首頁>> >>讓·雅各·盧梭 Jean-Jacques Rousseau
  在歷史上多得難以數計的自傳作品中,真正有文學價值的顯然並不多,而成為文學名著的則更少。至於以其思想、藝術和風格上的重要意義而奠定了撰寫者的文學地位——不是一個普通的文學席位,而是長久地受人景仰的崇高地位的,也許衹有《懺悔錄》了。讓-雅剋·盧梭這個不論在社會政治思想上,在文學內容、風格和情調上都開闢了一個新的時代的人物,主要就是通過這部自傳推動和啓發了十九世紀的法國文學,使它——用當時很有權威的一位批評傢的話來說——“獲得最大的進步”、“自巴斯喀以來最大的革命”,這位批評傢謙虛地承認:“我們十九世紀的人就是從這次革命裏出來的”。  
  寫自傳總是在晚年,一般都是在功成名就、憂患已成過去的時候,然而對於盧梭來說,他這寫自傳的晚年是怎樣的一個晚年啊!
  一七六二年,他五十歲,刊印他的著作的書商,阿姆斯特丹的馬爾剋-米謝爾·雷伊,建議他寫一部自傳。毫無疑問,象他這樣一個平民出身、走過了漫長的坎坷的道路、通過自學和個人奮鬥居然成為知識界的巨子、名聲傳遍整個法國的人物,的確最宜於寫自傳作品了,何況在他的生活經歷中還充滿了五光十色和戲劇性。但盧梭並沒有接受這個建議,顯然是因為自傳將會牽涉到一些當時的人和事,而盧梭是不願意這樣做的。情況到《愛彌兒》出版後有了變化,大理院下令焚燒這部觸怒了封建統治階級的作品,並要逮捕作者,從此,他被當作“瘋子”、“野蠻人”而遭到緊追不捨的迫害,開始了逃亡的生活。他逃到瑞士,瑞士當局也下令燒他的書,他逃到普魯士的屬地莫蒂亞,教會發表文告宣佈他是上帝的敵人,他沒法繼續呆下去,又流亡到聖彼得島。對他來說,官方的判决和教會的譴責已經是夠嚴酷的了,更沉重的一擊又接障而來:一七六五年出現了一本題名為《公民們的感情》的小册子,對盧梭的個人生活和人品進行了攻擊,令人痛心的是,這一攻擊並不是來自敵人的營壘,而顯然是友軍之所為。盧梭眼見自己有被抹得漆黑、成為一個千古罪人的危險,迫切感到有為自己辯護的必要,於是在這一年,當他流亡在莫蒂亞的時候,他懷着悲憤的心情開始寫他的自傳。
  整個自傳是在顛沛流離的逃亡生活中斷斷續續完成的。在莫蒂埃和皮埃爾島時,他僅僅寫了第一章,逃到英國的武通後,他完成了第一章到第五章前半部分,第五章到第六章則是他回到法國後,一七六七年住在特利堡時完成的,這就是《懺悔錄》的第一部。經過兩年的中斷,他於一七六九年又開始寫自傳的第七章至第十二章,即《懺悔錄》的第二部,其中大部分是他逃避在外省的期間寫出來的,衹有末尾一章完成於他回到了巴黎之後,最後“竣工”的日期是一七七年十一月。此後,他在孤獨和不幸中活了將近八年,繼續寫了自傳的續篇《一個孤獨的散步者的夢想》。
  《懺悔錄》就是盧梭悲慘的晚年的産物,如果要舉出他那些不幸歲月中最重要的、甚至是唯一的內容,那就是這一部摻合着辛酸的書了。這樣一部在殘酷迫害下寫成的自傳,一部在四面受敵的情況下為自己的存在辯護的自傳,怎麽會不充滿一種逼人的悲憤?它那著名的開篇,一下子就顯出了這種悲憤所具有的震撼人心的力量: 這是世界上絶無僅有、也許永遠不會再有的一幅完全依照本來面目和全部事實描繪出來的人像。不管你是誰,衹要我的命運或我的信任使你成為這本書的裁判人,那麽我將為了我的苦難,仗着你的惻隱之心,並以全人類的名義懇求你,不要抹煞這部有用的獨特的著作,它可以作為關於人的研究——這門學問無疑尚有待於創建——的第一份參考材料;也不要為了照顧我身後的名聲,埋沒這部關於我的末被敵人歪麯的性格的唯一可靠記載。最後,即使你曾經是我的一個不共戴天的敵人,也請你對我的遺骸不要抱任何敵意,不要把你的殘酷無情的不公正行為堅持到你我都已不復生存的時代,這樣,你至少能夠有一次高貴的表現,即當你本來可以兇狠地進行報復時,你卻表現得寬宏大量;如果說,加害於一個從來不曾或不願傷害別人的人,也可以稱之為報復的話。
  
  作者簡介
  讓-雅剋·盧梭
  盧梭面對着種種譴責和污衊、中傷和麯解,自信他比那些迫害和攻擊他的大人先生、正人君子們來得高尚純潔、誠實自然,一開始就嚮自己的時代社會提出了勇敢的挑戰:“不管末日審判的號角什麽時候吹響。我都敢拿着這本書走到至高無上的審判者面前,果敢地大聲說:‘請看!這就是我所做過的,這就是我所想過的,我當時就是那樣的人……請你把那無數的衆生叫到我跟前來!讓他們聽聽我的懺悔……然後,讓他們每一個人在您的寶座前面,同樣真誠地披露自己的心靈,看有誰敢於對您說:我比這個人好,’”
  這定下了全書的論辯和對抗的基調。在這對抗的基調後面,顯然有着一種激烈的衝突,即盧梭與社會的衝突,這種衝突决不是産生於偶然的事件和糾葛,而是有着深刻的社會階級根由的。
  盧梭這一個鐘錶匠的兒子,從民主政體的日內瓦走到封建專製主義之都巴黎,從下層人民中走進了法蘭西思想界,象他這樣一個身上帶着塵土、經常衣食無着的流浪漢,和整個貴族上流社會當然是兩個不同的世界,即使和同一營壘的其他啓蒙思想傢孟德斯鳩、伏爾泰、狄德羅也有很大的不同。孟德斯鳩作為一個擁有自己的莊園、同時經營工商業的穿袍貴族,一生過着安逸的生活;伏爾泰本人就是一個大資産者,傢有萬貫之財,一直是在社會上層活動;狄德羅也是出身於富裕的家庭,他雖然也過過清貧的日子,畢竟沒有盧梭那種直接來自社會底層的經歷。盧梭當過學徒、僕人、夥計、隨從,象乞丐一樣進過收容所,衹是在經過長期勤奮的自學和個人奮鬥之後,纔逐漸脫掉聽差的號衣,成了音樂教師、秘書、職業作傢。這就使他有條件把這個階層的情緒、願望和精神帶進十八世紀的文學。他第一篇引起全法蘭西矚目的論文《論科學與藝術》(1750)中那種對封建文明一筆否定的勇氣,那種敢於反對“人人尊敬的事物”的戰鬥精神和傲視傳統觀念的叛逆態度,不正反映了社會下層那種激烈的情緒?奠定了他在整個歐洲思想史上崇高地位的《論人類不平等的起源和基礎》(1775)和《民約論》(1762)對社會不平等和奴役的批判,對平等、自由的歌頌,對“主權在民”原則的宣傳,不正體現了十八世紀平民階層在政治上的要求和理想?他那使得“洛陽紙貴”的小說《新愛洛伊絲》又通過一個愛情悲劇為優秀的平民人物爭基本人權,而帶給他悲慘命運的《愛彌兒》則把平民勞動者當作人的理想。因此,當盧梭登上了十八世紀思想文化的歷史舞臺的時候,他也就填補了那個在歷史上長期空着的平民思想傢的席位。
  但盧梭所生活的時代社會,對一個平民思想傢來說,是完全敵對的。從他開始發表第一篇論文的五十年代到他完成《懺悔錄》的七十年代,正是法國封建專製主義最後掙紮的時期,他逝世後十一年就爆發了資産階級革命。這個時期,有幾百年歷史的封建主義統治已經到了山窮水盡的境地。長期以來,封建生産關係所固有的矛盾、沉重的封建壓榨已經使得民不聊生,農業生産低落;對新教徒的宗教迫害驅使大量熟練工匠外流,導致了工商業的凋敝;路易十四晚年一連串對外戰爭和宮廷生活的奢侈浪費又使國庫空虛;路易十五醉生夢死的荒淫更把封建國傢推到了全面破産的邊緣,以致到路易十六的時候,某些改良主義的嘗試也無法輓救必然毀滅的命運了。這最後的年代是腐朽、瘋狂的年代,封建貴族統治階級愈是即將滅頂,愈是頑固地要維護自己的特權和統治。杜爾果當上財政總監後,提出了一些旨在輓救危機的改良主義措施,因而觸犯了貴族特權階級的利益,很快就被趕下了臺。他的繼任者內剋僅僅把宮廷龐大的開支公之於衆,觸怒了宮廷權貴,也遭到免職。既然自上而下的旨在維護封建統治根本利益的改良主義也不為特權階級所容許,那麽,自下而上的反對和對抗當然更要受到鎮壓。封建專製主義的鼎盛雖然已經一去不復返,但專製主義的淫威這時並不稍減。伏爾泰和狄德羅都進過監獄,受過迫害。這是十八世紀思想傢的命運和標志。等待着思想傢盧梭的,就正是這種社會的和階級的必然性,何況這個來自民間的人物,思想更為激烈,態度更為孤傲:他居然拒絶國王的接見和賜給年金;他竟然表示厭惡巴黎的繁華和上流社會的奢侈;他還膽敢對“高貴的等級”進行如此激烈的指責:“貴族,這在一個國傢裏衹不過是有害而無用的特權,你們如此誇耀的貴族頭銜有什麽可令人尊敬的?你們貴族階級對祖國的光榮、人類的幸福有什麽貢獻!你們是法律和自由的死敵,凡是在貴族階級顯赫不可一世的國傢,除了專製的暴力和對人民的壓迫以外還有什麽?”
  
