts by attacking him. Javert sees this and arrests Fantine. She begs to be released so she can provide for her daughter, but Javert sentences her to six months in prison. Valjean, hearing her story, intervenes and orders Javert to release her. Javert strongly refuses but Valjean persists and prevails. Valjean, feeling responsible because his factory turned her away, promises Fantine that he will bring Cosette to her. He takes her to a hospital.
Later, Javert comes to see Valjean again. Javert admits he had accused him of being Jean Valjean to the Parisian authorities after Fantine was freed. However, he tells Valjean that he no longer suspects him because the authorities have announced that another man has been identified as the real Jean Valjean after being arrested and having noticeable similarities. This man's name is Champmathieu. He is not guilty, but is mistaken. His trial is set the next day. At first, Valjean is torn whether to reveal himself, but decides to do so to save the innocent man. He goes to the trial and reveals his true identity. He then returns to Montreuil-sur-Mer to see Fantine, followed by Javert, who confronts him. After grabbing Valjean, Javert reveals Valjean’s identity to Fantine. Shocked, and with the severity of her illness, she falls back in her bed and dies. Valjean goes to Fantine, speaks to her in an inaudible whisper and kisses her hand. He then leaves with Javert.
Volume II – Cosette
Valjean manages to escape, only to be recaptured and sentenced to death. This was commuted by the king to penal servitude for life. While being sent to the prison at Toulon, a military port, Valjean saves a sailor about to fall from the ship's rigging. The crowd begins to call "This man must be pardoned!" but Valjean fakes a slip and falls into the ocean to escape, relying on the belief that he has drowned.
Valjean arrives at Montfermeil on Christmas Eve. He finds Cosette fetching water in the woods alone and walks with her to the inn. After ordering a meal, he observes the Thénardiers’ abusive treatment of her. He also witnesses their pampered daughters Éponine and Azelma treating Cosette badly as well when they tell on her to their mother for holding their abandoned doll. Upon seeing this, Valjean goes out and returns a moment later holding an expensive new doll. He offers it to Cosette. At first, she is unable to contemplate that the doll really is for her, but then happily takes it. This results in Mme. Thénardier becoming furious with Valjean, while M. Thénardier dismisses it, informing her that he can do as he wishes as long as he pays them. It also causes Éponine and Azelma to become envious of Cosette.
The next morning on Christmas Day, Valjean obtains Cosette with the letter from Fantine, and flees with her to Paris. Later, Javert finds Valjean’s new lodgings at Gorbeau House.
Valjean takes Cosette and they try to escape from Javert. They soon successfully find shelter in the Petit-Picpus convent with the help of Fauchelevent, the man whom Valjean rescued and who is a gardener for the convent. Valjean also becomes a gardener and Cosette becomes a student.
Volume III – Marius
Eight years later, the Friends of the ABC, led by Enjolras, are preparing an anti-Orléanist revolution on the eve of the Paris uprising on June 5–6, 1832, following the death of General Lamarque, the only French leader who had sympathy towards the working class. They are also joined by the poor, including the Thénardiers' eldest son Gavroche, who is a street urchin.
One of the students, Marius Pontmercy, has become alienated from his family (especially his grandfather M. Gillenormand) because of his liberal views. After the death of his father Colonel Georges Pontmercy, Marius discovers a note from him instructing his son to provide help to a sergeant named Thénardier who saved Pontmercy's life at Waterloo – in reality M. Thénardier was looting corpses and only saved Pontmercy's life by accident; he had called himself a sergeant under Napoleon to avoid exposing himself as a robber. At the Luxembourg Gardens, Marius falls in love with the now grown and beautiful Cosette. The Thénardiers have also moved to Paris and now live in poverty after losing their inn. They live under the surname "Jondrette" at Gorbeau House (coincidentally, the same building Valjean and Cosette briefly lived in after leaving the Thénardiers' inn). Marius lives there as well, next door to the Thénardiers.
Éponine, now ragged and emaciated, visits Marius at his apartment to beg for money. To impress him, she tries to prove her literacy by reading aloud from a book and by writing "The Cops Are Here" on a sheet of paper. Marius pities her and gives her some money. After Éponine leaves, Marius observes the "Jondrettes" in their apartment through a crack in the wall. A philanthropist and his daughter visit them—actually Valjean and Cosette. Marius immediately recognizes Cosette. After they leave, Marius asks Éponine to retrieve her address for him. Éponine, who is in love with Marius herself, reluctantly agrees to do so. The Thénardiers have also recognized Valjean and Cosette, and vow their revenge. M. Thénardier enlists the aid of the Patron-Minette, a well-known and feared gang of murderers and robbers.
Marius overhears M. Thénardier's plan and goes to Javert to report the crime. He then goes back home and waits for Javert and the police to arrive. When Valjean returns with rent money, M. Thénardier, with Patron-Minette, ambushes him and he reveals his identity to Valjean. Marius recognizes M. Thénardier as the man who "saved" his father's life at Waterloo and is caught in a dilemma. He tries to find a way to save Valjean while not betraying M. Thénardier. He sees the scrap of paper that Éponine earlier wrote on and throws it into the Thénardiers’ apartment through the crack. M. Thénardier reads it and thinks Éponine threw it inside. He, Mme. Thénardier and Patron-Minette try to escape, only to be stopped by Javert. He arrests all the Thénardiers and Patron-Minette (except Claquesous, who escapes during his transportation to prison, Montparnasse, who stops to run off with Éponine instead of joining in on the robbery, and Gavroche, who was not present and rarely participates in his family's crimes, a notable exception being his part in breaking his father out of prison). Valjean manages to escape the scene before Javert sees him.
Volume IV – St. Denis
After Éponine’s release from prison, she finds Marius and sadly tells him that she found Cosette’s address. She leads him to Valjean and Cosette's house at Rue Plumet, and Marius watches the house for a few days. He and Cosette then finally meet and declare their love for one another. M. Thénardier, Patron-Minette and Brujon manage to escape from prison with the aid of Gavroche. One night, during one of Marius’ visits with Cosette, the six men attempt to raid Valjean and Cosette's house. However, Éponine, who was sitting by the gates of the house, threatens to scream and awaken the whole neighbourhood if the thieves do not leave. Hearing this, they reluctantly retire. Meanwhile, Cosette informs Marius that she and Valjean will be leaving for England in a week’s time, which greatly troubles the pair.
The next day, Valjean is sitting in the Champ de Mars. He is feeling troubled due to seeing M. Thénardier in the neighbourhood several times. Unexpectedly, a note lands in his lap, which says "MOVE OUT." He sees a figure running away in the dim light. He goes back to his house tells Cosette they will be staying at their other house at Rue de l'Homme Arme and reconfirms with her about moving to England. Marius tries to get permission from M. Gillenormand to marry Cosette. His grandfather seems stern and angry, but has been longing for Marius's return. When tempers flare, he refuses, telling Marius to make Cosette his mistress instead. Insulted, Marius leaves. The following day, the students revolt and erect barricades in the narrow streets of Paris. Gavroche spots Javert and informs Enjolras that Javert is a spy. When Enjolras confronts him of this, he admits his identity and his orders to spy on the students. Enjolras and the other students tie him up to a pole in the Corinth restaurant. Later that evening, Marius goes back to Valjean and Cosette’s house at Rue Plumet, but finds the house no longer occupied. He then hears a voice telling him that his friends are waiting for him at the barricade. Distraught over Cosette gone, he heeds the voice and goes.
While Marius fights at the barricade, a soldier makes it in and aims at Marius. However, a man steps between them and puts his hand and body in front of the musket. The soldier fires, fatally shooting the man. The man then calls Marius by his name. Marius, and the reader, discovers that it is actually Éponine, dressed in men's clothes. Dying, she confesses that she told him to go to the barricade, in hoping that the two would die together. The author also states to the reader that Éponine anonymously threw the note to Valjean. Éponine gives Marius a letter that is addressed to him. It is written by Cosette, which she also confesses to have obtained a day earlier. After Éponine dies, Marius reads Cosette's letter and writes a farewell letter to her. Gavroche gives it to Valjean. Valjean, learning that Cosette's lover is fighting, is at first relieved, but an hour later, he puts on a National Guard uniform, arms himself with a gun and ammunition, and leaves his home.
Volume V – Jean Valjean
Valjean arrives at the barricade and immediately saves a man's life, though he is still not certain if he wants to protect Marius or to kill him. Marius recognizes Valjean upon seeing him. Enjolras announces that they are almost out of cartridges. Overhearing this, Gavroche goes to the other side of the barricade to collect more from the dead National Guardsmen. While doing so, he is shot and killed by the soldiers.
Later, Valjean saves Javert from being killed by the students. He volunteers to execute Javert himself, and Enjolras grants permission. Valjean takes Javert out of sight, and then shoots into the air while letting him go. As the barricade falls, Valjean carries off the injured and unconscious Marius. All the other students, including Enjolras, are killed. Valjean escapes through the sewers, carrying Marius' body on his shoulders. He evades a police patrol, but at the exit, he runs into Javert, whom he persuades to give him time to return Marius to his family. Javert grants this request. After leaving Marius at M. Gillenormand’s house, Valjean makes another request that he be permitted to go home shortly, which Javert also allows. They arrive at Rue de l'Homme Arme and Javert informs Valjean that he will wait for him. As Valjean walks upstairs, he looks out the landing window and finds Javert gone. Javert is walking down the street alone, realizing that he is caught between his strict belief in the law and the mercy Valjean has shown him. He feels he can no longer give Valjean up to the authorities. Unable to cope with this dilemma, Javert commits suicide by throwing himself into the Seine.
Marius slowly recovers from his injuries and he and Cosette are soon married.
Meanwhile, M. Thénardier and his younger daughter Azelma are attending the Mardi Gras as "masks." M. Thénardier spots Valjean among the wedding party heading the opposite direction and bids Azelma to follow them. After the wedding, Valjean confesses to Marius that he is an ex-convict. Marius is horrified by the revelation. Convinced that Valjean is of poor moral character, he steers Cosette away from him. Valjean loses the will to live and takes to his bed.
Later, M. Thénardier approaches Marius in order to blackmail him with what he knows of Valjean, but, in doing so, he inadvertently reveals all of the good Valjean has done, including his saving Marius' life on the barricades. Stunned by these revelations, Marius confronts M. Thénardier with his crimes and offers him an immense amount of money if he departs and promises never to return. M. Thénardier accepts the offer, and he and Azelma travel to America where he becomes a slave trader.
As Marius and Cosette rush to Valjean's house, he informs her that Valjean saved his life at the barricade. They arrive to see him, but the great man is dying. In his final moments, he realizes happiness with his adopted daughter and son-in-law by his side. He also reveals Cosette's past to her as well as her mother's name. Joined with them in love, he dies. As he lies dead between Cosette and Marius, the light from the Bishop's candlesticks remains all over, and in the midst of the night a light from the sky shines over Valjean, as if there were an enormous angel, awaiting to carry his soul to Heaven.
Characters
Major
* Jean Valjean (a.k.a. Monsieur Madeleine, a.k.a. Ultime Fauchelevent, a.k.a. Monsieur Leblanc, a.k.a. Urbain Fabre, a.k.a. 24601 a.k.a. 9430) — Convicted for stealing a loaf of bread, he is paroled from prison nineteen years later. Rejected by society for being a former convict, Bishop Myriel turns his life around by showing him mercy and encouraging him to become a new man. He assumes a new identity in order to pursue an honest life, becoming a factory owner and a mayor. He adopts and raises Fantine's daughter Cosette, saves Marius from the barricade, and dies at an old age, having kept his promise to the Bishop.
* Javert — An obsessive police inspector who continuously hunts, tracks down, and loses Valjean. He goes undercover behind the barricade, but is discovered and unmasked. Valjean has the chance to kill Javert, but lets him go. Later, Javert allows Valjean to escape. For the first time, Javert is in a situation in which he knows that the lawful course is immoral. His inner conflict leads him to take his own life by jumping into the River Seine.
* Bishop Myriel, the bishop of Digne (full name Charles-François-Bienvenu Myriel, a.k.a. Monseigneur Bienvenu) — A kindly old priest who is promoted to bishop by a chance encounter with Napoleon. He convinces Valjean to change his ways after Valjean steals some silver from him and saves Valjean from being arrested.
* Fantine — A Parisian grisette abandoned with a small child by her lover Félix Tholomyès. Fantine leaves her daughter Cosette in the care of the Thénardiers, innkeepers in a village called Montfermeil. Unfortunately, Mme. Thénardier spoils her own daughters and abuses Cosette. Fantine finds work at Monsieur Madeleine's factory, but is fired by a female supervisor who discovers that she is an unwed mother, as Fantine, being illiterate, had other people write her letters to the Thénardiers. To meet repeated demands for money from the Thénardiers, she sells her hair, then her two front teeth, and finally turns to prostitution. Valjean learns of her plight when Javert arrests her for attacking a man who called her insulting names and hurled snow at her back. She dies of a disease that may be tuberculosis before Valjean is able to reunite her with Cosette.
* Cosette (real name Euphrasie, a.k.a. the Lark, a.k.a. Mademoiselle Lanoire, a.k.a Ursule) — The illegitimate daughter of Fantine and Tholomyès. From approximately the age of three to the age of eight, she is beaten and forced to be a drudge by the Thénardiers. After Fantine dies, Valjean ransoms her from the Thénardiers and she becomes his adopted daughter. Nuns in a convent in Paris educate her. She later grows up to become very beautiful. She falls in love with Marius Pontmercy, and marries him at the end of the novel.
* M. and Mme. Thénardier (a.k.a. the Jondrettes, a.k.a. M. Fabantou, a.k.a. M. Thénard) — A corrupt innkeeper and his wife. They have five children: two daughters (Éponine and Azelma) and three sons (Gavroche and two unnamed younger sons). They take in Cosette in her early years, mistreating and abusing her. They also write fabricated letters about Cosette to Fantine in order to extort money from her. They end up losing the inn due to bankruptcy and moving to Paris, living as the Jondrettes. M. Thénardier is associated with an infamous criminal gang called the Patron-Minette, but contrary to common belief he is not their head, both sides operate independently. The Thénardier family also live next-door to Marius, who recognizes M. Thénardier as the man who "tended to" his father at Waterloo. Javert arrests them after Marius thwarts their attempts to rob and kill Valjean in their apartment. At the end of the novel, Mme. Thénardier has long since died in prison while M. Thénardier and Azelma travel to America where he becomes a slave trader.
* Marius Pontmercy — A second-generation baron (not recognized as such under the present régime because his father was ennobled by Napoleon Bonaparte) who fell out with his royalist grandfather after discovering his father was an officer under Napoleon. He studies law, joins the revolutionary ABC students and later falls in love with Cosette.
* Enjolras — The leader of the Friends of the ABC in the Paris uprising. A charming and intimidating man with angelic beauty, he is passionately devoted to democracy, equality and justice. Enjolras is a man of principle that believes in a cause – creating a republic, liberating the poor – without any doubts. He and Grantaire are executed by the National Guards after the barricade falls.
* Éponine (a.k.a. the Jondrette girl) — The Thénardiers' elder daughter. As a child, she is pampered and spoiled by her parents, but ends up a street urchin when she reaches adolescence. She participates in her father's crimes and begging schemes to obtain money. She is blindly in love with Marius. At Marius' request, she finds Valjean and Cosette's house for him and sadly leads him there. She also prevents her father, Patron-Minette and Brujon from robbing the house during one of Marius’ visits there to see Cosette. After disguising herself as a boy, she manipulates Marius into going to the barricades, hoping that they will die together. However, she saves Marius' life by reaching out her hand to stop a soldier's bullet heading for Marius; she is mortally wounded as the bullet goes through her hand and back. As she is dying, her final request to Marius is that once she has passed, he will kiss her on the forehead. He fulfils her request not because of romantic feelings on his part, but out of pity for her hard life.
* Gavroche — The unloved middle child and eldest son of the Thénardiers, younger than his sisters. He lives on his own and is a street urchin. He briefly takes care of his two younger brothers, unaware they are related to him. He takes part in the barricades and is killed while collecting bullets from dead National Guardsmen for the ABC students at the barricade.
Minor
* Mademoiselle Baptistine — Bishop Myriel's sister. She loves and venerates her brother.
* Madame Magloire — Domestic servant for the Bishop and his sister. She is fearful that he leaves the door open to strangers.
* Petit Gervais — A small boy who drops a coin. There are two perspectives on Jean Valjean's encounter with him. According to one, Valjean, still a man of criminal mind, places his foot on the coin and refuses to return it to the boy, despite Gervais' protests. When the boy flees the scene and Valjean comes to his senses, remembering what the bishop had done for him, he is horribly ashamed of what he has done and searches for the boy in vain. Another interpretation of this scene is that Jean Valjean was not aware that he was stepping on the coin, and snarls at Petit Gervais, thinking he is just annoying him, but realizes later that the coin was under his foot and feels horrible. Either way, he was uncaring of the boy's pleas.
* Félix Tholomyès — Fantine’s lover and Cosette’s biological father. A rich student, he puts his own happiness and well-being above anything else. He does not think much of his relationship with Fantine, considering it as "a passing affair." After impregnating Fantine, he abandons her as a joke. Hugo then concludes Tholomyès’ involvement in the story by saying that "twenty years later, under King Louis Philippe, he was a fat provincial attorney, rich and influential, a wise elector and rigid juryman; always, however, a man of pleasure."
* Fauchelevent — Valjean saves Fauchelevent’s life when Valjean lifts a carriage underneath which he is caught. Fauchelevent later will return the favor by providing sanctuary for Valjean and Cosette at a convent, and by providing his name for Valjean's use.
* Bamatabois — An idler who harasses Fantine and puts snow down her back. He is also one of the jurors at Champmathieu’s trial.
* Champmathieu — A vagabond who is mistakenly accused of being Valjean.
* Brevet — An ex-convict from Toulon who knew Valjean there. In 1823, he is serving time in the prison in Arras for an unknown crime. He is the first to claim that Champmathieu is really Valjean. Used to wear knitted, checkered suspenders.
* Chenildieu — A lifer from Toulon. He and Valjean were chain mates for five years. He once tried to remove the lifer's brand TFP (“travaux forcés à perpetuité,” “forced labor for life”) by putting his shoulder on a chafing dish full of embers. He is described as a small, wiry but energetic man.
* Cochepaille — Another lifer from Toulon. He used to be a shepherd from the Pyrenees who became a smuggler. He is described as stupid and has a tattoo on his arm, March 1, 1815.
* Sister Simplice — A nun who cares for Fantine on her sickbed. She lies to Javert to protect Valjean, despite her reputation for never having told a lie in her life.
* Mother Innocente (a.k.a. Marguerite de Blemeur) — The prioress of the Petit-Picpus convent.
* Toussaint — Valjean and Cosette's servant in Paris. She has a slight stutter.
* Monsieur Gillenormand — Marius' grandfather. A Monarchist, he disagrees sharply with Marius on political issues, and they have several arguments. He attempts to keep Marius from being influenced by his father, an officer in Napoleon's army. While in perpetual conflict over ideas, he does illustrate his love for his grandson.