  著作內容梗概與淺析
  《懺海錄》就是這樣一個激進的平民思想傢與反動統治激烈衝突的結果。它是一個平民知識分子在封建專製壓迫面前維護自己不僅是作為一個人、更重要的是作為一個普通人的人權和尊嚴的作品,是對統治階級迫害和污衊的反擊。它首先使我們感到可貴的是,其中充滿了平民的自信、自重和驕傲,總之,一種高昂的平民精神。
  由於作者的經歷,他有條件在這部自傳裏展示一個平民的世界,使我們看到十八世紀的女僕、聽差、農民、小店主、下層知識分子以及盧梭自己的平民傢族:鐘錶匠、技師、小資産階級婦女。把這樣多的平民形象帶進十八世紀文學,在盧梭之前衹有勒·薩日。但勒·薩日在《吉爾·布拉斯》中往往衹是把這些人物當作不斷蔓延的故事情節的一部分,限於描寫他們的外部形象。盧梭在《懺悔錄》中則完全不同,他所註重的是這些平民人物的思想感情、品質、人格和性格特點,雖然《懺悔錄》對這些人物的形貌的描寫是很不充分的,但卻足以使讀者瞭解十八世紀這個階層的精神狀況、道德水平、愛好與興趣、願望與追求。在這裏,盧梭致力於發掘平民的精神境界中一切有價值的東西:自然淳樸的人性、值得贊美的道德情操、出色的聰明才智和健康的生活趣味等等。他把他平民家庭中那親切寧靜的柔情描寫得多麽動人啊,使它在那冰冷無情的社會大海的背景上,象是一個始終召喚着他的溫情之島。他筆下的農民都是一些樸實的形象,特別是那個冒着被稅吏發見後就會被逼得破産的拿出豐盛食物款待他的農民,表現了多麽高貴的慷慨;他遇到的那個小店主是那麽忠厚和富有同情心,竟允許一個素不相識的流浪者在他店裏騙吃了一頓飯;他親密的夥伴、華倫夫人的男僕阿奈不僅人格高尚,而且有廣博的學識和出色的才幹;此外,還有“善良的小夥子”平民樂師勒·麥特爾、他的少年流浪漢朋友 “聰明的巴剋勒”、可憐的女僕“和善、聰明和絶對誠實的”瑪麗永,他們在那惡濁的社會環境裏也都發散出了清新的氣息,使盧梭對他們一直保持着美好的記憶。另一方面,盧梭又以不加掩飾的厭惡和鄙視追述了他所遇見的統治階級和上流社會中的各種人物:“羹匙”貴族的後裔德·彭維爾先生“不是個有德的人”;首席法官西蒙先生是“一個不斷嚮貴婦們獻殷勤的小猴子”;教會人物幾乎都有“偽善或厚顔無恥的醜態”,其中還有不少淫邪的色情狂;貴婦人的習氣是輕浮和寡廉鮮恥,有的“名聲很壞”;至於巴黎的權貴,無不道德淪喪、性情刁鑽、偽善陰險。在盧梭的眼裏,平民的世界遠比上流社會來得高尚、優越。早在第一篇論文中,他就進行過這樣的對比:“衹有在莊稼人的粗布衣服下面,而不是在廷臣的綉金衣服下面,才能發現有力的身軀。裝飾與德行是格格不入的,因為德行是靈魂的力量。”這種對“布衣”的崇尚,對權貴的貶責,在《懺悔錄》裏又有了再一次的發揮,他這樣總結說:“為什麽我年輕的時候遇到了這樣多的好人,到我年紀大了的時候,好人就那樣少了呢?是好人絶種了嗎?不是的,這是由於我今天需要找好人的社會階層已經不再是我當年遇到好人的那個社會階層了。在一般平民中間,雖然衹偶爾流露熱情,但自然情感卻是隨時可以見到的。在上流社會中,則連這種自然情感也完全窒息了。他們在情感的幌子下,衹受利益或虛榮心的支配。”盧梭自傳中強烈的平民精神,使他在文學史上獲得了他所獨有的特色,法國人自己說得好:“沒有一個作傢象盧梭這樣善於把窮人表現得卓越不凡。”
  當然,《懺悔錄》中那種平民的自信和驕傲,主要還是表現在盧梭對自我形象的描繪上。儘管盧梭受到了種種責難和攻擊,但他深信在自己的“布衣”之下,比“廷臣的綉金衣服”下面更有“靈魂”和“力量”。在我們看來,實際上也的確如此。他在那個充滿了虛榮的社會裏,敢於公開表示自己對於下層、對於平民的深情,不以自己“低賤”的出身、不以他過去的貧寒睏頓為恥,而宣佈那是他的幸福年代,他把淳樸自然視為自己貧賤生活中最可寶貴的財富,他驕傲地展示自己生活中那些為高貴者的生活所不具有的健康的、閃光的東西以及他在貧賤生活中所獲得、所保持着的那種精神上、節操上的丰采。
  他告訴讀者,他從自己那充滿真摯溫情的平民家庭中獲得了“一顆多情的心”,雖然他把這視為“一生不幸的根源”,但一直以他“溫柔多情”、具有真情實感而自豪;他又從“淳樸的農村生活”中得到了“不可估量的好處”,“心裏豁然開朗,懂得了友情”,雖然他後來也做過不夠朋友的事,但更多的時候是在友情與功利之間選擇了前者,甚至為了和流浪少年巴剋勒的友誼而高唱着“再見吧,都城,再見吧,宮廷、野心、虛榮心,再見吧,愛情和美人”,離開了為他提供“飛黃騰達” 的機遇的古豐伯爵。
  他過着貧窮的生活,卻有自己豐富的精神世界。他很早就對讀書“有一種罕有的興趣”,即使是在當學徒的時候,也甘冒受懲罰的危險而堅持讀書,甚至為了得到書籍而當掉了自己的襯衫和領帶。他博覽群書,從古希臘、羅馬的經典著作一直到當代的啓蒙論著,從文學、歷史一直到自然科學讀物,長期的讀書生活喚起了他“更高尚的感情”,形成了他高出於上層階級的精神境界。
  他熱愛知識,有着令人敬佩的好學精神,他學習勤奮刻苦,表現出“難以置信的毅力”。在流浪中,他堅持不懈;疾病纏身時,他也沒有中斷;“死亡的逼近不但沒有削弱我研究學問的興趣,似乎反而更使我興致勃勃地研究起學問來”。他為獲得更多的知識,總是最大限度地利用他的時間,勞動的時候背誦,散步的時候構思。經過長期的努力,他在數學、天文學、歷史、地理、哲學和音樂等各個領域積纍了廣博的學識,為自己創造了作為一個思想傢、一個文化巨人所必須具備的條件。他富有進取精神,學會了音樂基本理論,又進一步嘗試作麯,讀了伏爾泰的作品,又産生了“要學會用優雅的風格寫文章的願望”;他這樣艱苦地攀登,終於達到當代文化的高峰。
  他生活在充滿虛榮和奢侈的社會環境中,卻保持了清高的態度,把貧富置之度外,“一生中的任何時候,從沒有過因為考慮貧富問題而令我心花怒放或憂心忡仲。” 他比那些庸人高出許多倍,不愛慕榮華富貴,不追求顯赫聞達,“在那一生難忘的坎坷不平和變化無常的遭遇中”,也“始終不變”。巴黎“一切真正富麗堂皇的情景”使他反感,他成名之後,也“不願意在這個都市長久居住下去”,他之所以在這裏居住了一個時期,“衹不過是利用我的逗留來尋求怎樣能夠遠離此地而生活下去的手段而已。”他在惡濁的社會環境中,雖不能完全做到出污泥而不染,但在關鍵的時刻,在重大的問題上,卻難能可貴地表現出高尚的節操。他因為自己“人格高尚,决不想用卑鄙手段去發財”,而拋掉了當訟棍的前程,宮廷演出他的歌舞劇《鄉村卜師》時邀他出席,他故意不修邊幅以示怠慢,顯出“布衣”的本色,國王要接見並賜給他年金,他為了潔身自好,保持人格獨立而不去接受。
  他處於反動黑暗的封建統治之下,卻具有“倔強豪邁以及不肯受束縛受奴役的性格”,敢於“在巴黎成為專製君主政體的反對者和堅定的共和派”。他眼見“不幸的人民遭受痛苦”,“對壓迫他們的人”又充滿了“不可遏製的痛恨”,他鼓吹自由,反對奴役,宣稱“無論在什麽事情上,約束、屈從都是我不能忍受的”。他雖然反對法國的封建專製,並且在這個國傢裏受到了“政府、法官、作傢聯合在一起的瘋狂攻擊”,但他對法蘭西的歷史文化始終懷着深厚的感情,對法蘭西民族寄予了堅強的信念,深信“有一天他們會把我從苦惱的羈絆中解救出來”。
  十八世紀貴族社會是一片淫靡之風,盧梭與那種寡廉鮮恥、耽於肉欲的享樂生活劃清了界綫。他把婦女當作一種美來加以贊賞,當作一種施以溫情的對象,而不是玩弄和占有的對象。他對愛情也表示了全新的理解,他崇尚男女之間真誠深摯的情感,特別重視感情的高尚和純潔,認為彼此之間的關係應該是這樣的:“它不是基於情欲、性別、年齡、容貌,而是基於人之所以為人的那一切,除非死亡,就絶不能喪失的那一切”,也就是說,應該包含着人類一切美好高尚的東西。他在生活中追求的是一種深摯、持久、超乎功利和肉欲的柔情,有時甚至近乎天真無邪、純潔透明,他戀愛的時候,感情豐富而熱烈,同時又對對方保持着愛護、尊重和體貼。他與華倫夫人長期過着一種純淨的愛情生活,那種誠摯的性質在十八世紀的社會生活中是很難見到的。他與葛萊芬麗小姐和加蕾小姐的一段邂逅,是多麽充滿稚氣而又散發出迷人的青春的氣息!他與巴西勒太太之間的一段感情又是那樣溫馨而又潔淨無瑕!他與年輕姑娘麥爾賽萊一道作了長途旅行,始終“坐懷不亂”。他有時也成為情欲的奴隸而逢場作戲,但不久就出於道德感而拋棄了這種遊戲。