* Mademoiselle Gillenormand — M. Gillenormand's surviving daughter, she lives with her father. Her half-sister (M. Gillenormand's daughter from another marriage), deceased, was Marius' mother.
* Colonel Georges Pontmercy — Marius's father, and an officer in Napoleon's army. Wounded at Waterloo, Pontmercy erroneously believes M. Thénardier saved his life. He tells Marius of this great debt. He loves Marius with his very heart, and even spies on him when M. Gillenormand does not allow him to visit.
* Ma'am Bougon (real name Madame Burgon) — Housekeeper of Gorbeau House.
* Mabeuf — An elderly churchwarden. He was friends with Colonel Pontmercy, and then befriends Marius after Colonel Pontmercy's death. He helps Marius realize the identity and intentions of his father. He has a great love for plants and books, but ends up having to sell his books due to descending into poverty. Feeling that all hope is lost, he joins the students in the insurrection. He is shot and killed at the top of the barricades when raising their flag.
* Magnon — Former servant of M. Gillenormand and friend of the Thénardiers. She had been receiving child support payments from M. Gillenormand for her two illegitimate sons, who she claimed were fathered by him. When her sons died in an epidemic, she had them replaced with the Thénardiers' two youngest sons so that she could protect her income. The Thénardiers get a portion of the payments. She is soon arrested due to being allegedly involved in the Gorbeau Robbery.
* Two little brothers — The two unnamed youngest sons of the Thénardiers. The Thénardiers send their sons to Magnon to replace her own two sons who died of illness. When Magnon is arrested, a cobbler gives the boys a note written by Magnon with an address to go to. Unfortunately, it is torn away from them due to a strong wind. Unable to find it, they end up living on the streets. They soon run into their brother Gavroche, who gives them temporary care and support. The two boys and Gavroche are unaware they are related. Immediately after Gavroche's death at the barricade, the two boys are last seen at the Luxembourg Gardens retrieving and eating discarded bread from a fountain. Their fates are left unknown.
* Azelma — The younger daughter of the Thénardiers. Along with her sister Éponine, she is spoiled as a child, and suffers the same ragged and impoverished fate with her family when she is older. She also takes part in her father’s crimes. Unlike her sister, Azelma is dependent and faint-hearted. She also does not show any defiance toward her father (this is evident when, before Valjean and Cosette’s charitable visit, he orders her to punch out a windowpane in their apartment in order to look poorer. Although hesitant, she does so, resulting in cutting her hand). After the failed robbery of Valjean, she is not seen again until Marius and Cosette’s wedding day, when she and her father are dressed up as "masks" for the Mardi Gras. At the end of the novel, Azelma is the only known Thénardier child who does not die and travels with her father to America.
* Patron-Minette — A quartet of bandits who assist in the Thénardiers' ambush of Valjean at Gorbeau House and the attempted robbery at the Rue Plumet. The gang consists of Montparnasse, Claquesous, Babet, and Gueulemer. Claquesous, who escaped from the carriage transporting him to prison after the Gorbeau Robbery, joins the revolution under the guise of "Le Cabuc" and is executed by Enjolras for firing on civilians.
* Brujon — A robber and criminal. He participates in crimes with M. Thénardier and the Patron-Minette gang (such as the Gorbeau Robbery and the attempted robbery at the Rue Plumet). The author describes Brujon as being "a sprightly young fellow, very cunning and very adroit, with a flurried and plaintive appearance."
* Friends of the ABC — A group of revolutionary students. They fight and die in the insurrection of the Paris uprising on June 5th and 6th, 1832. Their name is described as coming from the following: "They declared themselves the Friends of the A B C,--the Abaissé,-- the debased,--that is to say, the people. They wished to elevate the people. It was a pun which we should do wrong to smile at." Led by Enjolras, its other principal members are Courfeyrac, Combeferre, Jean Prouvaire, Feuilly, Bahorel, Laigle (nicknamed Bossuet, sometimes also written L'Aigle, Lesgle, Lègle or Lesgles), Joly, and Grantaire.
* Grantaire — Alcoholic student who, unlike the other revolutionaries, does not strongly believe in the cause of the ABC Society, but associates with them because he admires, loves and venerates Enjolras. In the novel, their relationship is compared to that of Orestes and his pederastic companion Pylades. Grantaire is executed alongside Enjolras.
Critical reception
The first two volumes of Les Misérables were published on April 3, 1862, heralded by a massive advertising campaign; the remainder of the novel appeared on 15 May 1862. At the time, Victor Hugo enjoyed a reputation as one of France's foremost poets, and the appearance of the novel was a highly anticipated event. Critical reactions were wide-ranging and often negative; some critics found the subject matter immoral, others complained of its excessive sentimentality, and still others were disquieted by its apparent sympathy with the revolutionaries. The Goncourt brothers expressed their great dissatisfaction, judging the novel artificial and disappointing. Flaubert could find within it "neither truth nor greatness." French critic Charles Baudelaire reviewed the work glowingly in newspapers, but in private castigated it as "tasteless and inept."
The book was a great commercial success. The shortest correspondence in history is between Hugo and his publisher Hurst & Blackett in 1862. It is said Hugo was on vacation when Les Misérables (which is over 1200 pages) was published. He telegraphed the single-character message "?" to his publisher, who replied with a single "!". First translated into foreign languages (including Italian, Greek, and Portuguese) the same year it originally appeared, it proved popular not only in France, but across Europe. It has been a popular book ever since it was published, and was a great favourite among the Confederate soldiers of the American Civil War, who occasionally called themselves "Lee's Miserables" (a reference to their deteriorating conditions under General Robert E. Lee). Its popularity continues to this day, and many view it as one of the most important novels ever written.
English translations
* Charles E. Wilbour. New York: Carleton Publishing Company. June 1862. The first American translation, published only months after the French edition of the novel was released. Also, New York: George Routledge and Sons. 1879.
* Lascelles Wraxall. London: Hurst and Blackett. October 1862. The first British translation.
* Translator unknown. Richmond, Virginia. 1863. Published by West and Johnston publishers.
* Isabel F. Hapgood. Published 1887, this translation is available at Project Gutenberg.
* Norman Denny. Folio Press, 1976. A modern British translation subsequently published in paperback by Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-044430-0. In the very strictest sense this edition is not quite an unabridged translation: Norman Denny explains in his introduction that he moved two of the novel's longer digressive passages into annexes, and that he also made some abridgements in the text, which he claims are minor.
* Lee Fahnestock and Norman MacAfee. Signet Classics. March 3, 1987. An unabridged edition based on the Wilbour translation with modernization of language. Paperback ISBN 0-451-52526-4
* Julie Rose. 2007. Vintage Classics, July 3, 2008. The first new complete translation for over a decade. Julie Rose lives in Sydney and is the translator of more than a dozen works, including a well-received version of Racine's Phèdre as well as works by Paul Virilio, Jacques Rancière, Chantal Thomas, and many others. This new translation published by Vintage Classics includes a detailed biographical sketch of Victor Hugo’s life, a chronology, and notes. ISBN 978-0-09-951113-7
Adaptations
Film and television
* 1907, On the barricade, directed Alice Guy Blaché, early adaptation of a part of the novel
* 1907, Le Chemineau
* 1909, directed by J. Stuart Blackton
* 1909, The Bishop's Candlesticks, directed by Edwin S. Porter
* 1911, directed by Albert Capellani
* 1913, directed again by Albert Capellani
* 1913, The Bishop's Candlesticks, directed Herbert Brenon, adaptation of the second book of the first volume
* 1917, directed by Frank Lloyd
* 1922, director unknown
* 1923, Aa Mujou, directed by Kiyohiko Ushihara and Yoshinobu Ikeda, Japanese film, production cancelled after two of four parts
* 1925, directed by Henri Fescourt
* 1929, The Bishop's Candlesticks, directed by Norman McKinnell, first sound film adaptation
* 1929, Aa Mujou, directed by Seika Shiba, Japanese film
* 1931, Jean Valjean, directed by Tomu Uchida, Japanese film
* 1934, directed by Raymond Bernard
* 1935, directed by Richard Boleslawski
* 1937, Gavrosh, directed by Tatyana Lukashevich, Soviet film
* 1938, Kyojinden, directed by Mansaku Itami, Japanese film
* 1943, Los Miserables, directed by Renando A. Rovero, Mexican film
* 1944, El Boassa, directed by Kamal Selim, Egyptian film
* 1948, I Miserabili, directed by Riccardo Freda
* 1949, Les Nouveaux Misérables, directed by Henri Verneuil
* 1950, Re mizeraburu: Kami to Akuma, directed by Daisuke Ito (English title: Gods and Demons)
* 1950, Ezhai Padum Padu and Beedala Patlu, directed by K. Ramnoth in Tamil and Telugu.
* 1952, directed by Lewis Milestone
* 1952, I miserabili, re-release of the 1947-film
* 1955, Kundan, directed by Sohrab Modi, Indian Hindi film
* 1958, directed by Jean-Paul Le Chanois, starring Jean Gabin
* 1958, Os Miseráveis, directed by Dionísio Azevedo, Brazilian film
* 1961, Jean Valjean, Korean film by Seung-ha Jo
* 1961, Cosette, directed by Alain Boudet on Claude Santelli’s program Le Théâtre de la jeunesse
* 1962, Gavroche, directed by Alain Boudet on Le Théâtre de la jeunesse
* 1963, Jean Valjean, directed by Alain Boudet on Le Théâtre de la jeunesse
* 1964, I miserabili, Italian TV-miniseries directed by Sandro Bolchi, starring: Gastone Moschin (Jean Valjean), Tino Carraro (Javert), Giulia Lazzarini (Fantine/adult Cosette), Loretta Goggi (young Cosette), Antonio Battistella (Thénardier), Cesarina Gheraldi (Mme. Thénardier), Angela Cardile (Éponine), Roberto Bisacco (Marius), Claudio Sora (Enjolras), Aldo Silvani (Monseigneur Bienvenu) and Edoardo Nevola (Gavroche), nearly ten hours long
* 1967, TV miniseries directed by Alan Bridges, starring: Frank Finlay (Jean Valjean), Anthony Bate (Javert), Alan Rowe (Thénardier), Judy Parfitt (Mme. Thénardier), Michele Dotrice (Fantine), Lesley Roach (Cosette), Elizabeth Counsell (Éponine), Vivian Mackerall (Marius), Derek Lamden (Gavroche), Cavan Kendall (Enjolras), Finlay Currie (Bishop of Digne)
* 1967, Os Miseráveis, Brazilian film
* 1967, Sefiller, Turkish film
* 1972, French TV miniseries directed by Marcel Bluwal, starring: Georges Géret (Jean Valjean), Bernard Fresson (Javert), Nicole Jamet (Cosette), François Marthouret (Marius), Alain Mottet (Thénardier), Micha Bayard (Mme. Thénardier), Hermine Karagheuz (Éponine), Anne-Marie Coffinet (Fantine), Jean-Luc Boutté (Enjolras), Gilles Maidon (Gavroche), François Vibert (Monseigneur Myriel)
* 1973, Los Miserables, Mexican TV adaptation directed by Antulio Jiménez Pons. Starring: Sergio Bustamante (Jean Valjean), Antonio Passy (Javert), Blanca Sánchez (Fantine), Edith González (Young Cosette), Carlos Ancira (Thénardier), Magda Guzmán (Mme. Thénardier), Diana Bracho (Cosette), Luis Torner (Marius), María Rojo (Éponine), Carlos Arguelles (Gavroche), Héctor Bonilla (Enjolras), Ángel Garasa (Bishop Myriel), Fernando Soler (M. Gillenormand), Alejandro Ciangherotti (Fauchelevent), José Luis Jiménez (Mabeuf)
* 1978, UK telefilm, directed by Glenn Jordan and starring Anthony Perkins, Richard Jordan, John Gielgud, Cyril Cusack, and Claude Dauphin
* 1978, Al Boasa, Egyptian adaptation
* 1982, directed by Robert Hossein
* 1985, TV version of the 1982 film, which is 30 minutes longer and divided into four parts
* 1995, directed by Claude Lelouch (a loose, multi-layered adaptation set in the 20th century starring Jean-Paul Belmondo)
* 1995, Les Misérables – The Dream Cast in Concert (musical done in concert style)
* 1998, directed by Bille August and starring Liam Neeson, Geoffrey Rush, Uma Thurman, Hans Matheson, and Claire Danes
* 2000, 6-hour French TV miniseries directed by Josée Dayan and co-produced by Gérard Depardieu, starring: Gérard Depardieu (Jean Valjean), John Malkovich (Javert), Christian Clavier (Thénardier), Veronica Ferres (Mme. Thénardier), Charlotte Gainsbourg (Fantine), Virginie Ledoyen (Cosette), Enrico Lo Verso (Marius), Asia Argento (Éponine), Jeanne Moreau (Mother Innocente), Steffen Wink (Enjolras), Jérôme Hardelay (Gavroche), Otto Sander (Monseigneur Bienvenu)
* 2000, 3-hour English TV movie version of the 2000 French miniseries
Animation
* 1977, Cosette, Soviet animation
* 1977, Shoujo Cosette, broadcasted on the Japanese television program Manga Sekai Mukashi Banashi, 1 episode, Japanese animation
* 1978, Aa Mujou, cover the first two volumes of the novel, broadcasted on Manga Sekai Mukashi Banashi, 13 episodes, Japanese animation
* 1979, Jean Valjean Monogatari, directed by Takashi Kuoka for Toei Animation and written by Masaki Tsuji, Japanese animation
* 1988, by Emerald City Productions
* 1992, a 26 episode French animated TV series by Studios Animage, AB Productions and Pixibox
* 2007, Les Misérables: Shōjo Cosette, a 52 episode Japanese animated TV series by Nippon Animation
Radio
* 1937, written, produced, and directed by Orson Welles
* 1952, directed by Earl Ebi
* 1982, directed by Hyman Brown
* 2001, directed by Sally Evans and Jeremy Mortimer
* 2002, directed by Philip Glassborow
Musical
Main article: Les Misérables (musical)
* In 1980, a musical of the same name opened in Paris at the Palais des Sports. It has gone on to become one of the most successful musicals in history. It was directed by Robert Hossein, the music was composed by Claude-Michel Schönberg, and the libretto was written by Alain Boublil.
* In 1985, an English language version opened in London at the Barbican Arts Centre. It was produced by Cameron Mackintosh and adapted and directed by Trevor Nunn and John Caird. The lyrics were written by Herbert Kretzmer and additional material by James Fenton.
* In 1987, the musical debuted on Broadway in New York City at the Broadway Theatre.
* 2007, Les Misérables: School Edition, copyrighted
* 2008, Les Misérables: Le Capitole de Québec version, directed by Frédéric Dubois
* 2010, Les Misérables was performed on the West End in London for three weeks.
Plays
* In 1863, one year after the novel was published, Charles Victor Hugo (Hugo's son) and Paul Meurice first adapted the novel for theatre.
* In 1906, Broadway actor Wilton Lackaye wrote an adaptation in five acts, titled The Law and the Man, though primarily with the interest of creating himself a strong role (he would play Valjean).
* An outdoor adaptation was performed in the summer at the Citadelle in France.
* There is a play adaptation by Jonathan Holloway. Donvale Christian College performed the Holloway adaptation for stage during late April 2010, using limited modern objects for certain scenes.
* There is a play adaptation by Tim Kelly.
* There is a play adaptation by Spiritual Twist Productions. This play highlights more of the religious aspect from the novel. It was last performed in April 2005 at the Clayton Center.
Games
* An adventure game has been released by Chris Tolworthy, intended as a direct adaptation of the book.
* There is a free downloadable amateur 2D fighting game based on the musical. The game is called ArmJoe, which is created by Takase. The name is a pun on the novel's Japanese title Aa Mujou (ああ無情). The game incorporates the major characters as they appear in the musical, namely Jean Valjean, Enjolras, Marius, Cosette, Éponine, Thénardier, and Javert — as well as a policeman, a robotic clone of Valjean called RoboJean, an embodiment of Judgement, and a rabbit named Ponpon.
Unofficial sequels
* In July 1995, Laura Kalpakian's novel Cosette: The Sequel to Les Misérables was released. The novel is published by HarperCollins. Tom De Haven from Entertainment Weekly called the novel "dull and overwrought and corny," and gave it a C- grading.
* In 2001, François Cérésa released his own two sequels to the novel: Cosette or the Time of Illusions and the follow-up Marius or The Fugitive. Both novels are published by Plon. Hugo's descendants, including his great-great-grandson Pierre Hugo, wanted the novels banned, considering that they breach the moral rights of the author and betrays the "respect of the integrity" and "spirit" of Hugo's original novel to make money. Cérésa had even retconned a key scene in the original novel, bringing back the character Inspector Javert and changed him to be a hero. In 2007, the Cour de Cassation ruled in favor of Cérésa and Plon.