  他與封建貴族階級對奢侈豪華、繁文縟節的愛好完全相反,保持着健康的、美好的生活趣味。他熱愛音樂,喜歡唱歌,抄樂譜既是他謀生的手段,也是他寄托精神之所在,舉辦音樂會,更是他生活中的樂趣。他對優美的麯調是那麽動心,童年時聽到的麯調清新的民間歌謠一直使他悠然神往,當他已經是一個“飽受焦慮和苦痛折磨”的老人,有時還“用顫巍巍的破嗓音哼着這些小調”,“怎麽也不能一氣唱到底而不被自己的眼淚打斷”。他對繪畫也有熱烈的興趣,“可以在畫筆和鉛筆之間一連呆上幾個月不出門”。他還喜歡喂鴿養蜂,和這些有益的動物親切地相處,喜歡在葡萄熟了的時候到田園裏去分享農人收穫的愉快。他是法國文學中最早對大自然表示深沉的熱愛的作傢。他到一處住下,就關心窗外是否有“一片田野的緑色”;逢到景色美麗的黎明,就趕快跑到野外去觀看日出。他為了到洛桑去欣賞美麗的湖水,不惜繞道而行,即使旅費短缺。他也是最善於感受大自然之美的鑒賞傢,優美的夜景就足以使他忘掉餐風宿露的困苦了。他是文學中徒步旅行的發明者,喜歡 “在天朗氣清的日子裏,不慌不忙地在景色宜人的地方信步而行”,在這種旅行中享受着“田野的風光,接連不斷的秀麗景色,清新的空氣,由於步行而帶來的良好食欲和飽滿精神……”
  《懺悔錄》就這樣呈現出一個淳樸自然、豐富多彩、朝氣蓬勃的平民形象。正因為這個平民本身是一個代表人物,構成了十八世紀思想文化領域裏一個重大的社會現象,所以《懺悔錄》無疑是十八世紀歷史中極為重要的思想材料。它使後人看到了一個思想傢的成長、發展和內心世界,看到一個站在正面指導時代潮流的歷史人物所具有的強有力的方面和他精神上、道德上所發出的某種詩意的光輝。這種力量和光輝最終當然來自這個形象所代表的下層人民和他所體現的歷史前進的方向。總之,是政治上、思想上、道德上的反封建性質决定了《懺悔錄》和其中盧梭自我形象的積極意義,决定了它們在思想發展史上、文學史上的重要價值。
  假如盧梭對自我形象的描述僅止於以上這些,後人對他也可以滿足了,無權提出更多的要求。它們作為十八世紀反封建的思想材料不是已經相當夠了嗎?不是已經具有社會階級的意義並足以與蒙田在《隨感集》中對自己的描寫具有同等的價值嗎?但是,盧梭做得比這更多,走得更遠,他遠遠超過了蒙田,他的《懺悔錄》有着更為復雜得多的內容。
  盧梭在《懺悔錄》的另一個稿本中,曾經批評了過去寫自傳的人“總是要把自己喬裝打扮一番,名為自述,實為自贊,把自己寫成他所希望的那樣,而不是他實際上的那樣”。十六世紀的大散文傢蒙田在《隨感集》中不就是這樣嗎?雖然也講了自己的缺點,卻把它們寫得相當可愛。盧俊對蒙田頗不以為然,他針鋒相對地提出了一個哲理性的警句:“沒有可憎的缺點的人是沒有的。”這既是他對人的一種看法,也是他對自己的一種認識。認識這一點並不太睏難,但要公開承認自己也是“有可憎的缺點”,特別是敢於把這種“可憎的缺點”披露出來,卻需要絶大的勇氣。人貴有自知之明、嚴於解剖自己,至今不仍是一種令人敬佩的美德嗎?顯然,在盧梭之前,文學史上還沒有出現過這樣一個有勇氣的作傢,於是,盧梭以藐視前人的自豪,在《懺悔錄》的第一段就這樣宣佈:“我現在要做一項既無先例、將來也不會有人仿效的艱巨工作。我要把一個人的真實面目赤裸裸地揭露在世人面前。這個人就是我。”
  盧梭實踐了他自己的這一諾言,他在《懺悔錄》中的確以真誠坦率的態度講述了他自己的全部生活和思想感情、性格人品的各個方面,“既沒有隱瞞絲毫壞事,也沒有增添任何好事……當時我是卑鄙齷齪的,就寫我的卑鄙齷齪;當時我是善良忠厚、道德高尚的,就寫我的善良忠厚和道德高尚”。他大膽地把自己不能見人的隱私公之於衆,他承認自己在這種或那種情況下産生過一些卑劣的念頭,甚至有過下流的行徑。他說過謊,行過騙,調戲過婦女,偷過東西,甚至有偷竊的習慣。他以沉重的心情懺悔自己在一次偷竊後把罪過轉嫁到女僕瑪麗永的頭上,造成了她的不幸,懺悔自己在關鍵時刻卑劣地拋棄了最需要他的朋友勒·麥特爾,懺悔自己為了混一口飯吃而背叛了自己的新教信仰,改奉了天主教。應該承認,《懺悔錄》的坦率和真誠達到了令人想象不到的程度,這使它成了文學史上的一部奇書。在這裏,作者的自我形象並不衹是發射出理想的光輝,也不衹是裹在意識形態的詩意裏,而是呈現出了驚人的真實。在他身上,既有崇高優美,也有卑劣醜惡,既有堅強和力量,也有軟弱和怯懦,既有樸實真誠,也有弄虛作假,既有精神和道德的美,也有某種市並無賴的習氣。總之。這不是為了要享受歷史的光榮而繪製出來的塗滿了油彩的畫像,而是一個活生生的復雜的個人。這個自我形象的復雜性就是《懺悔錄》的復雜性,同時也是《懺悔錄》另具一種價值的原因。這種價值不僅在於它寫出了驚人的人性的真實,是歷史上第一部這樣真實的自傳,提供了非常寶貴的、用盧梭自己的話來說,“可以作為關於人的研究——這門學問無疑尚有待於創建——的第一份參考材料;”而且它的價值還在於,作者之所以這樣做,是有着深刻的思想動機和哲理作為指導的。
  盧梭追求絶對的真實,把自己的缺點和過錯完全暴露出來,最直接的動機和意圖,顯然是要闡述他那著名的哲理:人性本善,但罪惡的社會環境卻使人變壞。他現身說法,講述自己“本性善良”、家庭環境充滿柔情,古代歷史人物又給了他崇高的思想,“我本來可以聽從自己的性格,在我的宗教、我的故鄉、我的家庭、我的朋友間,在我所喜愛的工作中,在稱心如意的交際中,平平靜靜、安安逸逸地度過自己的一生。我將會成為善良的基督教徒、善良的公民、善良的傢長、善良的朋友、善良的勞動者。”但社會環境的惡濁,人與人之間關係的不平等,卻使他也受到了沾染,以至在這寫自傳的晚年還有那麽多揪心的悔恨。他特別指出了社會不平等的危害,在這裏,他又一次表現了他在《論人類不平等的起源和基礎》中的思想,把社會生活中的不平等視為正常人性的對立面,並力圖通過他自己的經歷,揭示出這種不平等對人性的摧殘和歪麯。他是如何“從崇高的英雄主義墮落為卑鄙的市並無賴”呢?正是他所遇到的不平等、不公正的待遇,正是“強者”的“暴虐專橫”, “摧殘了我那溫柔多情、天真活潑的性格”,並“使我染上自己痛恨的一些惡習,諸如撒謊、怠惰、偷竊等等”。以偷竊而言,它就是社會不平等在盧梭身上造成的惡果。盧梭提出一個問題:如果人是處於一種“平等、無憂無慮的狀態”中,“所希望的又可以得到滿足的話”,那麽又怎麽會有偷竊呢?既然“作惡的強者逍遙法外,無辜的弱者遭殃,普天下皆是如此”,那麽怎麽能夠製止偷竊的罪行呢?對弱者的懲罰不僅無濟於事,反而更激起反抗,盧梭在自己小偷小摸被發現後經常挨打,“漸漸對挨打也就不在乎了”,甚至“覺得這是抵消偷竊罪行的一種方式,我倒有了繼續偷竊的權利了……我心裏想,既然按小偷來治我,那就等於認可我作小偷”。盧梭在通過自己的經歷來分析不平等的弊害時,又用同樣的方法來揭示金錢的腐蝕作用,他告訴讀者:“我不但從來不象世人那樣看重金錢,甚至也從來不曾把金錢看做多麽方便的東西”,而認定金錢是“煩惱的根源”。然而,金錢的作用卻又使他不得不把金錢看作“是保持自由的一種工具”,使他“害怕囊空如洗”,這就在他身上造成了這樣一種矛盾的習性:“對金錢的極端吝惜與無比鄙視兼而有之”。因此,他也曾“偷過七個利物爾零十個蘇”,並且在錢財方面不時起過一些卑劣的念頭,如眼見華倫夫人揮霍浪費、有破産的危險,他就想偷偷摸摸建立起自己的“小金庫”,但一看無濟於事,就改變做法,“好像一隻從屠宰場出來的狗,既然保不住那塊肉,就不如叼走我自己的那一分。”從這些敘述裏,除了可以看到典型盧梭式的嚴酷無情的自我剖析外,就是非常出色的關於社會環境與人性惡的互相關係的辯證法的思想了。在這裏,自我批評和懺悔導嚮了對社會的譴責和控訴,對人性惡的挖掘轉化成了嚴肅的社會批判。正因為這種批判是結合着盧梭自己痛切的經驗和體會,所以也就更為深刻有力,它與盧梭在《論人類不平等的起源和基礎》中對於財産不平等、社會政治不平等的批判完全一脈相承,這一部論著以其傑出的思想曾被恩格斯譽為“辯證法的傑作”。
  