序曲：1815年·笛涅(Digne)
冉阿让，罪犯24601身陷牢狱与手铐脚镣相伴十九年之后，终于获得一纸假释令，得以离开不见天日的生活，然而这张黄色的自由状纸，并未让他在社会上取自由，反而处处引来歧视，使他流浪街头，只有笛涅的主教米礼爱好心收留了他。夜半时分，多年来穷困的习惯让他故态復萌，偷走了主教家的一只银烛台，不料半途被抓到，警方把他带到主教的面前对质，令他讶异的是主教非但没有揭发，反倒为他撒谎说是他赠送的，警方悻悻然走後，冉阿让跪求原谅，主教只要他宣誓将灵魂交付上帝，自此重新做人，并将另一只烛台也送给他。冉阿让感受到慈悲的力量，撕毁假释令，决心再创新生。
1823年·近海的蒙特里(Montreuil- sur-mer)
八年过去了，冉阿让的确履行了当年的誓言，彻底改头换面，不但易名为麦道临，并且成了蒙特里受人爱戴的市长兼工厂厂长，以慈善闻名。这时，在他工厂里的一名女工芳婷正遭受著凄惨的际遇，她年轻因一时热情，怀了个女孩，岂知负心郎一走了之，留下她们母女，为了小小珂赛特，只有把她寄养一途了；把女儿安顿在汤乃第家之后，芳婷放心的上巴黎去做女工，对珂赛特的思念给了她无尽的力量，挣来的钱都寄回汤家，只盼女儿生活过得宽裕，那儿知道汤家在信上所说生病一事都是假的，所有的钱都进了汤家的口袋和他们的艾潘妮嘴里，现在芳婷又再次接到这样一封讨钱信，一不小心落入同事手里，人人鄙夷她，联合工头将她赶走，不知情的冉阿让签下公文，芳婷就此流浪街头。芳婷一心只想到女儿的药钱，在卖了项上的项鍊盒和一头长髮之後，走投无路的困境下，她加入了码头区的妓女行列，痛苦地贩卖灵肉，直到有一天她因拒绝一位无礼的客人，和他发生拉扯，恰好新上任的警长贾维到任，不分青红皂白就定她的罪，目睹此景的市长出言制止，命贾维放走了芳婷，并送她到医院休养。
当贾维欲与市长争论职责时，街上有位老人被松脱的马车压住，冉阿让立即冲上前顶起了车子，异常的力气勾起贾维对编号24601罪犯犟烈的记忆，他已经追缉 24601多年始终无功，但怀疑一位人见人爱的市长显然不正当，这使他非常困惑，想不到警方不知去那儿抓了一位无辜的铁匠来定罪，贾维以为自己错怪市长还向冉阿让致歉，正直的冉阿让不能容忍自己的懦弱造成平民的委屈，于是来到法庭坦承自己的身分─犯人24601。贾维立刻就想逮捕他，但冉阿让心繫芳婷的病体，情急之下打昏贾维逃逸。
在病榻上，芳婷充满感激的将珂赛特的未来交给冉阿让，他也一一允诺，芳婷悲哀的一生在对珂赛特的思念中结束之後，身负责任的冉阿让即刻马不停蹄赶向芳婷所说的小镇蒙佛梅，去解救她可怜的遗孤。
1823年·蒙佛梅(Monfermei)
小珂赛特已经在经营酒馆的汤乃第家寄养了五年，她一直以来不断受到可怕的虐待，成天像女佣般被来去差使，同年的酒馆老闆女儿艾潘妮，却受尽宠爱，两个女孩的生活如天渊之别，但珂赛特并未养成怨天尤人的个性，她只默默期待梦中的母亲有一天能来接她回家。冉阿让来到汤家时，她正吃力地在黑暗中打水，他当下决定??狠敲诈了一番，珂赛特终於能脱离苦痛，真正享受起一个孩子应享的快乐生活。冉阿让把她带回巴黎，以父爱呵护她长大，天伦之乐带给这两个曾受命运折磨的人莫大的满足，然而贾维的阴影依旧笼罩在冉阿让身上，挥之不去……
1832年‧巴黎(Paris)
九年过后的巴黎，充满着动盪的气氛，以往的首善之都已然与地狱无异，政府里惟一关怀穷人的将军拉马克(Lamarque)又病危，人民的前途堪虞，社会涌动著一股革命的暗潮。小加夫罗契是一群妓女和市区乞丐中的中坚分子，连汤乃第夫妇也沦入丐帮生活，有一回还抢上冉阿让父女，因此还让贾维和万犟见上一面，只不过贾维当时没有认出来，发现之後气愤极了，再度立誓拘捕冉阿让。
这时的艾潘妮已是青春少女，她暗自喜欢著同学马里欧，可是马里欧的心思已经全部放在街上撞见的珂赛特身上了，无奈的艾潘妮答应要去打听珂赛特的消息。
革命青年们，包括马里欧，经常在一家ABC咖啡馆集会，他们的理想高昂，计画在拉马克将军过世那一天爆发革命，人人都在为这一天而兴奋著，陷入恋爱的马里欧却格外的迷失、脆弱，毕竟在动乱中的每一个明天都是希望，也都是迷惑。这一天，很快的来临了。加夫罗契冲进店里，宣布将军的死讯，青年一齐涌上街头，寻求大众的支持。
亭亭玉立的珂赛特也为了对马里欧的相思而苦，冉阿让逐渐能感受到女儿的转变，但他依然不愿透露她的身世，珂赛特对此不甚谅解；另一方面，由於马里欧为情所苦，艾潘妮不忍心只好带他来找珂赛特，两人终於能互诉衷曲，艾潘妮在旁边忍受著悲伤，还阻止了丐帮的抢劫，著实是个坚犟的女孩。此时冉阿让考量革命的乱象和贾维的威胁，决心带珂赛特离开巴黎，这对恋人就生生地分离了，对他们而言，这革命的前夕显得多么晦暗哪！情人害怕永别，暗恋者痛失希望，逃亡者冀求安全，惟一能有一丝丝愉快的，大概只有像汤乃第这种等著捡死人便宜的人吧。
革命的工作一步步的进展，学生开始建筑防御工事，艾潘妮决心陪伴马里欧到底，所以加入了青年们的工作，马里欧看到她喜出望外，派她送信给珂赛特，却落入为父的手里，为了女儿的幸福，他想要去劝阻马里欧参加起义，却发现冒充同志的贾维被加夫罗契认出，而捆绑在地，他自愿料理贾维，其实是故意的放走他。
革命爆发，领袖恩佐拉在枪林弹雨中丧命，加夫罗契为收集弹药中弹而亡，同志也大都牺牲殆尽，马里欧也受伤昏厥，幸而有犟壮的冉阿让救了他。在下水道里，冉阿让先後遇见汤乃第和贾维，他恳求贾维放他走，受了他高尚人格的感动，贾维让出路来，可是一生的坚持并不容易扭转，他内心受到极度的煎熬，终於无法自解，投河自尽。
马里欧逐渐康復，他并不了解是谁救了他一命，只好把一切归功于珂赛特的照料，冉阿让将他的过去对马里欧坦白，并表示为了不妨碍他们的未来，他宁愿独居终老。在婚礼上，汤乃第夫妇带来一项他们自认是丑闻的消息：冉阿让在下水道盗过尸。并取出一只金戒指，马里欧立刻认出是他的，随即了解到自己一向误解的岳父就是神秘的救命恩人，夫妻俩赶到冉阿让处时，只剩下那一对银烛台陪伴著他，两个年轻人在微光中了解了自己的身世。老人终於走了，他的灵魂和芳婷、艾潘妮、和所有在革命中死去的人相聚，庇护著一对爱人，迎向光明的明天。
人物简介
冉阿让(Jean Valjean)
因为偷一条面包救济外甥而坐牢十九年的囚犯，原本只判五年徒刑，但由於他并不信任法律，屡屡越狱以致罪刑加重，他倔犟不惧犟权的个性使探长贾维对他深恶痛绝，他过人的气力也使贾维对他印象深刻，两人遂结下一生相互追逐之缘。假释後他受神父启发向上，改名当上市长，为人慈悲，帮助女工芳婷抚养女儿珂赛特，救了女儿的情人─革命青年马里欧，在女儿有了好归宿之後，带著赎罪的爱离开了人间。
芳婷(Fantine)
冉阿让工厂里的一名女工，她有段坎坷的青春，在怀了男友的骨肉之後却被恶意遗弃，为了女儿的生活，只好忍下心把她寄养在蒙佛梅一位酒馆老闆的家里，自己来到巴黎谋生并定时寄钱回去，但由於她有私生女的事被同事揭发，被赶出工厂，只好卖了首饰、长髮，甚至灵肉，幸好遇见冉阿让，托付了女儿的未来才安心的逝去。
珂赛特(Cosette)
芳婷可怜的女儿，当初虽然被母亲恳求般的托付给酒馆一家，却没有享受到一天童年的无忧生活，反而被当成女佣一般，成天埋头做杂活，母亲攒下的钱几乎全用来栽培酒馆老闆的亲生女儿。不过她苦命的日子比起母亲是少了许多，冉阿让把她视如己出，使她能忘却童年回忆，後来她和青年马里欧恋爱，有情人终成眷属。
贾维(Javert)
正义的坚持者，也是正义的顽固者，他相信慈悲是罪犯的根苗，特别是像冉阿让这样的人。所以穷其一生誓将他抓回牢狱，却发现冉阿让的本性是多么善良，这对一个抱持人性本恶论的警探而言，是非常残酷的一件事，因此他在下水道放走背负马里欧的冉阿让之後，由於无法再面对自己持守多年的信念，选择跳河一途结束他充满殉道意味的一生。
汤乃第夫妇 (Thenardier)
小镇蒙佛梅一家酒馆的老闆，典型的中下阶级人物，贪财、自私、卑鄙，个性倒也十分逗趣，夫妇俩可谓天造地设，互相挖苦，对珂赛特一致的欺压，对女儿艾潘妮一致的溺爱，後来汤乃第先生沦为丐帮帮主，在义勇军後方搜括死亡者身上的值钱物品，最後两人还在珂赛特的婚礼上著实耍宝了一阵，真是不改其性。
艾潘妮(Eponine)
汤家的独生女，自小倍受宠爱，是挺瞧不起珂赛特的，但也许是受教育的缘故，她比父母有良知多了，虽然暗恋对象马里欧并不爱她，她仍然愿意为他打听珂赛特的消息、为他送情书，又为要和他共存亡而跑回战区，中弹在马里欧怀中断了气，也算得上是为她的父母赎罪吧。
马里欧(Marius)
十九世纪标准革命青年，为理想热血奔腾，为珂赛特纯情洋溢，在起事中负伤昏迷，被冉阿让所救，虽说同伴大多牺牲令人无限感伤，但最终如愿娶得珂赛特，也是美事一椿。
恩佐拉 (Enjolras)
革命青年的领袖，风度翩翩，在策动的起事中壮烈身亡。
加夫罗契(Gavroche)
革命时代下早熟的孩子，聪明有主见，是个包打听。
主教米礼爱(Bishop Myriel)
笛涅地区的主教，是冉阿让出狱後惟一愿意收容他的人，以爱心和宽容转瞬间感动了冉阿让，也就此改变了他的一生。
名家评论
悲悯胸怀的呈现－悲惨世界
薛介维
只要是法律与习俗所造成的社会压迫还存在一天，在文明昌盛时期因人为因素使人间变成地狱，并使人类与生俱来的幸福遭受不可避免的灾祸，只要－贫困使男人潦倒、飢饿使女人堕落、黑暗使小孩孱弱－这三个问题尚未获得解决；只要在某些地区还可能发生社会的毒害，换言之，只要这世界上还有愚昧与悲惨，那么，像本书这样的作品，也许不会是没有用的吧！
-- 维克多·雨果 一八六二年一月一日於奥特维别墅
这是雨果在「悲惨世界」一书中所写的序文。法国大文豪维克多‧雨果（Victor Hugo）一八○二年二月二十六日出生于法国的Besancon（但是他认为巴黎是他「灵魂的出生地」），父亲曾经是拿破崙麾下的将军。他从幼年起就在各地旅行，少年时期，他的文学底子就相当厚实，对於各类学问也广泛地吸收，也很早下了决心要当文学家。他二十岁与青梅竹马的女友Ade Foucher结婚，同年发表第一本诗集「颂歌集」（Odes et poies diverses），开始了他的作家生涯。一八三一年，二十九岁的雨果发表了「巴黎圣母院（又译：钟楼怪人）」（Nortre Dame de Paris），这部小说生动地描绘了一四八二年法国的社会情形，也对人性的层面提出了严肃且深刻的问题。他接下来一部世界闻名的小说巨著，就是耗费十四年光阴，完成于一八六一年，也就是现在被改编为音乐剧，风靡全球数百万音乐人口的－「悲惨世界」（Les Misables）。
成功的改编 「悲惨世界」是一部大部头的小说，当年出版时厚达一千两百页，而依本地远景出版社钟文的译本，更是厚达五册共2119页，一百二十万字，这样一部时空背景横亘二十年的长篇小说，要将之改成三个多小时就演完的音乐剧，委实不易，但Claude-Michel Schberg与Alain Boublil两人却做到了。??经在巴黎推出「法国大革命」一剧，结果相当成功，一九八○年两人再度推出「悲惨世界」，造成更大的轰动。伦敦音乐剧制作人Cameron Mackintosh认为这齣剧相当有潜力，於是请了Kretzmer、Fenton与两位原作者合作，改编成伦敦与百老匯的英文版。一九八五年十月八日，「悲惨世界」在伦敦的巴比肯中心举行英文版的世界首演，推出之后佳评如潮，获得观众极大的迴响，随後更在世界各地上演，至今仍然票房鼎盛。此外，「悲」剧也获得乐评青睐，夺得八项「东尼奖」，真可说是叫座又叫好了。
剧情大纲
由于「悲」剧原著时间横亘长达二十年，音乐剧不可能将所有的内容包括进来，因此改编成音乐剧的「悲惨世界」分成了：序幕－1815年「Digne」、第一幕－1823年「Montreuil-Sur-Mer」、第二幕－1823年「Montfermeil」、第三幕－1832年「Paris」四个部分。由於「悲惨世界」有环球版、伦敦版、百老匯版等数个录音版本，以下便综合三个版本，以歌曲为经纬，介绍整齣剧的剧情发展：
序幕，1815年，Digne 「工作之歌」（Work Song）
序幕开始，地点是一八一五年法国土隆（Toulon）的一处监狱，犯人在烈日下劳动，一边唱著「工作之歌」（Work Song），狱吏Javert高声喊著编号24601的囚犯Valjean，他可以假释出狱了。Valjean因为偷了一条面包要给他姊姊快要饿死的小孩，被判五年徒刑，但由於多次试图越狱，刑期延长到十九年，如今方才重获自由。出狱的Valjean在农场工作与旅店投宿时皆遭受歧视，被赶了出来，万念俱灰之际，Digne地方的主教收留了他，并供给他一顿晚餐。
「Valjean的逮捕与宽恕」（Valjean Arrested/Valjean Forgiven）
Valjean半夜偷走银制餐杯离开，但白天时却被两个警察扭送回来，主教慈悲为怀，告诉警方Valjean手中银器乃是他相赠之物，并且还拿了一对银烛臺送给Valjean。警察离去後，主教告诫Valjean要重新做人，并替他祝福。
「我做了什么事？」（What have I done?）
这时舞台上留下Valjean独自一人，他懊恼於自己的所作所为，感嘆自己为何如此糊涂，成为一个夜贼；继而想起仁慈的主教待他如平常人一般，称他为兄弟，抚慰他的灵魂，受到感动的Valjean决定痛改前非，於是撕去了代表重刑犯的黄色身份证明，昔日的Valjean已经不復存在，一个改头换面的新人於焉重生。
第一幕，1823 年，Montreuil-Sur-Mer 「一日将尽」（At the end of the day）
八年後，Valjean变成了 Madelaine先生，此时他已经是一家工厂的老闆，并且成为Montreuil-Sur-Mer这个地方的市长。这天工人们下了工，唱起了「一日将尽」（At the end of the day），工人之中有一位女工名为Fantine，她收到女儿养父母的来信，信中说孩子生病，需要医药费…，而这信被另外一名好事的女工抢了过去，於是两人为了抢信开始扭打了起来，Valjean闻声从工厂走出，要工头平息这场喧闹。众人知道了她这件不名誉的事，起闹要求将她解职，於是，Fantine失业了。
「我做了一个梦」（I dreamed a dream）
丢了工作的Fantine失望极了，在弦乐与竖琴的伴奏下，缓缓唱出「我做了一个梦」（I dreamed a dream），歌词中回忆年轻时丈夫尚未抛弃她们的美好时光。
「漂亮的小妞们」（Lovely ladies）
接下来场景换到码头，水手、妓女、嫖客四处可见，水手与妓女们唱著「漂亮的小妞们」（Lovely ladies）相互调情，Fantine到此想要卖掉她的首饰，但是对方出价太低。此时有一位乾瘦的老太婆看上她亮丽的秀髮，出价十法郎，Fantine 想到如此可以负担女儿的费用，便答应了。在其他莺燕的怂恿之下，Fantine竟然也沦落风尘，出卖起自己的灵肉。
「Fantine被捕」（Fantine's Arrest）
Fantine与一位寻芳客发生了冲突，不幸的Fantine随後被捕，逮捕她的是警官 Javert，此时Valjean在人群中看到这情形，便上前了解情况。当Valjean知道了Fantine的故事，便答应送她去医院，并且帮她照顾女儿。
「失控的马车」（The Runaway Cart）
这时在一旁发生了车祸事故，一辆失控的马车压住了路人，马车十分沈重，没有人能动得了它。Valjean欲上前一试，在众人直说不可声中，将马车抬了起来，救了轮下人一命。警官Javert看到这一幕大感惊奇，将市长拉到一旁，说市长此举令他想到他以前苦苦追捕的一个假释犯Jean Valjean，因此人也是孔武有力，现在这个嫌犯终於在日前就逮，说完便扬长而去。
「我是谁？」（Who am I － The Trial）
Valjean听到Javert这样说，便知道Javert捉错人了，此时他内心展开一番天人交战－如果自首，那么他又将被判刑，但如果不自首，害得别人无辜受累，自己良心又将受谴责。於是他自问：「我是谁？我能一辈子隐姓埋名吗？我如何再度面对自己？」经过一番内心挣扎，他走进法庭，褪去衣衫露出胸前刺青，高喊：「我就是Jean Valjean，犯人编号24601！」
「Fantine之死」（Fantine's Death）
场景接著转换到医院，在病榻上的Fantine梦见她的女儿Cosette，她正如慈母般地叮咛著，并且要唱催眠曲给孩子听。接著Valjean进来，虚弱的Fantine将女儿託付给Valjean之後，含笑而终。
「冲突」（The Confrontation）
此时，Javert走了进来，Valjean请对方宽限三天的时间，将Fantine女儿 Cosette的事情安顿好後，他将会自动归案，但是Javert并不相信昔日的罪犯如今已经洗心革面，认为「牛牵到北京还是牛」。Valjean随手捉起一把椅子，将之打碎并以尖锐的木片与Javert对峙，并对著一旁的Fantine发誓会照顾她的女儿。两个汉子接下来一阵扭打，Javert被击倒，Valjean趁隙逃脱。
第二幕，1823年，Montfermeil 「云端的城堡」（Castle on a cloud）
地点转换到Montfermeil这个地方，小Cosette与Thardiers夫妇同住在他们开的旅店当中已有五年，Thardiers夫妇对待Cosette相当苛薄，简直就是拿她当下人使唤。此时Cosette正在打扫，她一边打扫一边梦想著：「啊！我好希望在梦中去那个在云上面的城堡，那边没有地板可扫，只有一个有好多好多玩具的房间，还有许多小朋友；然後，有一个全身穿著白衣的阿姨，搂著我，唱催眠曲给我听，而且说她好爱我…。」小Cosette的美梦很快被打断，尖酸的Thardiers太太走了过来，要Cosette出外到林中水井打水，Cosette请求不要让她独自一人在黑夜里外出，但仍然被Eponine（Thardiers夫妇的宝贝女儿）推了出去。
「屋子的主人」（Master of The House）
另一边在店中，几名酒客聚集，店老板Thardiers先生正穿梭在客人之中服务，大伙齐声高唱「屋子的主人」（Master of The House），闲聊嚼舌一番。
「协商」（The Bargain）
屋外，Valjean在林中恰巧碰上了外出取水的Cosette，於是便牵著她的手回到旅店，准备付一笔钱带走她。Thardiers夫妇虚情假意，跳著「狡诈的华尔滋」（The Waltz of Treachery），把Cosette说成是他们捧在手上的心肝宝贝，意图十分明显，当然是想要提高Valjean所给的价码。Valjean最後给了两人一千五百法郎，顺利带走Cosette。
第三幕，1832年，巴黎 「向下看」（Look Down）
时光流转，接下来的第三幕从九年後的巴黎开始，幕启时街上乞丐、流浪儿、妓女、学生到处走动，唱出「向下看」（Look Down）。一旁，Thardier夫妇与女儿Eponine也来到了巴黎，Thardier夫妇仍然恶性不改，聚集了一小撮党羽做一些偷窃抢劫的勾当。俗话说得好：「不是冤家不聚头。」，正当Thardier先生向一位迎面而来jean，於是上前便拉住他，两人展开一阵拉扯。
「Javert 干涉」（Javert's Intervention）
巧的是，这时巡逻的警员刚好经过，带头者正是Javert，Eponine见状大呼一声，众人作鸟兽散，Valjean也趁机拉著在旁边的Cosette溜走了。Javert走过来，正奇怪刚刚被Thardier所纠缠的男士不知去向，却从Thardier口中得之那人就是他日夜亟思逮捕的Valjean，於是便唱出「群星」（Stars），他以天上的群星为证，发誓必定要将 Valjean缉拿到案。接著广场上只剩Eponine一人，她记起方才那少女原来就是小时候寄住自家的Cosette，此时学生群的头头Marius走过来，问她是否认识那女孩（指Cosette），并请求Eponine替她打听Cosette的下落，这委託就成了「Eponine的差事」（Eponine's Errand）。
「ABC咖啡厅」（The ABC Caf耎ed and Black）
在 ABC咖啡厅（註一）中，以Enjolras为首的学生们正在讨论革命大计，他们需要一个共同的信号来传达起事的指令，以便於指挥群众，最後便讨论出以「红」、「黑」两种颜色来作为革命旗帜的颜色－红色代表愤怒人民的鲜血与黎明前的世界，黑色则代表过去黑暗的岁月与漆黑的夜。就在大家激昂兴奋地讨论之际，小男孩Gavroche冲进来告诉大家一个坏消息－Lamarque将军死了！学生领袖Enjolras化悲愤为力量，打算在Lamarque的丧礼上利用聚集的人群举事，他并且带领大家激动地唱出「你听到人民的歌声了吗？」（Do you hear the people sing?）歌词大意为：「不甘为奴隶的人民唱出愤怒的歌，心跳与鼓声相互激盪，当明日来临，新的生活即将展开！」
「Rue Plumet街」（Rue Plumet-In my life）
佈景转到Rue Plumet街，Cosette独自在花园，她发觉她自己恋爱了，就在与Marius一见钟情之後。她第一次发现爱情离她如此之近。接著Valjean走近安慰她，随即离开。而Marius在Eponine的带领下，来到了花园门口；即将与所爱的人相见，Marius欣喜之情溢於言表，而Eponine却显得落落寡欢，因为自己所爱的人现在却要和别人相会。
「一颗心充满著爱」（A Heart full of Love）
Marius 走进花园，与Cosette互诉情衷，Eponine在外面听了心如针刺，她多么希望Marius的甜言蜜语是对著她说啊！
「攻击 Rue Plumet街」（The Attack on Rue Plumet）
此时Eponine的父亲Thardier带著他的手下也来到了花园之外，想要向Valjean抢夺一些财物，Eponine为了不让父亲得逞，遂大叫一声，众人见事机败露，四下散去。Marius见状随即离去，Valjean听到惊呼声匆忙赶来，Cosette骗父亲说她因看到墙外有三人鬼鬼祟祟而尖叫，Valjean以为阴魂不散的Javert又找上门来，认为此地不宜久留，决定带著Cosette离开。
「再多一天吧！」（One day more!）
由 Valjean带头开唱的「再多一天吧！」道尽众人心事：Valjean心想只要再多一天，他就能带著Cosette远走高飞；Marius与 Cosette把握最後一天相处的机会，Eponine在一旁黯然神伤；Javert等待著要混入学生们的阵容中，伺机从中破坏；Enjolras与学生们期待明天起义举事，高举著自由的大纛，推翻专制的政权，让每个人都当主人！
「防御工事地点」（At the Barricade）
起义之师选定了建筑防御工事的地点，Enjolras正对著群众发表谈话。Marius发现Eponine竟然女扮男装混在人群中，便劝她赶紧离开，并请她带信给Cosette。Eponine将信交给Valjean，Valjean展信读了一遍，便走回屋内，留下Eponine。
「独自一人」（On My Own）