  著作思想
  盧梭用坦率的風格寫自傳,不回避他身上的人性惡,更為根本的原因還在於他的思想體係。他顯然並不把坦露自己、包括坦露自己的缺點過錯視為一種苦刑,倒是為深信這是一個創舉而自詡。在他看來,人具有自己的本性,人的本性中包括了人的一切自然的要求,如對自由的嚮往、對異性的追求、對精美物品的愛好,等等。正如他把初民的原始淳樸的狀態當作人類美好的黃金時代一樣,他又把人身上一切原始的本能的要求當作了正常的、自然的東西全盤加以肯定。甚至在他眼裏,這些自然的要求要比那些經過矯飾的文明化的習性更為正常合理。在盧梭的哲學裏,既然人在精美的物品面前不可能無動於衷,不,更應該有一種鑒賞傢的熱情,那麽,出於這種不尋常的熱情,要“自由支配那些小東西”,又算得了什麽過錯呢?因此,他在《懺悔錄》中幾乎是用與“懺悔”絶緣的平靜的坦然的語調告訴讀者:“直到現在,我有時還偷一點我所心愛的小玩藝兒”,完全無視從私有製産生以來就成為道德箴言的“勿偷竊”這個原則,這是他思想體係中的一條綫索。另一條綫索是:他與天主教神學相反。不是把人看作是受神奴役的對象,而是把人看成是自主的個體,人自主行動的動力則是感情,他把感情提到了一個重要的地位,認為“先有感覺,後有思考”是“人類共同的命運”。因此,感情的真摯流露、感情用事和感情放任,在他看來就是人類本性純樸自然的表現了。請看,他是如何深情地回憶他童年時和父親一道,那麽“興致勃勃”地閱讀小說,通宵達旦,直到第二天清晨聽到了燕子的呢喃,他是多麽欣賞他父親這種“孩子氣”啊!這一類感情的自然流露和放任不羈,就是盧梭哲學體係中的個性自由和個性解放。盧梭無疑是十八世紀中把個性解放的號角吹得最響的一個思想傢,他提倡絶對的個性自由,反對宗教信條和封建道德法規的束縛,他傲視一切地宣稱,那個時代的習俗、禮教和偏見都不值一顧,並把自己描繪成這樣一個典型,宣揚他以個人為中心、以個人的感情、興趣、意志為出發點、一任興之所至的人生態度。這些就是他在《懺悔錄》中的思想的核心,這也是他在自傳中力求忠於自己、不裝假、披露一切的根本原因。而由於所有這一切,他的這部自傳自然也就成為一部最活生生的個性解放的宣言書了。
  盧梭雖然出身於社會的下層,但在當時的歷史條件下,他的思想體係不可能超出資産階級的範圍,他在《懺悔錄》中所表現的思想,其階級性質是我們所熟悉的,它就是和當時封建思想體係相對立的資産階級人道主義的思想。一切以時間、地點、條件為轉移。這種思想在歷史發展過程中、在當時十八世紀,顯然具有非常革命的意義。它以宗教世界觀為對立面,主張以人為本,反對神學對人的精神統治,它從人這個本體出發,把自由、平等視為人的自然本性,反對封建的奴役和壓榨,在整個資産階級反封建的歷史時期裏,起着啓迪人們的思想、摧毀封建主義的意識形態、為歷史的發展開闢道路的作用。然而,這種思想體係畢竟是一個剝削階級代替另一個剝削階級、一種私有製代替另一種私有製的歷史階段的産物,帶有歷史的和階級的局限性。因而,我們在《懺悔錄》中可以看到,盧梭在與宗教的“神道”對立、竭力推崇自己身上的“人性”、肯定自己作為人的自然要求的同時,又把自己的某些資産階級性當作正當的“人性”加以肯定;他在反對宗教對人的精神奴役、肯定自我活動的獨立自主性和感情的推動作用的同時,又把自己一些低劣的衝動和趣味美化為符合“人性”的東西。他所提倡的個性自由顯然太至高無上了,充滿了濃厚的個人主義的味道;他重視和推崇人的感情,顯然又走嚮了極端,而成為了感情放縱。總之,這裏的一切既表現了反封建反宗教的積極意義,又暴露了資産階級意識形態的本質。
  盧梭並不是最先提出資産階級人道主義思想的思想傢,在這個思想體係發展的過程中,他衹是一個環節。早在文藝復興時代,處於萌芽階段的資本主義關係就為這種意識形態的産生提供了土壤,這種思想體係的主要方面和主要原則,從那時起,就逐漸在歷史的過程中被一係列思想傢、文學家充實完備起來了。雖然盧梭衹是其中的一個階段,卻無疑標志着一個新的階段。他的新貢獻在於,他把資産階級人道主義的基本原則進一步具體化為自由、平等的社會政治要求,為推翻已經過時的封建主義的統治的鬥爭,提供了最響亮、最打動人心的思想口號。他還較多地反映了平民階級、也就是第三等級中較為下層的群衆的要求,提出了“社會契約”的學說,為資産階級革命後共和主義的政治藍圖提供了理論基礎。這巨大的貢獻使他日後在法國大革命中被民主派、激進派等奉為精神導師,他的思想推動了歷史的前進。這是他作為思想傢的光榮。在文學中,他的影響似乎也並不更小,如果要在他給法國文學所帶來的多方面的新意中指出其主要者的話,那就應該說是他的作品中那種充分的“自我”意識和強烈的個性解放的精神了。
  “自我”意識和個性解放是資産階級文學的特有財産,它在封建貴族階級的文學裏是沒有的。在封建主義之下,個性往往消融在傢族和國傢的觀念裏。資本主義關係産生後,隨着自由競爭而來的,是個性自由這一要求的提出,人逐漸從封建束縛中解脫出來,纔有可能提出個性解放這一觀念和自我意識這種感受。這個新的主題在文學中真正豐富起來,在法國是經過了一兩百年。十六世紀的拉伯雷僅僅通過一個烏托邦的德廉美修道院,對此提出了一些懂憬和願望,遠遠沒有和現實結合起來;十七世紀的作傢高乃依在《勒·熙德》裏,給個性和愛情自由的要求留下了一定的地位,但也是在國傢的利益、傢族的榮譽所允許的範圍裏;在莫裏哀的筆下,那些追求自由生活的年輕人的確帶來了個性解放的活力,但與此並存的,也有作傢關於中常之道的說教。到了盧梭這裏,發生了根本的變化,是他,第一次把個性自由的原則和“自我”提到如此高的地位;是他,以那樣充足的感情,表現出了個性解放不可阻擋的力量,表現出“自我”那種根本不把傳統觀念、道德法規、價值標準放在眼裏的勇氣;是他,第一個通過一個現實的人,而且就是他自己,表現出一個全面體現了資産階級人道主義精神的資産階級個性;是他,第一個以那樣駭世驚俗的大膽,如此真實地展示了這個資産階級個性“我”有時象天空一樣純淨高遠、有時象陰溝一樣骯髒惡濁的全部內心生活;也是他,第一個那麽深入地挖掘了這種資産階級個性與社會現實的矛盾以及他那種敏銳而痛苦的感受。由於所有這些理由,即使我們不說《懺悔錄》是發動了一場“革命”,至少也應該說是帶來了一次重大的突破。這種思想內容和風格情調的創新,是資本主義的發展在文學中的必然結果,如果不是由盧梭來完成的話,也一定會有另一個人來完成的。唯其如此,盧梭所創新的這一切,在資産階級反封建鬥爭高漲的歷史階段,就成為了一種典型的、具有表徵意義的東西而對後來者産生了啓迪和引導的作用。它們被效法,被模仿,即使後來者並不想師法盧梭,但也跳不出盧梭所開闢的這一片“個性解放”、“自我意識”、“感情發揚”的新天地了。如果再加上盧梭第一次引入文學的對大自然美的熱愛和欣賞,對市民階級家庭生活親切而溫柔的感受,那麽,幾乎就可以說,《懺悔錄》在某種程度上是十九世紀法國文學靈感的一個源泉了。
  《懺悔錄》前六章第一次公之於世,是一七八一年,後六章是一七八八年。這時,盧梭已經不在人間。幾年以後,在資産階級革命高潮中,巴黎舉行了一次隆重的儀式,把一個遺體移葬在偉人公墓,這就是《懺悔錄》中的那個“我”。當年,這個“我”在寫這部自傳的時候,無論如何也不會想到有一天會獲得這樣巨大的哀榮。當他把自己一些見不得人的方面也寫了出來的時候,似乎留下了一份很不光彩的歷史記錄,造成了一個相當難看的形象,否定了他作為一個平民思想傢的光輝。然而,他這樣做本身,他這樣做的時候所具有的那種悲憤的力量,那種忠於自己哲學原則的主觀真誠和那種個性自由的衝動,卻又在更高一級的意義上完成了一次“否定之否定”,即否定了那個難看的形象而顯示了一種不同凡響的人格力量。他並不想把自己打扮成歷史偉人,但他卻成了真正的歷史偉人,他的自傳也因為他不想打扮自己而成了此後一切自傳作品中最有價值的一部。如果說,盧梭的論著是辯證法的傑作,那麽;他的事例不是更顯示出一種活生生的、強有力的辯證法嗎?