这是Eponine独自一人所唱出的「爱之歌」，表达出她对Marius的无限爱意，但是由於Marius 的心上人不是她，所以歌声中透露著无奈与落寞：「我爱他，但我却单独一人在此…。」
「防御工事建造完成」（Building the Barricade）
防御工事已经建造完成，学生们誓言守住此地，并战斗到底。在防御工事的另一面传来军官的呼喊声，劝学生们放下武器，学生们当然置之不理。此时Javert从工事外翻了进来，告诉大家他所探得的敌情「Javert到来」（Javert's Arrival）。无巧不巧，他的真实身分刚好被小傢伙Gavroche识出「小傢伙」（Little People），诡计於焉被拆穿，Javert被大夥捆绑了起来。
「小雨不足惧」（A Little Fall of Rain）
一个男孩从工事外爬了进来，原来是Eponine，她身负重伤，倒在Marius的怀中。虽然身子已然虚弱，但倒在所爱的人怀中，Eponine却露出欣喜之情，外面纵然枪林弹雨，也不足惧。虽然Marius不断地安慰，但最後她还是死在他的双臂中。
「悲愤的夜晚」（Night of Anguish）
众人同仇敌忾，宣言不让Eponine的鲜血白流。Valjean在这个时候身著军装爬了进来，准备与学生们并肩作战，Enjolras给了他一把枪。此时外面的军队派人接近，双方展开「第一次交战」（First Attack），对方一名狙击手瞄准Enjolras，但是被Valjean撂倒。众志成城，第一次的战斗竟然将军队击退，大家雀跃不已，Valjean 请求将Javert交给他处理，Enjolras应允。Javert以为Valjean要藉机復仇，於是凛然面对，没想到Valjean割断他身上的绳索，要他速速离去。事情大出Javert之所料，最後Valjean对空放了一枪，Javert迅速离去。
「带他回家」（Bring him home）
夜深了，担任斥候的学生饮酒唱歌「与我共饮」（Drink with me），Marius心中惦记著Cosette，不多时便沈沈睡去。Valjean看著Marius，看他是如此的年轻，於是便唱出「带他回家」（Bring him home），祈求上苍保护这个年轻人，让他能平安度过，如果上帝要取走任何人的性命，那就取我Valjean的罢！
「第二次交战，Gavroche之死」（The Second Attack, Death of Gavroche）
黎明时分，双方发生第二次交战，Enjolras要手下报告己方情况，发现弹药已缺乏。在Marius与Valjean争著出去收集弹药时，Gavroche已经爬到工事之外，就在他快要成功时，忽闻一声枪响－一颗子弹击中了他！接著他又连挨了两三枪，终於不支倒地而亡。
「最后一战」（The Final Battle）
工事外军官又再度喊话，要学生们放下武器，学生们当然不从，由Enjolras带领著向外攻击；一时枪炮声不绝於耳，火光交错，战况十分惨烈。这一役学生一方几乎全军覆没，Enjolras命丧工事之顶，Marius身负重伤但一息尚存，被Valjean发觉後由下水道扛离。Javert到现场未发觉Valjean的尸体，判定他一定从下水道溜走，於是循缐又追了去。
「下水道，狗噬狗」（The Sewers-Dog eats Dog）
在下水道，坏心眼的Thardier又在干著令人不齿的勾当－搜寻死者尸体上值钱的财物。扛著Marius的Valjean因为体力不足，双双倒卧在地。Thardier一路搜来，拿走了Marius的戒指，当发现躺在旁边的人竟然是 Valjean，他狂笑数声，消失在下水道的彼端。Valjean抬著Marius继续前行，被Javert赶上，两个冤家再度相逢；由於Marius伤势严重急须就医，Valjean请求Javert网开一面，两人的帐容後再算。Javert终於动了慈悲心，让Valjean带著Marius离开。
「Javert 自尽」（Javert's Suicide）
放走了Valjean，Javert感触良多；是Valjean放他一马，他才能活到今天，他开始怀疑，难道追逐了这许多年，Valjean竟然是一个慈悲为怀的人？百感交集之下，他认为他已无处可去，於是投身塞纳河（Seine River）自尽。战事过後，女人们来到街上，她们质疑地问：「改变了吗？」（Turning），当然，什么也没变，一切彷彿兜圈圈般，又回到原点。
「人事全非」（Empty Chairs at Empty Tables）
回想起以前在ABC咖啡厅与友人们相聚高谈阔论，而今景物依旧，但同伴们却已然去世，Marius不禁悲从中来，激动地唱出「人事全非」（Empty Chairs at Empty Tables），在他歌唱的同时，同伴们的魂魄现而復隐，好似听见了他的呼喊；接著Cosette来到了身边，安抚Marius起伏的情绪，两人共同歌咏出爱的二重唱「每一日」（Every Day），回忆起初见的那一夜，心中充满爱意。Valjean走了进来，形成一阕短小的三重唱。
「Valjean 的告白」（Valjean's Confession）
Cosette暂时离开，剩下Marius与Valjean二人。 Valjean向Marius表明身世，说明自己曾经是小偷，带罪之身一直不敢让Cosette知情，如果再被捉到只会使Cosette蒙羞，让她更伤心。现在Cosette已经有心上人照料，因此他必须离开，请Marius告诉Cosette他去远方旅行，并且千万不要让她知道真相。Marius忍痛答应。
「结婚礼赞」（The Wedding Chorale）
Marius与Cosette终於如愿步上结婚礼堂，众人在两旁歌唱祝福。圆舞曲乐音响起，旋律竟然取自第二幕「狡诈的华尔滋」，原来Thardier夫妇又出现了。这次他们厚著脸皮来向Marius 要钱，索价五百法郎，宣称握有Valjean在下水道搜括死人财物的証据；Thardier从怀里拿出一只戒指，正是当夜从Marius身上取下之物，Marius顿时明白Valjean就是那晚的救命恩人。他一拳将Thardier打倒，也顾不得正在举行婚礼，拉著Cosette寻找 Valjean去了。婚礼遂成了「乞丐的盛宴」（Beggars At the Feast）。
「终曲」（Epilogue, Finale）
气若游丝的Valjean独自一人，身旁放著一个木制十字架，他在为Cosette与Marius，也为自己祈祷。Fantine的灵魂现身，感谢代为养育之恩，并为他祈福，这时Marius与Cosette赶了进来。最後Eponine与战事中死亡的魂魄纷纷出现，大夥合唱「终曲」（Epilogue, Finale），不幸的人们，终究会有光明的一天！
关于「悲惨世界」的版本
「悲惨世界」在台湾可以找到好几个录音版本，由於我手边没有法文版，也不懂法文，因此无法向读者介绍。英文发音的版本起码有三个，首先介绍的当然是最完整的环球版（3CDs），这个版本是集合了来自世界各地演唱「悲惨世界」的要角，六十五位英国爱乐管弦乐团成员，七十馀位合唱团员，在伦敦、雪梨、纳许维尔、洛杉矶等地分别录制，再制作母带而成。唱片解说中制作人Cameron Mackintosh与David Caddick详述了这套唱片录制的念头与过程，相当有意思。我只特别提出一点，这套唱片中饰唱Eponine一角的日籍女歌手Kaho Shimada几乎不会讲英文，为了录这个角色还特别请了翻译与她沟通，但是她在唱片中的英文咬字发音、歌声表情、情感诠释都极为出色，令人激赏！其他的角色也都是一时之选，表现非常杰出。两片装分别有伦敦（Original London Cast Recording）与百老匯（Original Broadway Cast Recording）两个版本，这两套唱片的主角Jean Valjean都是由著名的音乐剧演员Colm Wilkinson演唱，Eponine也是同一人，其他的唱角虽然不同，但表现大致在伯仲之间，没有太大的差异；不过伦敦版在每一首歌词之间有剧情解说串连，在这一点上是要比百老匯版略胜一筹的。除了以上三个版本之外，市面上还可以发现一张精选版，这张「Highlights from Les Misables」是由Woodford Music公司所出版，收录了取自「悲惨世界」的十七段音乐；CD之中除了曲名与演唱者人名之外，并无其他解说，伴奏只用了简单的电子合成乐器，听来贫弱而缺乏旋律性，合唱团演唱的部分明显地可以听出只有几个人在撑场面。所以除非你对这齣音乐剧情有独锺，否则前面的三套「悲惨世界」足够满足一般人的需求。
悲惨世界-悲惨世界读后感
在书中，出狱后的冉阿让背负着囚犯的身份，饱受着他人的歧视。社会的不公与排斥，一点点的磨灭了他重新做人的希望，改过向善的信心。是慈悲为怀的主教伸出慷慨的，无私的援助之手收容了走投无路的冉阿让。他不仅不计较冉阿让偷他的银器具，反而将那一对银制烛台送给了他并叮嘱道：“答应我一定要把这些钱用到好的地方。把这些银器卖掉，用这些钱让自己过得好一些。”
我开始深深的感悟到，原来，在当时那个无情的资本主义社会竟然也有这样的世外圣人存在，正是主教的宽大和仁慈深深感化了冉阿让，是他重新燃起了冉阿让心中那快熄灭的希望之火，使他彻底悔悟，开始新的生活。所以说，冉阿让的命运并不是永远都是那么的悲惨，悲惨的是那时候的整个世界观，就是因为有了主教这样的人，整个世界才有了救世主，整个世界才有可能在水生火热之中艰苦摸索前进。
在主教的感化下，冉阿让开始变得乐于助人，见义勇为得到人民的爱戴，摇身一变成了受人尊敬的市长。 这一切得转变使我既倍感欣慰。从囚犯到市长，简直是天壤之别，这无疑是人性的巨大转变。
面对着穷困潦倒，世态炎凉，将会产生两种人：第一种是卑微低劣的人。他们丑陋、自私、贪婪的本性再也无法隐藏。就如书中的德纳第，他为了钱财不惜一切，一会声称是演员，一会儿又变成了画家，但他再高明也无论如何掩盖不住他丑陋本性的事实。 另一种是无论在什么情况下都能永保光明、善良、宽容的拥有高尚情操的人。洗新革面后的冉阿让变得宽大、善良。正是那个慈悲为怀的心感化了冷酷、固执，曾一味追捕他的警长沙威。
其实，在当今社会也不乏有一些为了眼前利益而不择手段的卑鄙小人。如一些凭借职权贪污受贿者；在重大赛事中为得到好成绩而服用兴奋剂者；还有小到考试作弊的人……
作者想告诉我们的是：做一个真正的自己，任何刻意的伪装都将被识破，虚伪在事实面前只有被革灭。我再一次被人性的巨大力量所震撼。愿我们身边多一些主教般光明的使者，愿他们像纯洁的天使般永远守护着人们心中那份慈悲为怀的心，更希望有更多的人能加入到助人为乐、见义勇为的队伍中来。社会需要这样的人，世界需要这样的人。只有这样，我们才能创造我们的生活，创造出一个善良、和睦、光明的世界。
The novel focuses on the struggles of ex-convict Jean Valjean and his experience of redemption. It examines the nature of law and grace, and expounds upon the history of France, architecture of Paris, politics, moral philosophy, antimonarchism, justice, religion, and the types and nature of romantic and familial love. The story is historical fiction because it contains factual and historic events.
Les Misérables is known to many through its numerous stage and screen adaptations, most notably the stage musical of the same name, sometimes abbreviated "Les Mis" (pronounced /leɪ ˈmɪz/).
Novel form
Les Misérables contains many plots, but the main thread is the story of ex-convict, Jean Valjean (known by his prison number, 24601), who becomes a force for good in the world, but cannot escape his dark past. The novel is divided into five volumes, each volume divided into books, and subdivided into chapters (for a total of 365 chapters). Each chapter is relatively short, usually no longer than a few pages. Nevertheless, the book as a whole is quite lengthy by common standards, even exceeding 1,400 pages in unabridged editions (1900 pages in French). Within the borders of the novel's story, Hugo fills many pages with his thoughts on religion, politics, and society, including his three lengthy digressions, one being a discussion on enclosed religious orders, another being on argot, and most famously, his retelling of the Battle of Waterloo.
Plot
Volume I – Fantine
The story starts in 1815 in Digne. The peasant Jean Valjean has just been released from imprisonment in the Bagne of Toulon after nineteen years: five for stealing bread for his starving sister and her family, and fourteen more for numerous escape attempts. Upon being released, he is required to carry a yellow passport that marks him as a convict, despite having already paid his debt to society by serving his time in jail. Rejected by innkeepers, who do not want to take in a convict, Valjean sleeps on the street. This makes him even angrier and more bitter. However, the benevolent Bishop Myriel, the Bishop of Digne, takes him in and gives him shelter. In the middle of the night, he steals the bishop’s silverware and runs. He is caught, but the bishop rescues him by claiming that the silverware was a gift and at that point gives him his two silver candlesticks as well, chastising him to the police for leaving in such a rush that he forgot these most valuable pieces. The bishop then "reminds" him of the promise, which Valjean has no recollection of making, to use the silver to make an honest man of himself. As Valjean broods over these words, he steals a child's silver coin purely out of habit. He chases the boy away (Petit Gervais), but, soon after, he repents and decides to follow the bishop's advice. He searches the city for the child whose money he accidentally stole. At the same time, his theft is reported to the authorities, who now look for him as a repeat offender. If Valjean is caught, he will be forced to spend the rest of his life in prison, so he hides from the police.
Six years pass and Valjean, having assumed the pseudonym Monsieur Madeleine to avoid capture, has become a wealthy factory owner and is appointed mayor of his adopted town of Montreuil-sur-Mer. While walking down the street one day, he sees a man named Fauchelevent pinned under the wheels of his cart. When no one volunteers to lift the cart, he decides to rescue Fauchelevent himself. He crawls underneath the cart and manages to lift it, freeing him. The town's police inspector Javert, who was an adjutant guard at the Bagne of Toulon during Valjean's imprisonment, becomes suspicious of the mayor after witnessing his heroics. He knows the ex-convict Jean Valjean is also capable of such strength.
Years earlier in Paris, a grisette named Fantine was very much in love with a man named Félix Tholomyès. His friends Listolier, Fameuil, and Blachevelle were also paired with Fantine’s friends Dahlia, Zéphine, and Favourite. They later abandon the women as a joke, leaving Fantine to bear and care for Tholomyès' daughter, Cosette, by herself. When Fantine arrives at Montfermeil, she leaves Cosette in the care of the Thénardiers, a corrupt innkeeper and his selfish, cruel wife. Fantine is unaware that they abuse her daughter and use her as forced labor for their inn, and continues to try to pay their growing, extortionate demands for her upkeep. She is later fired from her job at Valjean's factory, due to the discovery of her illegitimate daughter, and is forced to resort to prostitution to pay for her daughter's care. Fantine is also slowly dying from an unnamed disease (probably tuberculosis). While roaming the streets, a dandy named Bamatabois harasses Fantine and puts snow down her back. She reacts by attacking him. Javert sees this and arrests Fantine. She begs to be released so she can provide for her daughter, but Javert sentences her to six months in prison. Valjean, hearing her story, intervenes and orders Javert to release her. Javert strongly refuses but Valjean persists and prevails. Valjean, feeling responsible because his factory turned her away, promises Fantine that he will bring Cosette to her. He takes her to a hospital.
Later, Javert comes to see Valjean again. Javert admits he had accused him of being Jean Valjean to the Parisian authorities after Fantine was freed. However, he tells Valjean that he no longer suspects him because the authorities have announced that another man has been identified as the real Jean Valjean after being arrested and having noticeable similarities. This man's name is Champmathieu. He is not guilty, but is mistaken. His trial is set the next day. At first, Valjean is torn whether to reveal himself, but decides to do so to save the innocent man. He goes to the trial and reveals his true identity. He then returns to Montreuil-sur-Mer to see Fantine, followed by Javert, who confronts him. After grabbing Valjean, Javert reveals Valjean’s identity to Fantine. Shocked, and with the severity of her illness, she falls back in her bed and dies. Valjean goes to Fantine, speaks to her in an inaudible whisper and kisses her hand. He then leaves with Javert.
Volume II – Cosette
Valjean manages to escape, only to be recaptured and sentenced to death. This was commuted by the king to penal servitude for life. While being sent to the prison at Toulon, a military port, Valjean saves a sailor about to fall from the ship's rigging. The crowd begins to call "This man must be pardoned!" but Valjean fakes a slip and falls into the ocean to escape, relying on the belief that he has drowned.
Valjean arrives at Montfermeil on Christmas Eve. He finds Cosette fetching water in the woods alone and walks with her to the inn. After ordering a meal, he observes the Thénardiers’ abusive treatment of her. He also witnesses their pampered daughters Éponine and Azelma treating Cosette badly as well when they tell on her to their mother for holding their abandoned doll. Upon seeing this, Valjean goes out and returns a moment later holding an expensive new doll. He offers it to Cosette. At first, she is unable to contemplate that the doll really is for her, but then happily takes it. This results in Mme. Thénardier becoming furious with Valjean, while M. Thénardier dismisses it, informing her that he can do as he wishes as long as he pays them. It also causes Éponine and Azelma to become envious of Cosette.
The next morning on Christmas Day, Valjean obtains Cosette with the letter from Fantine, and flees with her to Paris. Later, Javert finds Valjean’s new lodgings at Gorbeau House.
Valjean takes Cosette and they try to escape from Javert. They soon successfully find shelter in the Petit-Picpus convent with the help of Fauchelevent, the man whom Valjean rescued and who is a gardener for the convent. Valjean also becomes a gardener and Cosette becomes a student.
Volume III – Marius
Eight years later, the Friends of the ABC, led by Enjolras, are preparing an anti-Orléanist revolution on the eve of the Paris uprising on June 5–6, 1832, following the death of General Lamarque, the only French leader who had sympathy towards the working class. They are also joined by the poor, including the Thénardiers' eldest son Gavroche, who is a street urchin.
One of the students, Marius Pontmercy, has become alienated from his family (especially his grandfather M. Gillenormand) because of his liberal views. After the death of his father Colonel Georges Pontmercy, Marius discovers a note from him instructing his son to provide help to a sergeant named Thénardier who saved Pontmercy's life at Waterloo – in reality M. Thénardier was looting corpses and only saved Pontmercy's life by accident; he had called himself a sergeant under Napoleon to avoid exposing himself as a robber. At the Luxembourg Gardens, Marius falls in love with the now grown and beautiful Cosette. The Thénardiers have also moved to Paris and now live in poverty after losing their inn. They live under the surname "Jondrette" at Gorbeau House (coincidentally, the same building Valjean and Cosette briefly lived in after leaving the Thénardiers' inn). Marius lives there as well, next door to the Thénardiers.
Éponine, now ragged and emaciated, visits Marius at his apartment to beg for money. To impress him, she tries to prove her literacy by reading aloud from a book and by writing "The Cops Are Here" on a sheet of paper. Marius pities her and gives her some money. After Éponine leaves, Marius observes the "Jondrettes" in their apartment through a crack in the wall. A philanthropist and his daughter visit them—actually Valjean and Cosette. Marius immediately recognizes Cosette. After they leave, Marius asks Éponine to retrieve her address for him. Éponine, who is in love with Marius herself, reluctantly agrees to do so. The Thénardiers have also recognized Valjean and Cosette, and vow their revenge. M. Thénardier enlists the aid of the Patron-Minette, a well-known and feared gang of murderers and robbers.
Marius overhears M. Thénardier's plan and goes to Javert to report the crime. He then goes back home and waits for Javert and the police to arrive. When Valjean returns with rent money, M. Thénardier, with Patron-Minette, ambushes him and he reveals his identity to Valjean. Marius recognizes M. Thénardier as the man who "saved" his father's life at Waterloo and is caught in a dilemma. He tries to find a way to save Valjean while not betraying M. Thénardier. He sees the scrap of paper that Éponine earlier wrote on and throws it into the Thénardiers’ apartment through the crack. M. Thénardier reads it and thinks Éponine threw it inside. He, Mme. Thénardier and Patron-Minette try to escape, only to be stopped by Javert. He arrests all the Thénardiers and Patron-Minette (except Claquesous, who escapes during his transportation to prison, Montparnasse, who stops to run off with Éponine instead of joining in on the robbery, and Gavroche, who was not present and rarely participates in his family's crimes, a notable exception being his part in breaking his father out of prison). Valjean manages to escape the scene before Javert sees him.
Volume IV – St. Denis
After Éponine’s release from prison, she finds Marius and sadly tells him that she found Cosette’s address. She leads him to Valjean and Cosette's house at Rue Plumet, and Marius watches the house for a few days. He and Cosette then finally meet and declare their love for one another. M. Thénardier, Patron-Minette and Brujon manage to escape from prison with the aid of Gavroche. One night, during one of Marius’ visits with Cosette, the six men attempt to raid Valjean and Cosette's house. However, Éponine, who was sitting by the gates of the house, threatens to scream and awaken the whole neighbourhood if the thieves do not leave. Hearing this, they reluctantly retire. Meanwhile, Cosette informs Marius that she and Valjean will be leaving for England in a week’s time, which greatly troubles the pair.
The next day, Valjean is sitting in the Champ de Mars. He is feeling troubled due to seeing M. Thénardier in the neighbourhood several times. Unexpectedly, a note lands in his lap, which says "MOVE OUT." He sees a figure running away in the dim light. He goes back to his house tells Cosette they will be staying at their other house at Rue de l'Homme Arme and reconfirms with her about moving to England. Marius tries to get permission from M. Gillenormand to marry Cosette. His grandfather seems stern and angry, but has been longing for Marius's return. When tempers flare, he refuses, telling Marius to make Cosette his mistress instead. Insulted, Marius leaves. The following day, the students revolt and erect barricades in the narrow streets of Paris. Gavroche spots Javert and informs Enjolras that Javert is a spy. When Enjolras confronts him of this, he admits his identity and his orders to spy on the students. Enjolras and the other students tie him up to a pole in the Corinth restaurant. Later that evening, Marius goes back to Valjean and Cosette’s house at Rue Plumet, but finds the house no longer occupied. He then hears a voice telling him that his friends are waiting for him at the barricade. Distraught over Cosette gone, he heeds the voice and goes.
While Marius fights at the barricade, a soldier makes it in and aims at Marius. However, a man steps between them and puts his hand and body in front of the musket. The soldier fires, fatally shooting the man. The man then calls Marius by his name. Marius, and the reader, discovers that it is actually Éponine, dressed in men's clothes. Dying, she confesses that she told him to go to the barricade, in hoping that the two would die together. The author also states to the reader that Éponine anonymously threw the note to Valjean. Éponine gives Marius a letter that is addressed to him. It is written by Cosette, which she also confesses to have obtained a day earlier. After Éponine dies, Marius reads Cosette's letter and writes a farewell letter to her. Gavroche gives it to Valjean. Valjean, learning that Cosette's lover is fighting, is at first relieved, but an hour later, he puts on a National Guard uniform, arms himself with a gun and ammunition, and leaves his home.
Volume V – Jean Valjean
Valjean arrives at the barricade and immediately saves a man's life, though he is still not certain if he wants to protect Marius or to kill him. Marius recognizes Valjean upon seeing him. Enjolras announces that they are almost out of cartridges. Overhearing this, Gavroche goes to the other side of the barricade to collect more from the dead National Guardsmen. While doing so, he is shot and killed by the soldiers.
Later, Valjean saves Javert from being killed by the students. He volunteers to execute Javert himself, and Enjolras grants permission. Valjean takes Javert out of sight, and then shoots into the air while letting him go. As the barricade falls, Valjean carries off the injured and unconscious Marius. All the other students, including Enjolras, are killed. Valjean escapes through the sewers, carrying Marius' body on his shoulders. He evades a police patrol, but at the exit, he runs into Javert, whom he persuades to give him time to return Marius to his family. Javert grants this request. After leaving Marius at M. Gillenormand’s house, Valjean makes another request that he be permitted to go home shortly, which Javert also allows. They arrive at Rue de l'Homme Arme and Javert informs Valjean that he will wait for him. As Valjean walks upstairs, he looks out the landing window and finds Javert gone. Javert is walking down the street alone, realizing that he is caught between his strict belief in the law and the mercy Valjean has shown him. He feels he can no longer give Valjean up to the authorities. Unable to cope with this dilemma, Javert commits suicide by throwing himself into the Seine.
Marius slowly recovers from his injuries and he and Cosette are soon married.
Meanwhile, M. Thénardier and his younger daughter Azelma are attending the Mardi Gras as "masks." M. Thénardier spots Valjean among the wedding party heading the opposite direction and bids Azelma to follow them. After the wedding, Valjean confesses to Marius that he is an ex-convict. Marius is horrified by the revelation. Convinced that Valjean is of poor moral character, he steers Cosette away from him. Valjean loses the will to live and takes to his bed.
Later, M. Thénardier approaches Marius in order to blackmail him with what he knows of Valjean, but, in doing so, he inadvertently reveals all of the good Valjean has done, including his saving Marius' life on the barricades. Stunned by these revelations, Marius confronts M. Thénardier with his crimes and offers him an immense amount of money if he departs and promises never to return. M. Thénardier accepts the offer, and he and Azelma travel to America where he becomes a slave trader.
As Marius and Cosette rush to Valjean's house, he informs her that Valjean saved his life at the barricade. They arrive to see him, but the great man is dying. In his final moments, he realizes happiness with his adopted daughter and son-in-law by his side. He also reveals Cosette's past to her as well as her mother's name. Joined with them in love, he dies. As he lies dead between Cosette and Marius, the light from the Bishop's candlesticks remains all over, and in the midst of the night a light from the sky shines over Valjean, as if there were an enormous angel, awaiting to carry his soul to Heaven.
Characters
Major
* Jean Valjean (a.k.a. Monsieur Madeleine, a.k.a. Ultime Fauchelevent, a.k.a. Monsieur Leblanc, a.k.a. Urbain Fabre, a.k.a. 24601 a.k.a. 9430) — Convicted for stealing a loaf of bread, he is paroled from prison nineteen years later. Rejected by society for being a former convict, Bishop Myriel turns his life around by showing him mercy and encouraging him to become a new man. He assumes a new identity in order to pursue an honest life, becoming a factory owner and a mayor. He adopts and raises Fantine's daughter Cosette, saves Marius from the barricade, and dies at an old age, having kept his promise to the Bishop.
* Javert — An obsessive police inspector who continuously hunts, tracks down, and loses Valjean. He goes undercover behind the barricade, but is discovered and unmasked. Valjean has the chance to kill Javert, but lets him go. Later, Javert allows Valjean to escape. For the first time, Javert is in a situation in which he knows that the lawful course is immoral. His inner conflict leads him to take his own life by jumping into the River Seine.
* Bishop Myriel, the bishop of Digne (full name Charles-François-Bienvenu Myriel, a.k.a. Monseigneur Bienvenu) — A kindly old priest who is promoted to bishop by a chance encounter with Napoleon. He convinces Valjean to change his ways after Valjean steals some silver from him and saves Valjean from being arrested.
* Fantine — A Parisian grisette abandoned with a small child by her lover Félix Tholomyès. Fantine leaves her daughter Cosette in the care of the Thénardiers, innkeepers in a village called Montfermeil. Unfortunately, Mme. Thénardier spoils her own daughters and abuses Cosette. Fantine finds work at Monsieur Madeleine's factory, but is fired by a female supervisor who discovers that she is an unwed mother, as Fantine, being illiterate, had other people write her letters to the Thénardiers. To meet repeated demands for money from the Thénardiers, she sells her hair, then her two front teeth, and finally turns to prostitution. Valjean learns of her plight when Javert arrests her for attacking a man who called her insulting names and hurled snow at her back. She dies of a disease that may be tuberculosis before Valjean is able to reunite her with Cosette.
* Cosette (real name Euphrasie, a.k.a. the Lark, a.k.a. Mademoiselle Lanoire, a.k.a Ursule) — The illegitimate daughter of Fantine and Tholomyès. From approximately the age of three to the age of eight, she is beaten and forced to be a drudge by the Thénardiers. After Fantine dies, Valjean ransoms her from the Thénardiers and she becomes his adopted daughter. Nuns in a convent in Paris educate her. She later grows up to become very beautiful. She falls in love with Marius Pontmercy, and marries him at the end of the novel.
* M. and Mme. Thénardier (a.k.a. the Jondrettes, a.k.a. M. Fabantou, a.k.a. M. Thénard) — A corrupt innkeeper and his wife. They have five children: two daughters (Éponine and Azelma) and three sons (Gavroche and two unnamed younger sons). They take in Cosette in her early years, mistreating and abusing her. They also write fabricated letters about Cosette to Fantine in order to extort money from her. They end up losing the inn due to bankruptcy and moving to Paris, living as the Jondrettes. M. Thénardier is associated with an infamous criminal gang called the Patron-Minette, but contrary to common belief he is not their head, both sides operate independently. The Thénardier family also live next-door to Marius, who recognizes M. Thénardier as the man who "tended to" his father at Waterloo. Javert arrests them after Marius thwarts their attempts to rob and kill Valjean in their apartment. At the end of the novel, Mme. Thénardier has long since died in prison while M. Thénardier and Azelma travel to America where he becomes a slave trader.
* Marius Pontmercy — A second-generation baron (not recognized as such under the present régime because his father was ennobled by Napoleon Bonaparte) who fell out with his royalist grandfather after discovering his father was an officer under Napoleon. He studies law, joins the revolutionary ABC students and later falls in love with Cosette.
* Enjolras — The leader of the Friends of the ABC in the Paris uprising. A charming and intimidating man with angelic beauty, he is passionately devoted to democracy, equality and justice. Enjolras is a man of principle that believes in a cause – creating a republic, liberating the poor – without any doubts. He and Grantaire are executed by the National Guards after the barricade falls.
* Éponine (a.k.a. the Jondrette girl) — The Thénardiers' elder daughter. As a child, she is pampered and spoiled by her parents, but ends up a street urchin when she reaches adolescence. She participates in her father's crimes and begging schemes to obtain money. She is blindly in love with Marius. At Marius' request, she finds Valjean and Cosette's house for him and sadly leads him there. She also prevents her father, Patron-Minette and Brujon from robbing the house during one of Marius’ visits there to see Cosette. After disguising herself as a boy, she manipulates Marius into going to the barricades, hoping that they will die together. However, she saves Marius' life by reaching out her hand to stop a soldier's bullet heading for Marius; she is mortally wounded as the bullet goes through her hand and back. As she is dying, her final request to Marius is that once she has passed, he will kiss her on the forehead. He fulfils her request not because of romantic feelings on his part, but out of pity for her hard life.
* Gavroche — The unloved middle child and eldest son of the Thénardiers, younger than his sisters. He lives on his own and is a street urchin. He briefly takes care of his two younger brothers, unaware they are related to him. He takes part in the barricades and is killed while collecting bullets from dead National Guardsmen for the ABC students at the barricade.
Minor
* Mademoiselle Baptistine — Bishop Myriel's sister. She loves and venerates her brother.
* Madame Magloire — Domestic servant for the Bishop and his sister. She is fearful that he leaves the door open to strangers.
* Petit Gervais — A small boy who drops a coin. There are two perspectives on Jean Valjean's encounter with him. According to one, Valjean, still a man of criminal mind, places his foot on the coin and refuses to return it to the boy, despite Gervais' protests. When the boy flees the scene and Valjean comes to his senses, remembering what the bishop had done for him, he is horribly ashamed of what he has done and searches for the boy in vain. Another interpretation of this scene is that Jean Valjean was not aware that he was stepping on the coin, and snarls at Petit Gervais, thinking he is just annoying him, but realizes later that the coin was under his foot and feels horrible. Either way, he was uncaring of the boy's pleas.
* Félix Tholomyès — Fantine’s lover and Cosette’s biological father. A rich student, he puts his own happiness and well-being above anything else. He does not think much of his relationship with Fantine, considering it as "a passing affair." After impregnating Fantine, he abandons her as a joke. Hugo then concludes Tholomyès’ involvement in the story by saying that "twenty years later, under King Louis Philippe, he was a fat provincial attorney, rich and influential, a wise elector and rigid juryman; always, however, a man of pleasure."
* Fauchelevent — Valjean saves Fauchelevent’s life when Valjean lifts a carriage underneath which he is caught. Fauchelevent later will return the favor by providing sanctuary for Valjean and Cosette at a convent, and by providing his name for Valjean's use.
* Bamatabois — An idler who harasses Fantine and puts snow down her back. He is also one of the jurors at Champmathieu’s trial.
* Champmathieu — A vagabond who is mistakenly accused of being Valjean.
* Brevet — An ex-convict from Toulon who knew Valjean there. In 1823, he is serving time in the prison in Arras for an unknown crime. He is the first to claim that Champmathieu is really Valjean. Used to wear knitted, checkered suspenders.
* Chenildieu — A lifer from Toulon. He and Valjean were chain mates for five years. He once tried to remove the lifer's brand TFP (“travaux forcés à perpetuité,” “forced labor for life”) by putting his shoulder on a chafing dish full of embers. He is described as a small, wiry but energetic man.
* Cochepaille — Another lifer from Toulon. He used to be a shepherd from the Pyrenees who became a smuggler. He is described as stupid and has a tattoo on his arm, March 1, 1815.
* Sister Simplice — A nun who cares for Fantine on her sickbed. She lies to Javert to protect Valjean, despite her reputation for never having told a lie in her life.
* Mother Innocente (a.k.a. Marguerite de Blemeur) — The prioress of the Petit-Picpus convent.
* Toussaint — Valjean and Cosette's servant in Paris. She has a slight stutter.
* Monsieur Gillenormand — Marius' grandfather. A Monarchist, he disagrees sharply with Marius on political issues, and they have several arguments. He attempts to keep Marius from being influenced by his father, an officer in Napoleon's army. While in perpetual conflict over ideas, he does illustrate his love for his grandson.