  Confessions is an autobiographical book by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In modern times, it is often published with the title The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau in order to distinguish it from St. Augustine of Hippo's Confessions, the book from which Jean-Jacques Rousseau took the title for his own book. Covering the first fifty-three years of Rousseau's life, up to 1765, it was completed in 1769, but not published until 1782, four years after Rousseau's death - even though Rousseau did read excerpts of his manuscript publicly at various salons and other meeting places.
  
  The Confessions is divided into two parts, each consisting of six books. Rousseau alludes to a planned third part, but this was never completed. Though the book is somewhat flawed as an autobiography – particularly, Rousseau's dates are frequently off, and some events are out of order – Rousseau provides an account of the experiences that shaped his influential philosophy. For instance, the parts of his own education he liked best are clearly present in his account of ideal education, Emile: Or, On Education.
  
  Rousseau's work is notable as one of the first major autobiographies. Prior to his writing the Confessions, the two great autobiographies were Augustine's own Confessions and Saint Teresa's Life of Herself. Both of these works, however, focused on the religious experiences of their authors. The Confessions was one of the first autobiographies in which an individual wrote of his own life mainly in terms of his worldly experiences and personal feelings. Rousseau recognized the unique nature of his work; it opens with the famous words:
  
   I have resolved on an enterprise which has no precedent, and which, once complete, will have no imitator. My purpose is to display to my kind a portrait in every way true to nature, and the man I shall portray will be myself.
  
  Some scholars believe that his prediction was wide of the mark. Not long after publication many other writers (such as Goethe, Wordsworth and De Quincey) wrote their own similarly-styled autobiographies. However, Leo Damrosch argues that Rousseau meant that it would be impossible to imitate his book, as nobody else would be like Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
  
  The Confessions is also noted for its detailed account of Rousseau's more humiliating and shameful moments. For instance, Rousseau recounts an incident when, while a servant, he covered up his theft of a ribbon by framing a young girl - who was working in the house - for the crime. In addition, Rousseau explains the manner in which he disposes of his five illegitimate children, whom he had with his world-wide known companion, Therese Levasseur.
  愛洛伊絲是法國十二世紀人;她和她的教師阿貝拉相愛,遭到她叔父的反對和暴力幹預。兩人雖未能結為眷屬,但仍互相依戀,書信往還,直到阿貝拉死後為止。愛洛伊絲和阿貝拉相愛的故事,哀豔動人,得到了盧梭的同情。因此,他把他小說中的女主人公朱莉比做愛洛伊絲,將他的小說取名為《朱莉,或新愛洛伊絲》,用醒目的標題,表明書中的女主人公朱莉和十二世紀的愛洛伊絲在愛情上有相似的不幸遭遇。全書的故事,令人悲切:朱莉·德丹治和她的家庭教師聖普樂相愛,大到她父親德丹治男爵的反對。德丹治男爵的封建意識極深,不願把女兒嫁給一個平民。於是,在朱莉的表妹剋萊爾和聖普樂的朋友、英國人愛德華·博姆斯頓的安排下,聖普樂離開朱莉,從瑞士到法國,之後又隨一支英國艦隊到海外遠遊,以期忘掉他和朱莉的感情,而朱莉迫於父命,和一個與她在年齡及宗教信仰上都有極大差距的俄國貴族沃爾瑪結婚。朱莉和聖普樂的愛情是純潔和真誠的;他們雖被迫分離,不能結合在一起,但他們時有書信往還,傾訴真摯的情誼。他們動人的愛情故事,就是通過他們兩人之間,以及他們與剋萊爾、愛德華·博姆斯頓和沃爾瑪之間往來的書信展開的。從全書的結構,就可看出作者對題材的處理獨具匠心。前三捲主要鋪敘朱莉和聖普樂的愛情的發展,後三捲通過他們愛情故事的敘述,盡情謳哥美好的德行,贊美婚姻的神聖,吟哦自然的風光,針砭社會的積弊,對當時的宗教、文化、倫理道德與各國的風土人。情,均有細緻的描寫和探索。全書的語言平易,不變不枝,行雲流水,以文筆清新樸實的美,打動讀者的心。在盧梭的筆下,一部愛情故事,實際上成了一部頌揚善良風尚、匡正民風民俗和描繪大自然的美的散文詩。書中最令人同情和贊美的,是女主人公朱莉和她在愛情上所表現的美德。朱莉和聖普樂都是多倩的。然而,正如聖普樂在緻朱莉的一封信中哀嘆和預言的:“多情的心,是上天賜予的危險的禮物;誰接受了這件禮物,誰就註定要在世上遭受苦難和折磨。”聖普樂始終眷戀着朱莉;而朱莉也沒有忘記她昔日的情侶,同時,作為妻子,她又堅貞地忠實於她的丈夫;她的丈夫沃爾瑪對兩個青年人之間過去的愛也表示充分的理解,並對他們的美德完全信任,把聖普樂接到自己的傢,待以真誠的友誼。後來,朱莉因跳入湖中救她跌落水中的孩子,竟至一病不起。她在臨終前給聖普樂的一封信中說:“使我們兩人在地上分離的美德,將使我們在永生之地結合。”朱莉和聖普樂的愛情的不幸結局,得到了人們的同情,因此,《新愛洛伊絲》一出版,就引起了廣大讀者的共鳴,取得了巨大的成功。
  《新愛洛伊絲》共分六捲,計一百六十三封信,有些信長達數十頁之多,全都圍繞一個鮮明的主題:通過純潔的愛情,建立美好的家庭,進而建立良好的社會。“出自造物主之手的東西,都是好的,而一到了人的手裏,就全變壞了。”這是盧梭在他的另一部著名小說《愛彌兒》中開宗明義的第一句話,它代表了盧梭的全部思想,貫穿了他所有的著作,特別在《新愛洛伊絲》中,通過書中人物的塑造和社會風尚的描繪,早已反復加以表述①。他得出的結論是:要使人成為善良的人,就要有一個良好的社會秩序;衹有從愛美德開始,樹立良好的德行,人類社會才能成為一個合乎自然秩序的社會。為了論證這一點,他在《新愛洛伊絲》中塑造了幾個他心目中的典型。他說:我把愛情和友誼(我心中的兩個偶像)想象成為最動人的形象。我刻意用我歷來崇拜的女性所具有的種種美來裝飾它們。我設想兩個女朋友而不設想兩個男朋友,因為兩個女人之間友愛的事例比較稀少,所以就愈加可愛。我賦予她們兩個相似而不相同的性格,兩個雖不十全十美、但卻合乎我的全好的面容,一看就知道是心地仁慈和富於同情心的人。我讓她們兩人一個是棕發,另一個是金發;一個活潑,另一個文靜;一個頭腦機靈,另一個性格軟弱,但軟弱得楚楚動人,似乎更顯示其賢惠。我讓二人之一有一個情人,而另一個女人又是這個情人的溫柔多情的朋友,甚至還有些超出朋友的程度,但我又不讓她們之間發生爭鳳吃醋和吵鬧嫉妒之事。因為任何令人不快的情感,我都難以想象,同時,我也不願以任何敗壞天性的東西來玷污這幅美妙的圖畫。我愛上了我這兩個嫵媚的模特兒,我盡量想象我就是那個情人和朋友,不過,我把他寫成年輕的和可愛的,另外再加上我覺得我自己具有的美德和缺點。


  Julie, or the New Heloise (French: Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse) is an epistolary novel by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, published in 1761 by Rey (Amsterdam). The original edition was entitled Lettres de deux amans habitans d'une petite ville au pied des Alpes ("Letters from two lovers living in a small town at the foot of the Alps").
  