* Mademoiselle Gillenormand — M. Gillenormand's surviving daughter, she lives with her father. Her half-sister (M. Gillenormand's daughter from another marriage), deceased, was Marius' mother.
* Colonel Georges Pontmercy — Marius's father, and an officer in Napoleon's army. Wounded at Waterloo, Pontmercy erroneously believes M. Thénardier saved his life. He tells Marius of this great debt. He loves Marius with his very heart, and even spies on him when M. Gillenormand does not allow him to visit.
* Ma'am Bougon (real name Madame Burgon) — Housekeeper of Gorbeau House.
* Mabeuf — An elderly churchwarden. He was friends with Colonel Pontmercy, and then befriends Marius after Colonel Pontmercy's death. He helps Marius realize the identity and intentions of his father. He has a great love for plants and books, but ends up having to sell his books due to descending into poverty. Feeling that all hope is lost, he joins the students in the insurrection. He is shot and killed at the top of the barricades when raising their flag.
* Magnon — Former servant of M. Gillenormand and friend of the Thénardiers. She had been receiving child support payments from M. Gillenormand for her two illegitimate sons, who she claimed were fathered by him. When her sons died in an epidemic, she had them replaced with the Thénardiers' two youngest sons so that she could protect her income. The Thénardiers get a portion of the payments. She is soon arrested due to being allegedly involved in the Gorbeau Robbery.
* Two little brothers — The two unnamed youngest sons of the Thénardiers. The Thénardiers send their sons to Magnon to replace her own two sons who died of illness. When Magnon is arrested, a cobbler gives the boys a note written by Magnon with an address to go to. Unfortunately, it is torn away from them due to a strong wind. Unable to find it, they end up living on the streets. They soon run into their brother Gavroche, who gives them temporary care and support. The two boys and Gavroche are unaware they are related. Immediately after Gavroche's death at the barricade, the two boys are last seen at the Luxembourg Gardens retrieving and eating discarded bread from a fountain. Their fates are left unknown.
* Azelma — The younger daughter of the Thénardiers. Along with her sister Éponine, she is spoiled as a child, and suffers the same ragged and impoverished fate with her family when she is older. She also takes part in her father’s crimes. Unlike her sister, Azelma is dependent and faint-hearted. She also does not show any defiance toward her father (this is evident when, before Valjean and Cosette’s charitable visit, he orders her to punch out a windowpane in their apartment in order to look poorer. Although hesitant, she does so, resulting in cutting her hand). After the failed robbery of Valjean, she is not seen again until Marius and Cosette’s wedding day, when she and her father are dressed up as "masks" for the Mardi Gras. At the end of the novel, Azelma is the only known Thénardier child who does not die and travels with her father to America.
* Patron-Minette — A quartet of bandits who assist in the Thénardiers' ambush of Valjean at Gorbeau House and the attempted robbery at the Rue Plumet. The gang consists of Montparnasse, Claquesous, Babet, and Gueulemer. Claquesous, who escaped from the carriage transporting him to prison after the Gorbeau Robbery, joins the revolution under the guise of "Le Cabuc" and is executed by Enjolras for firing on civilians.
* Brujon — A robber and criminal. He participates in crimes with M. Thénardier and the Patron-Minette gang (such as the Gorbeau Robbery and the attempted robbery at the Rue Plumet). The author describes Brujon as being "a sprightly young fellow, very cunning and very adroit, with a flurried and plaintive appearance."
* Friends of the ABC — A group of revolutionary students. They fight and die in the insurrection of the Paris uprising on June 5th and 6th, 1832. Their name is described as coming from the following: "They declared themselves the Friends of the A B C,--the Abaissé,-- the debased,--that is to say, the people. They wished to elevate the people. It was a pun which we should do wrong to smile at." Led by Enjolras, its other principal members are Courfeyrac, Combeferre, Jean Prouvaire, Feuilly, Bahorel, Laigle (nicknamed Bossuet, sometimes also written L'Aigle, Lesgle, Lègle or Lesgles), Joly, and Grantaire.
* Grantaire — Alcoholic student who, unlike the other revolutionaries, does not strongly believe in the cause of the ABC Society, but associates with them because he admires, loves and venerates Enjolras. In the novel, their relationship is compared to that of Orestes and his pederastic companion Pylades. Grantaire is executed alongside Enjolras.
Critical reception
The first two volumes of Les Misérables were published on April 3, 1862, heralded by a massive advertising campaign; the remainder of the novel appeared on 15 May 1862. At the time, Victor Hugo enjoyed a reputation as one of France's foremost poets, and the appearance of the novel was a highly anticipated event. Critical reactions were wide-ranging and often negative; some critics found the subject matter immoral, others complained of its excessive sentimentality, and still others were disquieted by its apparent sympathy with the revolutionaries. The Goncourt brothers expressed their great dissatisfaction, judging the novel artificial and disappointing. Flaubert could find within it "neither truth nor greatness." French critic Charles Baudelaire reviewed the work glowingly in newspapers, but in private castigated it as "tasteless and inept."
The book was a great commercial success. The shortest correspondence in history is between Hugo and his publisher Hurst & Blackett in 1862. It is said Hugo was on vacation when Les Misérables (which is over 1200 pages) was published. He telegraphed the single-character message "?" to his publisher, who replied with a single "!". First translated into foreign languages (including Italian, Greek, and Portuguese) the same year it originally appeared, it proved popular not only in France, but across Europe. It has been a popular book ever since it was published, and was a great favourite among the Confederate soldiers of the American Civil War, who occasionally called themselves "Lee's Miserables" (a reference to their deteriorating conditions under General Robert E. Lee). Its popularity continues to this day, and many view it as one of the most important novels ever written.
English translations
* Charles E. Wilbour. New York: Carleton Publishing Company. June 1862. The first American translation, published only months after the French edition of the novel was released. Also, New York: George Routledge and Sons. 1879.
* Lascelles Wraxall. London: Hurst and Blackett. October 1862. The first British translation.
* Translator unknown. Richmond, Virginia. 1863. Published by West and Johnston publishers.
* Isabel F. Hapgood. Published 1887, this translation is available at Project Gutenberg.
* Norman Denny. Folio Press, 1976. A modern British translation subsequently published in paperback by Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-044430-0. In the very strictest sense this edition is not quite an unabridged translation: Norman Denny explains in his introduction that he moved two of the novel's longer digressive passages into annexes, and that he also made some abridgements in the text, which he claims are minor.
* Lee Fahnestock and Norman MacAfee. Signet Classics. March 3, 1987. An unabridged edition based on the Wilbour translation with modernization of language. Paperback ISBN 0-451-52526-4
* Julie Rose. 2007. Vintage Classics, July 3, 2008. The first new complete translation for over a decade. Julie Rose lives in Sydney and is the translator of more than a dozen works, including a well-received version of Racine's Phèdre as well as works by Paul Virilio, Jacques Rancière, Chantal Thomas, and many others. This new translation published by Vintage Classics includes a detailed biographical sketch of Victor Hugo’s life, a chronology, and notes. ISBN 978-0-09-951113-7
Adaptations
Film and television
* 1907, On the barricade, directed Alice Guy Blaché, early adaptation of a part of the novel
* 1907, Le Chemineau
* 1909, directed by J. Stuart Blackton
* 1909, The Bishop's Candlesticks, directed by Edwin S. Porter
* 1911, directed by Albert Capellani
* 1913, directed again by Albert Capellani
* 1913, The Bishop's Candlesticks, directed Herbert Brenon, adaptation of the second book of the first volume
* 1917, directed by Frank Lloyd
* 1922, director unknown
* 1923, Aa Mujou, directed by Kiyohiko Ushihara and Yoshinobu Ikeda, Japanese film, production cancelled after two of four parts
* 1925, directed by Henri Fescourt
* 1929, The Bishop's Candlesticks, directed by Norman McKinnell, first sound film adaptation
* 1929, Aa Mujou, directed by Seika Shiba, Japanese film
* 1931, Jean Valjean, directed by Tomu Uchida, Japanese film
* 1934, directed by Raymond Bernard
* 1935, directed by Richard Boleslawski
* 1937, Gavrosh, directed by Tatyana Lukashevich, Soviet film
* 1938, Kyojinden, directed by Mansaku Itami, Japanese film
* 1943, Los Miserables, directed by Renando A. Rovero, Mexican film
* 1944, El Boassa, directed by Kamal Selim, Egyptian film
* 1948, I Miserabili, directed by Riccardo Freda
* 1949, Les Nouveaux Misérables, directed by Henri Verneuil
* 1950, Re mizeraburu: Kami to Akuma, directed by Daisuke Ito (English title: Gods and Demons)
* 1950, Ezhai Padum Padu and Beedala Patlu, directed by K. Ramnoth in Tamil and Telugu.
* 1952, directed by Lewis Milestone
* 1952, I miserabili, re-release of the 1947-film
* 1955, Kundan, directed by Sohrab Modi, Indian Hindi film
* 1958, directed by Jean-Paul Le Chanois, starring Jean Gabin
* 1958, Os Miseráveis, directed by Dionísio Azevedo, Brazilian film
* 1961, Jean Valjean, Korean film by Seung-ha Jo
* 1961, Cosette, directed by Alain Boudet on Claude Santelli’s program Le Théâtre de la jeunesse
* 1962, Gavroche, directed by Alain Boudet on Le Théâtre de la jeunesse
* 1963, Jean Valjean, directed by Alain Boudet on Le Théâtre de la jeunesse
* 1964, I miserabili, Italian TV-miniseries directed by Sandro Bolchi, starring: Gastone Moschin (Jean Valjean), Tino Carraro (Javert), Giulia Lazzarini (Fantine/adult Cosette), Loretta Goggi (young Cosette), Antonio Battistella (Thénardier), Cesarina Gheraldi (Mme. Thénardier), Angela Cardile (Éponine), Roberto Bisacco (Marius), Claudio Sora (Enjolras), Aldo Silvani (Monseigneur Bienvenu) and Edoardo Nevola (Gavroche), nearly ten hours long
* 1967, TV miniseries directed by Alan Bridges, starring: Frank Finlay (Jean Valjean), Anthony Bate (Javert), Alan Rowe (Thénardier), Judy Parfitt (Mme. Thénardier), Michele Dotrice (Fantine), Lesley Roach (Cosette), Elizabeth Counsell (Éponine), Vivian Mackerall (Marius), Derek Lamden (Gavroche), Cavan Kendall (Enjolras), Finlay Currie (Bishop of Digne)
* 1967, Os Miseráveis, Brazilian film
* 1967, Sefiller, Turkish film
* 1972, French TV miniseries directed by Marcel Bluwal, starring: Georges Géret (Jean Valjean), Bernard Fresson (Javert), Nicole Jamet (Cosette), François Marthouret (Marius), Alain Mottet (Thénardier), Micha Bayard (Mme. Thénardier), Hermine Karagheuz (Éponine), Anne-Marie Coffinet (Fantine), Jean-Luc Boutté (Enjolras), Gilles Maidon (Gavroche), François Vibert (Monseigneur Myriel)
* 1973, Los Miserables, Mexican TV adaptation directed by Antulio Jiménez Pons. Starring: Sergio Bustamante (Jean Valjean), Antonio Passy (Javert), Blanca Sánchez (Fantine), Edith González (Young Cosette), Carlos Ancira (Thénardier), Magda Guzmán (Mme. Thénardier), Diana Bracho (Cosette), Luis Torner (Marius), María Rojo (Éponine), Carlos Arguelles (Gavroche), Héctor Bonilla (Enjolras), Ángel Garasa (Bishop Myriel), Fernando Soler (M. Gillenormand), Alejandro Ciangherotti (Fauchelevent), José Luis Jiménez (Mabeuf)
* 1978, UK telefilm, directed by Glenn Jordan and starring Anthony Perkins, Richard Jordan, John Gielgud, Cyril Cusack, and Claude Dauphin
* 1978, Al Boasa, Egyptian adaptation
* 1982, directed by Robert Hossein
* 1985, TV version of the 1982 film, which is 30 minutes longer and divided into four parts
* 1995, directed by Claude Lelouch (a loose, multi-layered adaptation set in the 20th century starring Jean-Paul Belmondo)
* 1995, Les Misérables – The Dream Cast in Concert (musical done in concert style)
* 1998, directed by Bille August and starring Liam Neeson, Geoffrey Rush, Uma Thurman, Hans Matheson, and Claire Danes
* 2000, 6-hour French TV miniseries directed by Josée Dayan and co-produced by Gérard Depardieu, starring: Gérard Depardieu (Jean Valjean), John Malkovich (Javert), Christian Clavier (Thénardier), Veronica Ferres (Mme. Thénardier), Charlotte Gainsbourg (Fantine), Virginie Ledoyen (Cosette), Enrico Lo Verso (Marius), Asia Argento (Éponine), Jeanne Moreau (Mother Innocente), Steffen Wink (Enjolras), Jérôme Hardelay (Gavroche), Otto Sander (Monseigneur Bienvenu)
* 2000, 3-hour English TV movie version of the 2000 French miniseries
Animation
* 1977, Cosette, Soviet animation
* 1977, Shoujo Cosette, broadcasted on the Japanese television program Manga Sekai Mukashi Banashi, 1 episode, Japanese animation
* 1978, Aa Mujou, cover the first two volumes of the novel, broadcasted on Manga Sekai Mukashi Banashi, 13 episodes, Japanese animation
* 1979, Jean Valjean Monogatari, directed by Takashi Kuoka for Toei Animation and written by Masaki Tsuji, Japanese animation
* 1988, by Emerald City Productions
* 1992, a 26 episode French animated TV series by Studios Animage, AB Productions and Pixibox
* 2007, Les Misérables: Shōjo Cosette, a 52 episode Japanese animated TV series by Nippon Animation
Radio
* 1937, written, produced, and directed by Orson Welles
* 1952, directed by Earl Ebi
* 1982, directed by Hyman Brown
* 2001, directed by Sally Evans and Jeremy Mortimer
* 2002, directed by Philip Glassborow
Musical
Main article: Les Misérables (musical)
* In 1980, a musical of the same name opened in Paris at the Palais des Sports. It has gone on to become one of the most successful musicals in history. It was directed by Robert Hossein, the music was composed by Claude-Michel Schönberg, and the libretto was written by Alain Boublil.
* In 1985, an English language version opened in London at the Barbican Arts Centre. It was produced by Cameron Mackintosh and adapted and directed by Trevor Nunn and John Caird. The lyrics were written by Herbert Kretzmer and additional material by James Fenton.
* In 1987, the musical debuted on Broadway in New York City at the Broadway Theatre.
* 2007, Les Misérables: School Edition, copyrighted
* 2008, Les Misérables: Le Capitole de Québec version, directed by Frédéric Dubois
* 2010, Les Misérables was performed on the West End in London for three weeks.
Plays
* In 1863, one year after the novel was published, Charles Victor Hugo (Hugo's son) and Paul Meurice first adapted the novel for theatre.
* In 1906, Broadway actor Wilton Lackaye wrote an adaptation in five acts, titled The Law and the Man, though primarily with the interest of creating himself a strong role (he would play Valjean).
* An outdoor adaptation was performed in the summer at the Citadelle in France.
* There is a play adaptation by Jonathan Holloway. Donvale Christian College performed the Holloway adaptation for stage during late April 2010, using limited modern objects for certain scenes.
* There is a play adaptation by Tim Kelly.
* There is a play adaptation by Spiritual Twist Productions. This play highlights more of the religious aspect from the novel. It was last performed in April 2005 at the Clayton Center.
Games
* An adventure game has been released by Chris Tolworthy, intended as a direct adaptation of the book.
* There is a free downloadable amateur 2D fighting game based on the musical. The game is called ArmJoe, which is created by Takase. The name is a pun on the novel's Japanese title Aa Mujou (ああ無情). The game incorporates the major characters as they appear in the musical, namely Jean Valjean, Enjolras, Marius, Cosette, Éponine, Thénardier, and Javert — as well as a policeman, a robotic clone of Valjean called RoboJean, an embodiment of Judgement, and a rabbit named Ponpon.
Unofficial sequels
* In July 1995, Laura Kalpakian's novel Cosette: The Sequel to Les Misérables was released. The novel is published by HarperCollins. Tom De Haven from Entertainment Weekly called the novel "dull and overwrought and corny," and gave it a C- grading.
* In 2001, François Cérésa released his own two sequels to the novel: Cosette or the Time of Illusions and the follow-up Marius or The Fugitive. Both novels are published by Plon. Hugo's descendants, including his great-great-grandson Pierre Hugo, wanted the novels banned, considering that they breach the moral rights of the author and betrays the "respect of the integrity" and "spirit" of Hugo's original novel to make money. Cérésa had even retconned a key scene in the original novel, bringing back the character Inspector Javert and changed him to be a hero. In 2007, the Cour de Cassation ruled in favor of Cérésa and Plon.