  The novel’s subtitle points to the history of Heloise and Pierre Abélard, a medieval story of passion and Christian renunciation. The novel was put on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum.
  
  Although Rousseau wrote it as a novel, a philosophical theory about authenticity permeates through it. He explores autonomy and authenticity as moral values. A common interpretation is that Rousseau values the ethics of authenticity over rational moral principles. He also illustrates that you should only do what society asks of you when it's congruent with the "secret principles" and feelings which constitute your core identity. Acting inauthentically is self-destructive.
  《社會契約論》-名書簡介
  
  作者:(法國)盧梭(1712-1788年)
  類型: 政治理論著作
  成書時間:1762年
  《社會契約論》-背景搜索
  
  盧梭出生於瑞士日內瓦一個鐘錶匠家庭,從小失去母親,靠別人撫養教育長大。雖然生活條件艱苦,但他發奮圖強,自學成纔。16歲離傢外出流浪,當過學徒、僕役、私人秘書、樂譜抄寫員。在巴黎,他展現了自己的才華,1750年,盧梭以徵文《論科學與藝術》獲頭等奬而出名。得到了許多上流社會貴婦人的愛慕。這些擁金百萬的貴婦為他供應舒適的生活,給他介紹所需要認識的人,盧梭很快就進入了完全不同的生活圈子。
  
  從 1762年起,盧梭由於寫政論文章,與當局發生了嚴重的糾紛。他的一些同事開始疏遠他,大約就在這個時期,他患了明顯的偏執狂癥。雖然有些人對他表示友好,但他卻采取懷疑和敵視的態度,同他們每個人都爭吵過。他一生的最後20年基本上是在悲慘痛苦中度過的,1778年他在法國邁農維爾去世。
  
  推薦閱讀版本:何兆武譯,商務印書館出版。
  《社會契約論》-內容精要
  
  《社會契約論》全書共分4捲,第一捲主要論述了人類是怎樣由自然狀態過渡到政治狀態的,契約的根本條件是什麽;第二捲主要討論國傢的立法問題;第三捲論述的是政治法即政府的形成;第四捲在繼續討論政治法的同時闡述了鞏固國傢體製的方法,從古羅馬歷史出發論述了主權者意志實現的某些細節。
  
  “人是生而自由的,但卻無往不在枷鎖之中,自以為是其他一切的主人,反而比其他一切更是奴隸。”《社會契約論》的開篇第一句話就提出了這個振聾發聵的觀點。盧梭的這一論斷是在君主專製制度橫行歐洲的時代,針對英國王權專製論代表人物費爾瑪關於“沒有人是生而自由的”這一絶對君主專製制度賴以依存的理論而提出來的。這本書以反對封建專製、倡言民主共和、主張人民主權為其主題和中心內容,提出了富於革命性的憲政理論。
  
  盧梭認為,自由的人們最初生活在自然狀態,人們的行為受自然法支配。自然法以理性為基礎,賦予人類一係列普遍的、永恆的自然權利,即生存、自由、平等、追求幸福、獲得財産和人身、財産不受侵犯的權利。由於自然狀態存在種種弊端,自由的人們以平等的資格訂立契約,從自然狀態下襬脫出來,尋找出一種結合的形式,使它能以全部共同的力量來衛護和保障每個結合者的人身和財富,並且由於這一結合而使每一個與全體相聯合的個人又衹不過是在服從自己本人,並且仍然像以往一樣地自由。這種結合的形式就是國傢。由於國傢是自由的人們以平等的資格訂立契約産生的,人們衹是把自然權利轉讓給整個社會而並不是奉獻給任何個人,因此人民在國傢中仍是自由的,國傢的主權衹能屬於人民。
  
  然後,盧梭進一步闡述了人民主權的原則:主權是不可轉讓的,因為國傢由主權者構成,衹有主權者才能行使主權;主權是不可分割的,因為代表主權的意志是一個整體;主權是不可代表的,因為 “主權在本質上是由公意所構成的,而意志又是絶不可以代表的;它衹能是同一個意志,或者是另一個意志,而絶不能有什麽中間的東西。因此人民的議員就不是、也不可能是人民的代表,他們衹不過是人民的辦事員罷了;他們並不能做出任何肯定的决定”。同時,主權是絶對的、至高無上和不可侵犯的,因為主權是公意的體現,是國傢的靈魂。基於這樣的理論,盧梭反對君主立憲而堅决主張民主共和。
  
  《社會契約論》還論述了一係列法律基本理論,在其中貫穿着以人民主權為中心內容的資産階級民主主義精神。盧梭指出法律是人民公共意志的體現,是人民自己意志的記錄和全體人民為自己所做的規定。法律的特點在於意志的普遍性和對像的普遍性,前者指法律是人民公意的體現,後者指法律考慮的對像是全體的行為而非個別人。
  
  同時,他闡述了法律與自由的關係:首先,法律與自由是一致的,人民服從法律就是服從自己的意志,就意味着自由。其次,法律是自由的保障。一方面,人人遵守法律,才能給人們以享受自由權利的安全保障;另一方面,法律可以強迫人們自由。
  
  此外,盧梭還係統地提出了立法理論。他認為要依法治國就要有理想的法律,在製定法律時必須遵循下列原則:立法必須以謀取人民最大幸福為原則;立法權必須由人民掌握;由賢明者具體承擔立法的責任;立法要註意各種自然的社會條件,法律衹不過是保障、遵循和矯正自然的關係而已;既要保持法律的穩定性,又要適時修改、廢除不好的法律。
  
  “人是生而自由平等的,這是天賦的權利”,《社會契約論》中的這一 理論,開創了歐洲及全世界民主平等思想之先河,它的“人權天賦“,主權在民”的新學說嚮“君權神授”的傳統觀念發起了挑戰。它所揭示的“人權自由、權利平等”的原則,至今仍作為西方政治的基礎。
  《社會契約論》-專傢點評
  
  盧梭是18世紀法國啓蒙運動傑出的政治思想傢、文學家。他的才思文藻風靡了當時的整個歐洲,並為後人留下了一係列劃時代的巨著。很少有幾個哲學家能帶來盧梭著作那樣的震撼。他的《藝術與科學談》獲法國第戎奬,使他榮獲歐洲哲學大師稱號。他的文學名著《新愛洛伊絲》在世界文學史上有着很高地位,使他躋身於啓蒙時期著名文學家的行列。《社會契約論》又譯作《民約論》是他最為傑出的代表作之一,被譽為“人類解放的第一個呼聲,世界大革命的第一個煽動者”。盧梭是歐洲啓蒙運動中重要的思想傢,與伏爾泰齊名。他的主要作品有《懺悔錄》、《愛彌兒》、《社會契約論》、《新愛洛伊絲》。他的主要思想:天賦人權學說,提出“人民主權”的口號。其思想是法國大革命中雅各賓派的旗幟,對歐美各國的資産階級革命産生了深刻影響。
  
  他的《社會契約論》中的“主權在民”一說,就劃分了一個時代。
  
  《社會契約論》盧梭將野花送給喂奶的母親
  《社會契約論》第一次提出了“天賦人權和主權在民的思想”。它剛一問世就遭到了禁止。盧梭本人也被迫流亡到英國。但《社會契約論》所提倡的民主理論卻很快風靡全世界。它引發了震驚世界的法國大革命。法國國傢格言“自由、平等、博愛”便來自《社會契約論》。1789年法國國民代表大會通過的《人權宣言》中“社會的目的是為大衆謀福利的”、“統治權屬於人民”等內容充分體現了《社會契約論》的精神。《社會契約論》還對美國的《獨立宣言》産生了重要影響,從羅伯斯庇爾到列寧都曾用《社會契約論》為自己的政權做解釋。1978年,在紀念盧梭逝世200周年的活動中,專門召開了國際研討會,研究盧梭的思想,出版他的新傳,推出以他為題材的電視劇。他的遺骸被安放在法國的偉人祠內。盧梭在《社會契約論》中預見的“消費者的各種陷阱,大城市的騷亂以及毀滅性的軍費負擔”等等,都已成為當代社會的現實問題。目前,單在法國就有150多位學者在專門研究盧梭的思想。
  
  有說盧梭的政治理論深受柏拉圖的《理想國》的影響。《理想國》的概念,建立於人性善的理念基礎上,柏拉圖筆下的蘇格拉底說,“衹有正直的人才會幸福”,“善的意志”成為他的理想國的基礎。盧梭也相信人性善,他提倡寬容理性,堅定地反對任何政治暴力。同是論述理想國的原則,不同於柏拉圖,盧梭將其理論框架完全建立在“人生而自由”的基礎之上,也就是說“自由意志”。這個基礎就實在多了。很早以前,人們有一個更好的但文言的說法:“天賦人權。”由天賦人權作為第一原理,他所構造的不再衹是理想,而是現代公民社會的基本原則。公民社會中,公民失去了自由人無所不為的自由,而得到公民的政治權利、政治自由。他的《社會契約論》(又譯《民約論》)所要解决的是人權和法律的有機結合。從此,合法性衹能來自人民,成了盧梭的繼承者和背叛者的共同的理念。前者産生了美國革命和民主的建立,後者以人民之名專權屠殺。盧梭,作為“主權在民”的勾畫者,就是在200年後還處於爭論的中心:他的理論到底是在提倡民主自由,還是在提倡極權暴政?
  