《笑面人》是雨果在一八六九年写成的长篇小说。这部小说以十七世纪末和十八世纪初的英国社会为背景，也就是从詹姆士二世起到他的女儿安妮女王统治英国的那个时期。 小说主人公格温普兰是一个爵士的后代，从小就被卖给儿童贩子，成为宫廷阴谋的牺牲品。他落到儿童贩子之手以后，被迫动过毁容手术，脸孔因此始终像在怪笑一样。后来，他被好心的流浪人于苏斯所收养。从此，他就跟着于苏斯到处卖艺。格温普兰在见到于苏斯之前，还在雪地上救起过一个女婴——就是盲姑娘蒂，好心的于苏斯也把她收养了下来。他们几个人四海飘泊，受尽贫穷与不幸的折磨，但是他们并没有向环境屈服，他们彼此之间充满着诚挚的感情。在颠沛流浪生活中格温普兰和盲姑娘蒂之间也渐渐产生了爱情。 后来格温普兰有机会重新获得爵士的头衔，他却厌恶贵族生活，在议会痛斥了贵族罪行后，回到自己的同伴那里。这时蒂已经病得奄奄一息，终于去世，格温普兰悲痛万分，结果投海自杀。 格温普兰的悲惨遭遇从而发生的那个时期，正是英国资产阶级革命后不久，资产阶级和新贵族建立了君主立宪政体。革命的结果对人民来说，只是资本主义的枷锁代替了封建主义的枷锁。财富和特权集中在一小撮统治阶级手里，广大人民依旧过着苦难深重的生活。
《笑面人》-作品赏析
雨果通过格温普兰他们的悲惨遭遇反映了当时的两个对立的阶级的尖锐矛盾：占绝大多数的人民群众过着贫穷困苦的生活，一小撮上层贵族穷奢极侈，道德败坏。雨果利用了丰富的历史文献生动地列举了当时英国不平等的社会面貌，揭露统治阶级的种种虚伪和丑恶。在小说里，作者完全站在同情人民的立场上为贫苦大众作辩护，描绘底层人民的疾苦。笑面人格温普兰在贵族院对一些王孙贵族的慷慨激昂的控诉，该是全书的高潮，该是对这样一个不平等社会的极为淋漓尽致的描绘：人民过着凄惨的日子，无罪的人被定了罪，八岁的小姑娘开始卖淫，煤矿工人拿煤块填肚子，渔人吃的是树皮草根，婴儿睡在地上挖出来的土洞里。除了贫穷、失业、饥荒、疾病以外，我们看到压在百姓头上的还有警察、法律、宗教、秘密逮捕、监狱、酷刑，等等。饱经沧桑的于苏斯就对格温普兰这样说过：“沉默是穷人唯一的朋友。他们只可以说一个字：‘是’。承认和同意是他们的全部权利。对法官说‘是’。对国王说 ‘是’。老爷们如果高兴，就赏我们几棍，我就被他们打过，这是他们的特权，他们即使把我们的骨头打断，对他们的尊严也不会有什么损害。”他又指出：“你是生活在这样一个国家里：锯掉一棵三年的小树，就得安安静静地被人送上绞刑架。……主教法庭要是判决你犯了异端邪教的罪，就该活活烧死。” 在另一方面，统治阶级享受种种特权，穷奢极侈，拚命压榨百姓的血汗来供他们挥霍。女王丈夫的年俸一下子就要增加十万英镑。苛捐杂税一样一样地增加。 雨果把笑面人格温普兰的悲惨故事，就安排在这样一个环境里。 格温普兰在议会里的发言，是对那个社会的一个有力的控诉，其实格温普兰和他的两个亲人—一于苏斯和蒂的悲惨遭遇本身，就是一个有力的控诉。统治者的魔手毁灭他们的幸福，即使于苏斯牢牢守住他的“沉默是穷人唯一的朋友”的信条，他也无法逃避这一只看不见的、可怕的手。 这几个善良的可怜的人、他们的命运正是当时英国广大的劳动人民的普遍命运。雨果在小说中运用了他最为擅长的浪漫主义的对比手法，生动地刻划了这几个主要人物的形象。
格温普兰的脸是丑的，但是他的内心却无比美丽。当他被人抛弃，一个人孤孤单单地跟死神搏斗的时候，他还想到去救另外一个孩子，担负起另外～个人的命运；他在成为爵士以后，忘记不了百姓的疾苦，痛斥了那些贵族老爷，最后情愿抛弃荣华富贵，回到自己的亲人身边。因此，“虽然大家都认为他是个怪物，可是蒂却认为他是天上的神仙。”蒂说：“长得丑，这算得了什么？做坏事才叫丑。格温普兰只做好事。所以他最漂亮。” 蒂自己呢，是一个瞎子，从小就没有见过阳光，但是她“眼睛虽然看不见，却充满了亮光”。她看得到亮眼人看不到的东西，那便是格温普兰的内心的美。她一心爱着格温普兰，把格温普兰视做她的太阳。这是一个美丽纯洁的少女。于苏斯则是一个善良智慧的老人，他不顾自己穷困，收留下两个孤儿，抚养大了他们；他的才智也是惊人的，在他的身上闪耀着劳动人民的智慧的光芒。然而他深受生活的磨难，懂得一套人情世故，在恶势力的迫害下，他也不得不逆来顺受。 在他们三个人之间存在着深厚的感情，他们相依为命，互亲互爱，谁也离不开谁，谁也少不了谁。他们之间这种真挚的感情，加强了小说结局的悲剧气氛。
跟他们形成强烈对照的是安妮女王、约瑟安娜、大卫·第利—摩埃爵士这批人。他们残暴专横、作威作福、荒淫无耻、道德败坏，为了满足自己的私欲，什么丑事都做得出来。举几个例子看吧：安妮女王憎恨约瑟安娜，以能看到她嫁给格温普兰这个畸形人为一大乐事，丝毫也不顾姊妹之情。约瑟安娜和大卫·第利—摩埃两人都不愿意结婚，因为这对各自的放荡生活有许多便利。约瑟安娜甚至引诱格温普兰，想寻找堕落的乐趣，这种行为只有从她的放荡无耻的变态心理中可以得到解释。这个貌若天仙、心似蛇蝎的女人，当她最后知道格温普兰是她的真正的丈夫的时候，反而立刻把他赶走，对他说她恨他。
小说的浪漫主义特色还表现在作家对情节的安排上：整个故事是由许多出人意外的事件联结而成的。小说一开始，一个孤苦伶仃的孩子给抛弃在荒凉的海岸上，等待着他的只有死亡，但是他却逃出了困境。这样的开头就强烈地吸引住了读者。尤其是第二部第四卷开始，约瑟安娜的来信给格温普兰带来的不安，大海中漂来的葫芦里的秘密，格温普兰突然一变而为克朗查理爵士，于苏斯看见监狱里扛出一口棺材以为格温普兰已被处死，约瑟安娜与格温普兰偶然相见，格温普兰在议会控诉统治者的罪恶，他寻找亲人不见正想跳河时看见那头几乎与于苏斯形影不离的狼狗奥莫，等等，真可以说是波澜迭起，风云变幻，而格温普兰的形象在这一连串的情节发展中也显得愈益鲜明。这是这部小说的又一特色。
然而，雨果虽然真实地描叙了一个不平等的社会面貌，但是他对那个社会的本质是缺乏认识的，因此对当时社会的阶级矛盾揭露得还是不够深刻的，也缺少正确的分析。例如，他在刻划反面人物的时候，却把一个地位属于次要的巴基尔费德罗写成了首恶，似乎没有这个人物从中施展他的阴谋诡计，格温普兰的命运可能就不会如此悲惨。至于把情节发展过多地建筑在意外的事件出现上，偶然性太大，也自然而然地冲淡了一出严肃的悲剧的性质。此外，作者引经据典、夹议插叙之处也使人感到比较多。这些都可以说是这部作品的不足之处。
Background
Hugo wrote The Man Who Laughs, or the Laughing Man, over a period of fifteen months while he was living in the Channel Islands, having been exiled from his native France due to the controversial political content of his previous novels. Hugo's working title for this book was On the King's Command, but a friend suggested The Man Who Laughs.
Plot summary
The first major character whom the reader is introduced to is a mountebank who dresses in bearskins and calls himself Ursus (Latin for “bear”). His only companion is a large domesticated wolf, whom Ursus has named Homo (Latin for “man”, in a pun over the Hobbesian saying "homo homini lupus"). Ursus lives in a caravan, which he conveys to holiday fairs and markets throughout southern England, where he sells folk remedies.
The action moves to an English sea coast, on the night of January 29, 1690. Hugo sets this date precisely, but nowhere in the narrative does he link it to any specific real-world historical event. A group of men, their identities unknown to us, are urgently loading a ship for departure. A boy, ten years old, is among their company, but the men are anxious to be rid of him. While the boy desperately pleads not to be abandoned, the men leave him behind and cast off.
The desperate boy, barefoot and starving, wanders through a snowstorm and reaches a gibbet, where he finds the corpse of a hanged criminal. The dead man is wearing shoes: utterly worthless to him now, yet precious to this boy. Beneath the gibbet, the boy finds a ragged woman, frozen to death. The boy is about to move onward when he hears a sound within the woman's garments: He discovers an infant girl, barely alive, clutching the woman's breast. Hugo's narrative describes a single drop of frozen milk, resembling a pearl, suspended from the dead woman's nipple.
Although the boy's survival seems unlikely, he now takes possession of the infant in an attempt to keep her alive. The girl's eyes are sightless and clouded, and he understands that she is blind. In the snowstorm, he encounters an isolated caravan, the domicile of Ursus.
The action shifts forward 15 years, to England during the reign of Queen Anne. We meet the Duchess Josiana, a spoiled and jaded peeress who is bored by the dull routine of court. A courtier tells the duchess that the only cure for her boredom is “Gwynplaine”, although he does not divulge who or what this Gwynplaine might be.
Now we are reunited with the wanderers. Ursus is 15 years older now. Surprisingly, the wolf Homo is still alive too, although the narration admits that his fur is greyer. Gwynplaine is the abandoned boy, now 25 years old and matured to well-figured manhood. In a flashback, we witness the first encounter between Ursus and Gwynplaine. The boy is clutching a nearly-dead infant, and therefore Ursus is outraged that the boy appears to be laughing. When the boy insists that he is not laughing, Ursus takes another look, and is horrified. The boy's face has been mutilated into a clown's mask, his mouth carved into a perpetual grin. The boy tells Ursus that his name is Gwynplaine; this is the only name he has ever known.
The foundling girl has grown older too. Now sixteen years old, she has been christened Dea (Latin for “goddess”), presumably by Ursus. Dea is blind but beautiful and utterly virtuous. She is also in love with Gwynplaine, as she is able to witness his kindly nature without seeing his hideous face. When Dea attempts to “see” Gwynplaine by passing her sightless fingers across his disfigured countenance, she assumes that he must always be happy because he is perpetually smiling. They fall in love.
Ursus and his two surrogate children earn a bare living in the funfairs and carnivals of southern England. Everywhere they travel, Gwynplaine keeps the lower half of his face concealed. He is now the principal wage-earner of their retinue; in each town they visit, Gwynplaine gives a stage performance; the chief feature of this performance is that the crowds are invariably provoked to laughter when Gwynplaine reveals his grotesque face.
At one point, Ursus and Gwynplaine are readying for their next performance when Ursus directs Gwynplaine's attention to a man who strides purposefully past their fairgrounds, dressed in ceremonial garments and bearing an elaborate wooden staff. Ursus explains that this man is the Wapentake, a servant of the Crown. (“Wapentake” is an Old English word meaning “weapon-touch”.) Whomever the Wapentake touches with his staff has been summoned by the monarch and must go to wherever the Wapentake leads, upon pain of death.
Josiana attends one of Gwynplaine's performances, and is sensually aroused by the combination of his virile grace and his facial deformity. Hugo makes it clear that Josiana's feelings towards Gwynplaine are erotic and sexual. Gwynplaine, too, is aroused by the physical beauty and haughty demeanour of this sensuous woman.
Suddenly, the Wapentake arrives at the caravan and touches Gwynplaine with his staff, compelling the disfigured man to follow him to the court of Queen Anne. Gwynplaine is ushered to a dungeon in London, where a physician named Hardquannone is being tortured to death. Hardquannone recognises the deformed Gwynplaine, and identifies him as the boy whose abduction and disfigurement Hardquannone arranged twenty-three years earlier.
In the year 1682, in the reign of James II, one of the king's enemies was Lord Linnaeus Clancharlie, Marquis of Corleone and a baron in the House of Lords. The king arranged the baron's abduction and murder. The baron, already widowed, left a two-year-old son: Fermain, heir to his estates. With the king's approval, Hardquannone gave this helpless boy to a band of wanderers called “the Comprachicos”.
“Comprachicos”: this word is Hugo's invention, based on the Spanish for “child-buyers”. They make their living by mutilating and disfiguring children, who are then forced to beg for alms, or who are exhibited as carnival freaks.
It becomes clear that, after disfiguring the two-year-old Fermain and renaming him Gwynplaine, the Comprachicos kept him in their possession until they abandoned him eight years later in 1690, on the night when he found Dea. Their ship was lost in the storm at sea, with all hands, but one passenger considerately wrote out a confession and cast this adrift in a sealed flask, which now has belatedly come to the attention of Queen Anne.
Dea is saddened by Gwynplaine's protracted absence. Dea has always been frail, but now she withers away even more.
Gwynplaine is now formally instated as Lord Fermain Clancharlie, Marquis of Corleone. In a grotesque scene, he is dressed in the elaborate robes and ceremonial wig of investiture, and commanded to take his seat in the House of Lords. But, when the deformed Gwynplaine attempts to address his peers — now his peers in the literal sense — the other lords are provoked to laughter by Gwynplaine's clownish features.
Gwynplaine renounces his peerage and returns to the caravan of Ursus, and to the only family he has ever known. Dea is delighted that Gwynplaine has returned to her. The four friends (including Homo) cast off aboard a vessel to the continent, resolved to abandon England forever. During the voyage, while Ursus slumbers, Dea reveals her passion to Gwynplaine, and then she abruptly dies. When Ursus awakens, Gwynplaine has vanished, and Homo is staring mournfully over the ship's rail, into the open sea, implying that Gwynplaine has drowned himself.
Film, TV or theatrical adaptations
There have been several dramatic adaptations of The Man Who Laughs. These include:
Film
See The Man Who Laughs (film) for the full list
Theatre
* Clair de Lune, a stage play written by Blanche Oelrichs under her male pseudonym Michael Strange, which ran for 64 performances on Broadway from April to June 1921. Oelrichs/Strange made some extremely arbitrary changes to the story, such as altering the protagonist's name to “Gwymplane”. The play features some very contrived and stilted dialogue, and would probably never have been produced if not for the fact that Oelrichs's husband at this time was the famed actor John Barrymore, who agreed to play Gwymplane and persuaded his sister Ethel Barrymore to portray Queen Anne. The ill-starred drama was dismissed as a vanity production, indulged by Barrymore purely to give his wife some credibility as playwright “Michael Strange”. The review by theatre critic James Whittaker of the Chicago Tribune was headlined “For the Love of Mike!”
* In 2005, The Stolen Chair Theatre Company recreated the story as a "Silent film for the stage." This adaptation pulled equally from Hugo's novel, the 1927 Hollywood Silent film, and from the creative minds of Stolen Chair. Stolen Chair's collectively created adaptation was staged as a live silent film, with stylized movement, original musical accompaniment, and projected intertitles. Gwynplaine was brought to life by Jon Campbell and was joined by Jennifer Wren, Alexia Vernon, Dennis Wit and Cameron J. Oro. It played in NY to critical acclaim and has been published in the book, Playing with Cannons.
* In 2006 the original story was adapted into musical by Alexandr Tumencev (composer) and Tatyana Ziryanova (Russian lyrics) and entitled 'Man Who Laughs' ('Человек, который смеётся'). This musical adaptation is performed by the Theatre of musical "Seventh Morning" starting from November, 6.
Comics
* In May 1950, the Gilberton publishing company produced a comic-book adaptation of The Man Who Laughs as part of their prestigious Classics Illustrated series. This adaptation featured artwork by Alex A. Blum, much of it closely resembling the 1928 film (including the anachronistic Ferris wheel). The character of Gwynplaine is drawn as a handsome young man, quite normal except for two prominent creases at the sides of his mouth. As this comic book was intended for juvenile readers, there may have been an intentional editorial decision to minimise the appearance of Gwynplaine's disfigurement. A revised Classics Illustrated edition, with a more faithful script by Al Sundel, and a painted cover and new interior art by Norman Nodel, was issued in the spring of 1962. Nodel's artwork showed a Gwynplaine far more disfigured than the character's appearance in either the 1928 film or the 1950 Classics edition.
* A second comic book version was produced by artist Fernando de Felipe, published by S. I. ARTISTS and republished by Heavy Metal Magazine in 1994. This adaptation was intended for a mature audience and places more emphasis on the horrific elements of the story. De Felipe has simplified and taken some liberties with Hugo's storyline. His rendering emphasizes the grotesque in Hugo and excludes the elements of the sublime that are equally important in the original.
Allusions/references from other works
The Joker, as drawn by Brian Bolland. This is one of many artists' renditions of the supervillain who was visually inspired by The Man Who Laughs.
* In 1869, while living in Buffalo, New York, Mark Twain published a parody of L'Homme qui Rit in the Buffalo Express newspaper. The parody attempted to offer parallels between Gwynplaine and Andrew Johnson, the scandal-plagued President of the United States at that time. The parody was not a success, and is of minor interest only because of its author's later prominence.
* In 1940, comic book artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger used Gwynplaine's lanky physique and grotesque grin as the visual inspiration for the Joker, Batman's archenemy. There the similarity ends, however; Gwynplaine is an embittered hero, while the Joker is a psychopathic criminal.
In the 1970s, Bob Kane acknowledged the inspiration for the Joker, and it was later explicitly referenced in the graphic novel, Batman: The Man Who Laughs. Comic book artist Brian Bolland said that watching The Man Who Laughs was one of his inspirations for drawing the graphic novel Batman: The Killing Joke (1988). In the episode "Wild Cards" of the Justice League animated series (2003), The Joker infiltrated a TV station by using the alias "Gwynplaine Entertainment." Another point to note is the similarity of the name Hardquannone, the rescued physician, and the Jokers psychiatrist (later lover and partner in crime) Harley Quinn.
* Gwynplaine's physical appearance may have inspired "Sardonicus", a story by Ray Russell published in Playboy in 1961. This gothic horror tale describes a man who has experienced a shock so terrifying that he undergoes a medical condition called Risus sardonicus, in which his face is permanently paralyzed into an exaggerated grin. Russell's story was filmed that same year as Mr. Sardonicus, a low-budget horror film by William Castle, featuring one of the gimmicks for which that producer was famous: halting the projection of the movie a few minutes before it ended, ostensibly so that the audience could vote on whether Sardonicus would live or die. Allegedly, the projectionist had two different endings available, and would screen the one reflecting the audience's verdict. In reality, however, only one ending was ever filmed or shown, with Sardonicus starving to death, his handicap preventing him from eating.
* The novelist and essayist Ayn Rand adapted Hugo's term “Comprachicos” for her own purposes in a noted essay, published in The Objectivist in 1970. Rand used the term “Comprachicos” to designate various forces in society which — either through well-meaning ignorance or outright malice — distort and deform children's souls and minds in an attempt to force them into social conformity. She considered The Man Who Laughs to be Hugo's best novel.
* Pinball, a 1982 novel credited to Jerzy Kosinski, features a female character named Andrea Gwynplaine. As there is no parallel between Kosinski's novel and Hugo's, it was not immediately clear why this character was so oddly named. After Kosinski's death, it was determined that at least two uncredited “ghost writers” made substantial contributions to this novel and other works credited to Kosinski: one of those uncredited co-authors was journalist F. Gwynplaine MacIntyre, who had previously named himself after Hugo's protagonist, and who inserted the name “Gwynplaine” into the text of Pinball as a clue to his participation.
* In James Ellroy's book The Black Dahlia, the mutilation murder of Elizabeth Short is partially inspired by a painting of Gwynplaine. The painting ends up being the one of the major clues in solving the murder.
* A short story by the name of The Laughing Man is featured J.D. Salinger's Nine Stories. It appears to be influenced by The Man Who Laughs, featuring an individual facially disfigured in his childhood by criminals who have kidnapped him.
* In the 2008 movie "The Dark Knight" the character "The Joker" appears to take a more direct influence physically from Gwynplaine as his permanent grin appears to be caused by a mutilation to his face.
* In H.G. Wells' The Island of Doctor Moreau, Moreau refers to L'Homme qui Rit when explaining the nature of his experiments to the protagonist.
* In the new Rob Zombie album, Hellbilly Deluxe 2, the last song is titled "The Man Who Laughs" and is based on the story of the same name.