  《社會契約論》哲學家盧梭大部頭著作
  人權是屬於個體的,法律是屬於國傢的。個體約定而成國傢的合理性,是法律有效性和政權合法性的終極判斷。自由,不是來自法律對個人的保護,而是來自個體對立法的徹底參與。這是切實保障個體自由的先决條件。在這一過程裏,個體利益的“交集”而非“並集”(不完全是數學上的那種)形成公民意志——主權者的意志——一般意志,而這種主權者因為個體的不斷參與,其內容是常新的,其利益與個體利益共榮的。從這一點出發,多數人說了算的約法三章必然成為主權在民的道德的體現方式。
  
  盧梭把政權明白地分成了立法和行政兩個部分,前者屬於社會契約的範疇,而後者不是契約的內容(因此是可變可推翻的)。這個理念對後來民主政治的發展有着不可磨滅的貢獻。在盧梭之前,孟德斯鳩的《論法的精神》對法律的理解更加深刻,惟缺盧梭的“主權在民”的動力。《社會契約論》自始至終衹揚棄了一種體製:專製政府。按盧梭的話,這就是那種蔑視法律把個體的權力高於主權者之上的體製。其他的體製,盧梭僅僅論述了它們合法的自然依據。從直接民主製、貴族代議製到君主立憲製,統治的根據必須是人民主權———其真正表達就是法律。盧梭並進而把任何真正依法而治的政體統稱為共和政體。在盧梭看來,他那個時代的政治社會形態是腐朽的,他要到古希臘時代才能找到合理的回歸。
  
  《社會契約論》是世界政治法律學說史上最重要的經典之一,是震撼世界的1789年法國大革命的號角和福音書。它闡述的許多原則原理不僅在革命之初被載入法國《人權宣言》等重要文獻中,在革命後的長時期裏成為資産階級的政治法律制度的基石。盧梭的思想對後世思想傢們理論的形成有重大影響。
  
  盧梭的政治著作中有許多思想獨特新穎,引人入勝。但是總體說來就是一種追求平等的強烈欲望和一種同樣強烈的感受:現存社會制度的不合理已經達到了令人不能容忍的程度,人生下來本來是自由的,但是無論走到哪裏都要戴上枷鎖。盧梭自己可能並不喜歡暴力行為,但是他無疑激勵了其他人實行暴力革命,逐步改革社會制度。
  
  有人批評盧梭是一個極其神經質的人,是一個大男子主義者,是一個思想不切實際的、糊塗的思想傢,這樣的批評大體上是正確的。但是遠比他的缺點更重要的是他的洞察力和傑出的創造精神所閃現出來的思想火花,兩個多世紀以來,不斷地影響着現代思想。
  《社會契約論》-妙語佳句
  
  我看到了另一個世界,我的全部激情都被對真理、對自由、對道德的熱愛窒息掉了。
  誰第一個把一塊土地圈起來並想到這是自己的,而且被頭腦簡單的人所相信的話,那他就是文明的奠基者。


  Social contract describes a broad class of theories that try to explain the ways in which people form states to maintain social order. The notion of the social contract implies that the people give up sovereignty to a government or other authority in order to receive or maintain social order through the rule of law. It can also be thought of as an agreement by the governed on a set of rules by which they are governed.
  
  Social contract theory formed a central pillar in the historically important notion that legitimate state authority must be derived from the consent of the governed. The starting point for most of these theories is a heuristic examination of the human condition absent from any structured social order, usually termed the “state of nature”. In this condition, an individual’s actions are bound only by his or her personal power, constrained by conscience. From this common starting point, the various proponents of social contract theory attempt to explain, in different ways, why it is in an individual’s rational self-interest to voluntarily give up the freedom one has in the state of nature in order to obtain the benefits of political order.
  
  Thomas Hobbes (1651), John Locke (1689) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762) are the most famous philosophers of contractarianism. However, they drew quite different conclusions from this starting-point. Hobbes advocated an authoritarian monarchy, Locke advocated a liberal monarchy, while Rousseau advocated liberal republicanism. Their work provided theoretical groundwork of constitutional monarchy, liberal democracy and republicanism. The Social Contract was used in the Declaration of Independence as a sign of enforcing Democracy, and more recently has been revived by thinkers such as John Rawls.
  
  Overview
  
  According to Thomas Hobbes, human life would be "nasty, brutish, and short" without political authority. In its absence, we would live in a state of nature, where we each have unlimited natural freedoms, including the "right to all things" and thus the freedom to harm all who threaten our own self-preservation; there would be an endless "war of all against all" (Bellum omnium contra omnes). To avoid this, free men establish political community i.e. civil society through a social contract in which each gain civil rights in return for subjecting himself to civil law or to political authority.
  
  Alternatively, some have argued that we gain civil rights in return for accepting the obligation to respect and defend the rights of others, giving up some freedoms to do so; this alternative formulation of the duty arising from the social contract is often identified with arguments about military service.
  Violations of the contract
  
  The social contract and the civil rights it gives us are neither "natural rights" nor permanently fixed. Rather, the contract itself is the means towards an end — the benefit of all — and (according to some philosophers such as Locke or Rousseau), is only legitimate to the extent that it meets the general interest ("general will" in Rousseau). Therefore, when failings are found in the contract, we renegotiate to change the terms, using methods such as elections and legislature. Locke theorized the right of rebellion in case of the contract leading to tyranny.
  
  Since civil rights come from agreeing to the contract, those who choose to violate their contractual obligations, such as by committing crimes, abdicate their rights, and the rest of society can be expected to protect itself against the actions of such outlaws. To be a member of society is to accept responsibility for following its rules, along with the threat of punishment for violating them. In this way, society works by "mutual coercion, mutually agreed upon" (Hardin 1968).
  History
  Classical thought
  
  Many have argued that Plato's dialog Crito expresses a Greek version of social contract theory. In this dialog, Socrates refuses to escape from jail to avoid being put to death. He argues that since he has willingly remained in Athens all of his life despite opportunities to go elsewhere, he has accepted the social contract i.e. the burden of the local laws, and he cannot violate these laws even when they are against his self-interest.
  
  Epicurus seems to have had a strong sense of social contract, with justice and law being rooted in mutual agreement and advantage, as evidenced by these lines, among others, from his Principal Doctrines:
  
   31. Natural justice is a pledge of reciprocal benefit, to prevent one man from harming or being harmed by another. 32. Those animals which are incapable of making binding agreements with one another not to inflict nor suffer harm are without either justice or injustice; and likewise for those peoples who either could not or would not form binding agreements not to inflict nor suffer harm. 33. There never was such a thing as absolute justice, but only agreements made in mutual dealings among men in whatever places at various times providing against the infliction or suffering of harm. 34. Injustice is not an evil in itself, but only in consequence of the fear which is associated with the apprehension of being discovered by those appointed to punish such actions.
  
  Also see Epicurean ethics
  Renaissance developments
  
  Quentin Skinner has argued that several critical modern innovations in contract theory are found in the writings from French Calvinists and Huguenots, whose work in turn was invoked by writers in the Low Countries who objected to their subjection to Spain and, later still, by Catholics in England. Among these, Francisco Suárez (1548–1617), from the School of Salamanca, might be considered as an early theorist of the social contract, theorizing natural law in an attempt to limit the divine right of absolute monarchy. All of these groups were led to articulate notions of popular sovereignty by means of a social covenant or contract: all of these arguments began with proto-“state of nature” arguments, to the effect that the basis of politics is that everyone is by nature free of subjection to any government.
  
  However, these arguments relied on a corporatist theory found in Roman Law, according to which "a populus" can exist as a distinct legal entity. Therefore these arguments held that a community of people can join a government because they have the capacity to exercise a single will and make decisions with a single voice in the absence of sovereign authority — a notion rejected by Hobbes and later contract theorists.
  Philosophers
  Hugo Grotius
  
  In the early 17th century, Grotius (1583–1645) introduced the modern idea of natural rights of individuals. Grotius says that we each have natural rights which we have in order to preserve ourselves. He uses this idea to try to establish a basis for moral consensus in the face of religious diversity and the rise of natural science and to find a minimal basis for a moral beginning for society, a kind of natural law that everyone could potentially accept. He goes so far as to say even if we were to concede what we cannot concede without the utmost wickedness, that there is no God, these laws would still hold. The idea was considered incendiary, since it suggests that power can ultimately go back to the individuals if the political society that they have set up forfeits the purpose for which it was originally established, which is to preserve themselves. In other words, the people i.e. the individual people, are sovereign. Grotius says that the people are sui juris - under their own jurisdiction. People have rights as human beings but there is a delineation of those rights because of what is possible for everyone to accept morally - everyone has to accept that each person is entitled to try to preserve themselves and therefore they shouldn't try to do harm to others or to interfere with them and they should punish any breach of someone else's rights that arises.
  Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan (1651)
  
  The first modern philosopher to articulate a detailed contract theory was Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). According to Hobbes, the lives of individuals in the state of nature were "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short", a state where self-interest and the absence of rights and contracts prevented the 'social', or society. Life was 'anarchic' (without leadership/ the concept of sovereignty). Individuals in the state of nature were apolitical and asocial. This state of nature is followed by the social contract.
  