《笑面人》-作品赏析
雨果通过格温普兰他们的悲惨遭遇反映了当时的两个对立的阶级的尖锐矛盾：占绝大多数的人民群众过着贫穷困苦的生活，一小撮上层贵族穷奢极侈，道德败坏。雨果利用了丰富的历史文献生动地列举了当时英国不平等的社会面貌，揭露统治阶级的种种虚伪和丑恶。在小说里，作者完全站在同情人民的立场上为贫苦大众作辩护，描绘底层人民的疾苦。笑面人格温普兰在贵族院对一些王孙贵族的慷慨激昂的控诉，该是全书的高潮，该是对这样一个不平等社会的极为淋漓尽致的描绘：人民过着凄惨的日子，无罪的人被定了罪，八岁的小姑娘开始卖淫，煤矿工人拿煤块填肚子，渔人吃的是树皮草根，婴儿睡在地上挖出来的土洞里。除了贫穷、失业、饥荒、疾病以外，我们看到压在百姓头上的还有警察、法律、宗教、秘密逮捕、监狱、酷刑，等等。饱经沧桑的于苏斯就对格温普兰这样说过：“沉默是穷人唯一的朋友。他们只可以说一个字：‘是’。承认和同意是他们的全部权利。对法官说‘是’。对国王说 ‘是’。老爷们如果高兴，就赏我们几棍，我就被他们打过，这是他们的特权，他们即使把我们的骨头打断，对他们的尊严也不会有什么损害。”他又指出：“你是生活在这样一个国家里：锯掉一棵三年的小树，就得安安静静地被人送上绞刑架。……主教法庭要是判决你犯了异端邪教的罪，就该活活烧死。” 在另一方面，统治阶级享受种种特权，穷奢极侈，拚命压榨百姓的血汗来供他们挥霍。女王丈夫的年俸一下子就要增加十万英镑。苛捐杂税一样一样地增加。 雨果把笑面人格温普兰的悲惨故事，就安排在这样一个环境里。 格温普兰在议会里的发言，是对那个社会的一个有力的控诉，其实格温普兰和他的两个亲人—一于苏斯和蒂的悲惨遭遇本身，就是一个有力的控诉。统治者的魔手毁灭他们的幸福，即使于苏斯牢牢守住他的“沉默是穷人唯一的朋友”的信条，他也无法逃避这一只看不见的、可怕的手。 这几个善良的可怜的人、他们的命运正是当时英国广大的劳动人民的普遍命运。雨果在小说中运用了他最为擅长的浪漫主义的对比手法，生动地刻划了这几个主要人物的形象。
格温普兰的脸是丑的，但是他的内心却无比美丽。当他被人抛弃，一个人孤孤单单地跟死神搏斗的时候，他还想到去救另外一个孩子，担负起另外～个人的命运；他在成为爵士以后，忘记不了百姓的疾苦，痛斥了那些贵族老爷，最后情愿抛弃荣华富贵，回到自己的亲人身边。因此，“虽然大家都认为他是个怪物，可是蒂却认为他是天上的神仙。”蒂说：“长得丑，这算得了什么？做坏事才叫丑。格温普兰只做好事。所以他最漂亮。” 蒂自己呢，是一个瞎子，从小就没有见过阳光，但是她“眼睛虽然看不见，却充满了亮光”。她看得到亮眼人看不到的东西，那便是格温普兰的内心的美。她一心爱着格温普兰，把格温普兰视做她的太阳。这是一个美丽纯洁的少女。于苏斯则是一个善良智慧的老人，他不顾自己穷困，收留下两个孤儿，抚养大了他们；他的才智也是惊人的，在他的身上闪耀着劳动人民的智慧的光芒。然而他深受生活的磨难，懂得一套人情世故，在恶势力的迫害下，他也不得不逆来顺受。 在他们三个人之间存在着深厚的感情，他们相依为命，互亲互爱，谁也离不开谁，谁也少不了谁。他们之间这种真挚的感情，加强了小说结局的悲剧气氛。
跟他们形成强烈对照的是安妮女王、约瑟安娜、大卫·第利—摩埃爵士这批人。他们残暴专横、作威作福、荒淫无耻、道德败坏，为了满足自己的私欲，什么丑事都做得出来。举几个例子看吧：安妮女王憎恨约瑟安娜，以能看到她嫁给格温普兰这个畸形人为一大乐事，丝毫也不顾姊妹之情。约瑟安娜和大卫·第利—摩埃两人都不愿意结婚，因为这对各自的放荡生活有许多便利。约瑟安娜甚至引诱格温普兰，想寻找堕落的乐趣，这种行为只有从她的放荡无耻的变态心理中可以得到解释。这个貌若天仙、心似蛇蝎的女人，当她最后知道格温普兰是她的真正的丈夫的时候，反而立刻把他赶走，对他说她恨他。
小说的浪漫主义特色还表现在作家对情节的安排上：整个故事是由许多出人意外的事件联结而成的。小说一开始，一个孤苦伶仃的孩子给抛弃在荒凉的海岸上，等待着他的只有死亡，但是他却逃出了困境。这样的开头就强烈地吸引住了读者。尤其是第二部第四卷开始，约瑟安娜的来信给格温普兰带来的不安，大海中漂来的葫芦里的秘密，格温普兰突然一变而为克朗查理爵士，于苏斯看见监狱里扛出一口棺材以为格温普兰已被处死，约瑟安娜与格温普兰偶然相见，格温普兰在议会控诉统治者的罪恶，他寻找亲人不见正想跳河时看见那头几乎与于苏斯形影不离的狼狗奥莫，等等，真可以说是波澜迭起，风云变幻，而格温普兰的形象在这一连串的情节发展中也显得愈益鲜明。这是这部小说的又一特色。
然而，雨果虽然真实地描叙了一个不平等的社会面貌，但是他对那个社会的本质是缺乏认识的，因此对当时社会的阶级矛盾揭露得还是不够深刻的，也缺少正确的分析。例如，他在刻划反面人物的时候，却把一个地位属于次要的巴基尔费德罗写成了首恶，似乎没有这个人物从中施展他的阴谋诡计，格温普兰的命运可能就不会如此悲惨。至于把情节发展过多地建筑在意外的事件出现上，偶然性太大，也自然而然地冲淡了一出严肃的悲剧的性质。此外，作者引经据典、夹议插叙之处也使人感到比较多。这些都可以说是这部作品的不足之处。
Background
Hugo wrote The Man Who Laughs, or the Laughing Man, over a period of fifteen months while he was living in the Channel Islands, having been exiled from his native France due to the controversial political content of his previous novels. Hugo's working title for this book was On the King's Command, but a friend suggested The Man Who Laughs.
Plot summary
The first major character whom the reader is introduced to is a mountebank who dresses in bearskins and calls himself Ursus (Latin for “bear”). His only companion is a large domesticated wolf, whom Ursus has named Homo (Latin for “man”, in a pun over the Hobbesian saying "homo homini lupus"). Ursus lives in a caravan, which he conveys to holiday fairs and markets throughout southern England, where he sells folk remedies.
The action moves to an English sea coast, on the night of January 29, 1690. Hugo sets this date precisely, but nowhere in the narrative does he link it to any specific real-world historical event. A group of men, their identities unknown to us, are urgently loading a ship for departure. A boy, ten years old, is among their company, but the men are anxious to be rid of him. While the boy desperately pleads not to be abandoned, the men leave him behind and cast off.
The desperate boy, barefoot and starving, wanders through a snowstorm and reaches a gibbet, where he finds the corpse of a hanged criminal. The dead man is wearing shoes: utterly worthless to him now, yet precious to this boy. Beneath the gibbet, the boy finds a ragged woman, frozen to death. The boy is about to move onward when he hears a sound within the woman's garments: He discovers an infant girl, barely alive, clutching the woman's breast. Hugo's narrative describes a single drop of frozen milk, resembling a pearl, suspended from the dead woman's nipple.
Although the boy's survival seems unlikely, he now takes possession of the infant in an attempt to keep her alive. The girl's eyes are sightless and clouded, and he understands that she is blind. In the snowstorm, he encounters an isolated caravan, the domicile of Ursus.
The action shifts forward 15 years, to England during the reign of Queen Anne. We meet the Duchess Josiana, a spoiled and jaded peeress who is bored by the dull routine of court. A courtier tells the duchess that the only cure for her boredom is “Gwynplaine”, although he does not divulge who or what this Gwynplaine might be.
Now we are reunited with the wanderers. Ursus is 15 years older now. Surprisingly, the wolf Homo is still alive too, although the narration admits that his fur is greyer. Gwynplaine is the abandoned boy, now 25 years old and matured to well-figured manhood. In a flashback, we witness the first encounter between Ursus and Gwynplaine. The boy is clutching a nearly-dead infant, and therefore Ursus is outraged that the boy appears to be laughing. When the boy insists that he is not laughing, Ursus takes another look, and is horrified. The boy's face has been mutilated into a clown's mask, his mouth carved into a perpetual grin. The boy tells Ursus that his name is Gwynplaine; this is the only name he has ever known.
The foundling girl has grown older too. Now sixteen years old, she has been christened Dea (Latin for “goddess”), presumably by Ursus. Dea is blind but beautiful and utterly virtuous. She is also in love with Gwynplaine, as she is able to witness his kindly nature without seeing his hideous face. When Dea attempts to “see” Gwynplaine by passing her sightless fingers across his disfigured countenance, she assumes that he must always be happy because he is perpetually smiling. They fall in love.
Ursus and his two surrogate children earn a bare living in the funfairs and carnivals of southern England. Everywhere they travel, Gwynplaine keeps the lower half of his face concealed. He is now the principal wage-earner of their retinue; in each town they visit, Gwynplaine gives a stage performance; the chief feature of this performance is that the crowds are invariably provoked to laughter when Gwynplaine reveals his grotesque face.
At one point, Ursus and Gwynplaine are readying for their next performance when Ursus directs Gwynplaine's attention to a man who strides purposefully past their fairgrounds, dressed in ceremonial garments and bearing an elaborate wooden staff. Ursus explains that this man is the Wapentake, a servant of the Crown. (“Wapentake” is an Old English word meaning “weapon-touch”.) Whomever the Wapentake touches with his staff has been summoned by the monarch and must go to wherever the Wapentake leads, upon pain of death.
Josiana attends one of Gwynplaine's performances, and is sensually aroused by the combination of his virile grace and his facial deformity. Hugo makes it clear that Josiana's feelings towards Gwynplaine are erotic and sexual. Gwynplaine, too, is aroused by the physical beauty and haughty demeanour of this sensuous woman.
Suddenly, the Wapentake arrives at the caravan and touches Gwynplaine with his staff, compelling the disfigured man to follow him to the court of Queen Anne. Gwynplaine is ushered to a dungeon in London, where a physician named Hardquannone is being tortured to death. Hardquannone recognises the deformed Gwynplaine, and identifies him as the boy whose abduction and disfigurement Hardquannone arranged twenty-three years earlier.
In the year 1682, in the reign of James II, one of the king's enemies was Lord Linnaeus Clancharlie, Marquis of Corleone and a baron in the House of Lords. The king arranged the baron's abduction and murder. The baron, already widowed, left a two-year-old son: Fermain, heir to his estates. With the king's approval, Hardquannone gave this helpless boy to a band of wanderers called “the Comprachicos”.
“Comprachicos”: this word is Hugo's invention, based on the Spanish for “child-buyers”. They make their living by mutilating and disfiguring children, who are then forced to beg for alms, or who are exhibited as carnival freaks.
It becomes clear that, after disfiguring the two-year-old Fermain and renaming him Gwynplaine, the Comprachicos kept him in their possession until they abandoned him eight years later in 1690, on the night when he found Dea. Their ship was lost in the storm at sea, with all hands, but one passenger considerately wrote out a confession and cast this adrift in a sealed flask, which now has belatedly come to the attention of Queen Anne.
Dea is saddened by Gwynplaine's protracted absence. Dea has always been frail, but now she withers away even more.
Gwynplaine is now formally instated as Lord Fermain Clancharlie, Marquis of Corleone. In a grotesque scene, he is dressed in the elaborate robes and ceremonial wig of investiture, and commanded to take his seat in the House of Lords. But, when the deformed Gwynplaine attempts to address his peers — now his peers in the literal sense — the other lords are provoked to laughter by Gwynplaine's clownish features.
Gwynplaine renounces his peerage and returns to the caravan of Ursus, and to the only family he has ever known. Dea is delighted that Gwynplaine has returned to her. The four friends (including Homo) cast off aboard a vessel to the continent, resolved to abandon England forever. During the voyage, while Ursus slumbers, Dea reveals her passion to Gwynplaine, and then she abruptly dies. When Ursus awakens, Gwynplaine has vanished, and Homo is staring mournfully over the ship's rail, into the open sea, implying that Gwynplaine has drowned himself.
Film, TV or theatrical adaptations
There have been several dramatic adaptations of The Man Who Laughs. These include:
Film
See The Man Who Laughs (film) for the full list
Theatre
* Clair de Lune, a stage play written by Blanche Oelrichs under her male pseudonym Michael Strange, which ran for 64 performances on Broadway from April to June 1921. Oelrichs/Strange made some extremely arbitrary changes to the story, such as altering the protagonist's name to “Gwymplane”. The play features some very contrived and stilted dialogue, and would probably never have been produced if not for the fact that Oelrichs's husband at this time was the famed actor John Barrymore, who agreed to play Gwymplane and persuaded his sister Ethel Barrymore to portray Queen Anne. The ill-starred drama was dismissed as a vanity production, indulged by Barrymore purely to give his wife some credibility as playwright “Michael Strange”. The review by theatre critic James Whittaker of the Chicago Tribune was headlined “For the Love of Mike!”
* In 2005, The Stolen Chair Theatre Company recreated the story as a "Silent film for the stage." This adaptation pulled equally from Hugo's novel, the 1927 Hollywood Silent film, and from the creative minds of Stolen Chair. Stolen Chair's collectively created adaptation was staged as a live silent film, with stylized movement, original musical accompaniment, and projected intertitles. Gwynplaine was brought to life by Jon Campbell and was joined by Jennifer Wren, Alexia Vernon, Dennis Wit and Cameron J. Oro. It played in NY to critical acclaim and has been published in the book, Playing with Cannons.
* In 2006 the original story was adapted into musical by Alexandr Tumencev (composer) and Tatyana Ziryanova (Russian lyrics) and entitled 'Man Who Laughs' ('Человек, который смеётся'). This musical adaptation is performed by the Theatre of musical "Seventh Morning" starting from November, 6.
Comics
* In May 1950, the Gilberton publishing company produced a comic-book adaptation of The Man Who Laughs as part of their prestigious Classics Illustrated series. This adaptation featured artwork by Alex A. Blum, much of it closely resembling the 1928 film (including the anachronistic Ferris wheel). The character of Gwynplaine is drawn as a handsome young man, quite normal except for two prominent creases at the sides of his mouth. As this comic book was intended for juvenile readers, there may have been an intentional editorial decision to minimise the appearance of Gwynplaine's disfigurement. A revised Classics Illustrated edition, with a more faithful script by Al Sundel, and a painted cover and new interior art by Norman Nodel, was issued in the spring of 1962. Nodel's artwork showed a Gwynplaine far more disfigured than the character's appearance in either the 1928 film or the 1950 Classics edition.
* A second comic book version was produced by artist Fernando de Felipe, published by S. I. ARTISTS and republished by Heavy Metal Magazine in 1994. This adaptation was intended for a mature audience and places more emphasis on the horrific elements of the story. De Felipe has simplified and taken some liberties with Hugo's storyline. His rendering emphasizes the grotesque in Hugo and excludes the elements of the sublime that are equally important in the original.
Allusions/references from other works
The Joker, as drawn by Brian Bolland. This is one of many artists' renditions of the supervillain who was visually inspired by The Man Who Laughs.
* In 1869, while living in Buffalo, New York, Mark Twain published a parody of L'Homme qui Rit in the Buffalo Express newspaper. The parody attempted to offer parallels between Gwynplaine and Andrew Johnson, the scandal-plagued President of the United States at that time. The parody was not a success, and is of minor interest only because of its author's later prominence.
* In 1940, comic book artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger used Gwynplaine's lanky physique and grotesque grin as the visual inspiration for the Joker, Batman's archenemy. There the similarity ends, however; Gwynplaine is an embittered hero, while the Joker is a psychopathic criminal.
In the 1970s, Bob Kane acknowledged the inspiration for the Joker, and it was later explicitly referenced in the graphic novel, Batman: The Man Who Laughs. Comic book artist Brian Bolland said that watching The Man Who Laughs was one of his inspirations for drawing the graphic novel Batman: The Killing Joke (1988). In the episode "Wild Cards" of the Justice League animated series (2003), The Joker infiltrated a TV station by using the alias "Gwynplaine Entertainment." Another point to note is the similarity of the name Hardquannone, the rescued physician, and the Jokers psychiatrist (later lover and partner in crime) Harley Quinn.
* Gwynplaine's physical appearance may have inspired "Sardonicus", a story by Ray Russell published in Playboy in 1961. This gothic horror tale describes a man who has experienced a shock so terrifying that he undergoes a medical condition called Risus sardonicus, in which his face is permanently paralyzed into an exaggerated grin. Russell's story was filmed that same year as Mr. Sardonicus, a low-budget horror film by William Castle, featuring one of the gimmicks for which that producer was famous: halting the projection of the movie a few minutes before it ended, ostensibly so that the audience could vote on whether Sardonicus would live or die. Allegedly, the projectionist had two different endings available, and would screen the one reflecting the audience's verdict. In reality, however, only one ending was ever filmed or shown, with Sardonicus starving to death, his handicap preventing him from eating.
* The novelist and essayist Ayn Rand adapted Hugo's term “Comprachicos” for her own purposes in a noted essay, published in The Objectivist in 1970. Rand used the term “Comprachicos” to designate various forces in society which — either through well-meaning ignorance or outright malice — distort and deform children's souls and minds in an attempt to force them into social conformity. She considered The Man Who Laughs to be Hugo's best novel.
* Pinball, a 1982 novel credited to Jerzy Kosinski, features a female character named Andrea Gwynplaine. As there is no parallel between Kosinski's novel and Hugo's, it was not immediately clear why this character was so oddly named. After Kosinski's death, it was determined that at least two uncredited “ghost writers” made substantial contributions to this novel and other works credited to Kosinski: one of those uncredited co-authors was journalist F. Gwynplaine MacIntyre, who had previously named himself after Hugo's protagonist, and who inserted the name “Gwynplaine” into the text of Pinball as a clue to his participation.
* In James Ellroy's book The Black Dahlia, the mutilation murder of Elizabeth Short is partially inspired by a painting of Gwynplaine. The painting ends up being the one of the major clues in solving the murder.
* A short story by the name of The Laughing Man is featured J.D. Salinger's Nine Stories. It appears to be influenced by The Man Who Laughs, featuring an individual facially disfigured in his childhood by criminals who have kidnapped him.
* In the 2008 movie "The Dark Knight" the character "The Joker" appears to take a more direct influence physically from Gwynplaine as his permanent grin appears to be caused by a mutilation to his face.
* In H.G. Wells' The Island of Doctor Moreau, Moreau refers to L'Homme qui Rit when explaining the nature of his experiments to the protagonist.
* In the new Rob Zombie album, Hellbilly Deluxe 2, the last song is titled "The Man Who Laughs" and is based on the story of the same name.