  The social contract was an 'occurrence' during which individuals came together and ceded some of their individual rights so that others would cede theirs (e.g. person A gives up his/her right to kill person B if person B does the same). This resulted in the establishment of society, and by extension, the state, a sovereign entity (like the individuals, now under its rule, used to be) which was to protect these new rights which were now to regulate societal interactions. Society was thus no longer anarchic.
  
  But the state system, which grew out of the social contract, was anarchic (without leadership). Just as the individuals in the state of nature had been sovereigns and thus guided by self-interest and the absence of rights, so states now acted in their self-interest in competition with each other. Just like the state of nature, states were thus bound to be in conflict because there was no sovereign over and above the state (i.e. more powerful) capable of imposing social-contract laws. Indeed, Hobbes' work helped to serve as a basis for the realism theories of international relations, advanced by E.H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau.
  John Locke's Second Treatise of Government (1689)
  
  John Locke's conception of the social contract differed from Hobbes' in several ways, but retained the central notion that persons in a state of nature would willingly come together to form a state. Locke believed that individuals in a state of nature would have stronger moral limits on their action than accepted by Hobbes, but recognized that people would still live in fear of one another. Locke argued that individuals would agree to form a state that would provide a "neutral judge", and that could therefore protect the lives, liberty, and property of those who lived within it. While Hobbes argued for near-absolute authority, Locke argued that laws could only be legitimate if they sought to achieve the common good. Locke also believed that people will do the right thing as a group, and that all people have natural rights.
  Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Du contrat social (1762)
  
  Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), in his influential 1762 treatise The Social Contract, outlined a different version of social contract theory, based on popular sovereignty. Although Rousseau wrote that the British were perhaps at the time the freest people on earth, he did not approve of their representative government. Rousseau believed that liberty was possible only where there was direct rule by the people as a whole in lawmaking, where popular sovereignty was indivisible and inalienable. Citizens must, in at least some circumstances, be able to choose together the fundamental rules by which they would live, and be able to revise those rules on later occasions if they choose to do so - something the British people as a whole were unable to do.
  
  Rousseau's political theory has some points in common with Locke's individualism, but departs from it in his development of the "luminous conception" (which he credited to Diderot) of the general will. Rousseau argues a citizen can be an egoist and decide that his personal interest should override the collective interest. However, as part of a collective body, the individual citizen puts aside his egoism to create a "general will", which is popular sovereignty itself. Popular sovereignty (i.e., the rule of law), thus decides what is good for society as a whole, and the individual (including the administrative head of state, who could be a monarch) must bow to it, or be forced to bow to it:
  
   [The social contract] can be reduced to the following terms: Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will; and in a body we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.
  
  Rousseau's striking phrase that man must "be forced to be free" should be understood this way: since the indivisible and inalienable popular sovereignty decides what is good for the whole, then if an individual lapses back into his ordinary egoism and breaks the law, he will be forced to listen to what they decided as a member of the collectivity (i.e. as citizens). Thus, the law, inasmuch as it is voted by the people's representatives, is not a limitation of individual freedom, but its expression; and enforcement of law, including criminal law, is not a restriction on individual liberty, as the individual, as a citizen, explicitly agreed to be constrained if, as a private individual, he did not respect his own will as formulated in the general will. Because laws represent the restraints of civil freedom, they represent the leap made from humans in the state of nature into civil society. In this sense, the law is a civilizing force, and therefore Rousseau believed that the laws that govern a people helped to mold their character.
  Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's individualist social contract (1851)
  
  While Rousseau's social contract is based on popular sovereignty and not on individual sovereignty, there are other theories espoused by individualists, libertarians and anarchists, which do not involve agreeing to anything more than negative rights and creates only a limited state, if any.
  
  Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) advocated a conception of social contract which didn't involve an individual surrendering sovereignty to others. According to him, the social contract was not between individuals and the state, but rather between individuals themselves refraining from coercing or governing each other, each one maintaining complete sovereignty upon oneself:
  
   What really is the Social Contract? An agreement of the citizen with the government? No, that would mean but the continuation of [Rousseau’s] idea. The social contract is an agreement of man with man; an agreement from which must result what we call society. In this, the notion of commutative justice, first brought forward by the primitive fact of exchange, …is substituted for that of distributive justice … Translating these words, contract, commutative justice, which are the language of the law, into the language of business, and you have commerce, that is to say, in its highest significance, the act by which man and man declare themselves essentially producers, and abdicate all pretension to govern each other.
   —Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century (1851)
  
  John Rawls' Theory of Justice (1971)
  
  John Rawls (1921–2002) proposed a contractarian approach that has a decidedly Kantian flavour, in A Theory of Justice (1971), whereby rational people in a hypothetical "original position", setting aside their individual preferences and capacities under a "veil of ignorance", would agree to certain general principles of justice. This idea is also used as a game-theoretical formalization of the notion of fairness.
  Philip Pettit's Republicanism (1997)
  
  Philip Pettit (b. 1945) has argued, in Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government (1997), that the theory of social contract, classically based on the consent of the governed (as it is assumed that the contract is valid as long as the people consent to being governed by its representatives, who exercise sovereignty), should be modified, in order to avoid dispute. Instead of arguing that an explicit consent, which can always be manufactured, should justify the validity of social contract, Philip Pettit argues that the absence of an effective rebellion against the contract is the only legitimacy of it.
  Criticism
  David Hume
  
  An early critic of social contract theory was Rousseau's friend, the philosopher David Hume, who in 1742 published an essay "On Civil Liberty", in whose second part, entitled, "Of the Original Contract ", he stressed that the concept of a "social contract" was a convenient fiction:
  
   AS no party, in the present age can well support itself without a philosophical or speculative system of principles annexed to its political or practical one; we accordingly find that each of the factions into which this nation is divided has reared up a fabric of the former kind, in order to protect and cover that scheme of actions which it pursues. . . . The one party [defenders of the absolute and divine right of kings, or Tories], by tracing up government to the DEITY, endeavor to render it so sacred and inviolate that it must be little less than sacrilege, however tyrannical it may become, to touch or invade it in the smallest article. The other party [the Whigs, or believers in constitutional monarchy], by founding government altogether on the consent of the PEOPLE suppose that there is a kind of original contract by which the subjects have tacitly reserved the power of resisting their sovereign, whenever they find themselves aggrieved by that authority with which they have for certain purposes voluntarily entrusted him. --David Hume, "On Civil Liberty" [II.XII.1]
  
  However, Hume did agree that, no matter how a government is founded, the consent of the governed is the only legitimate foundation on which a government can rest.
  
   My intention here is not to exclude the consent of the people from being one just foundation of government where it has place. It is surely the best and most sacred of any. I only pretend that it has very seldom had place in any degree and never almost in its full extent. And that therefore some other foundation of government must also be admitted. --Ibid II.XII.20
  
  Logic of contracting
  
  According to the will theory of contract, which was dominant in the 19th century and still exerts a strong influence, a contract is not presumed valid unless all parties agree to it voluntarily, either tacitly or explicitly, without coercion. Lysander Spooner, a 19th century lawyer and staunch supporter of a right of contract between individuals, in his essay No Treason, argues that a supposed social contract cannot be used to justify governmental actions such as taxation, because government will initiate force against anyone who does not wish to enter into such a contract. As a result, he maintains that such an agreement is not voluntary and therefore cannot be considered a legitimate contract at all.
  
  Modern Anglo-American law, like European civil law, is based on a will theory of contract, according to which all terms of a contract are binding on the parties because they chose those terms for themselves. This was less true when Hobbes wrote Leviathan; then, more importance was attached to consideration, meaning a mutual exchange of benefits necessary to the formation of a valid contract, and most contracts had implicit terms that arose from the nature of the contractual relationship rather than from the choices made by the parties. Accordingly, it has been argued that social contract theory is more consistent with the contract law of the time of Hobbes and Locke than with the contract law of our time, and that features in the social contract which seem anomalous to us, such as the belief that we are bound by a contract formulated by our distant ancestors, would not have seemed as strange to Hobbes' contemporaries as they do to us.
  Multiple contracts
  
  Legal scholar Randy Barnett has argued, that, while presence in the territory of a society may be necessary for consent, it is not consent to any rules the society might make regardless of their content. A second condition of consent is that the rules be consistent with underlying principles of justice and the protection of natural and social rights, and have procedures for effective protection of those rights (or liberties). This has also been discussed by O.A. Brownson, who argued that there are, in a sense, three "constitutions" involved: The first the constitution of nature that includes all of what the Founders called "natural law". The second would be the constitution of society, an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it does establish the third, a constitution of government. To consent, a necessary condition is that the rules be constitutional in that sense.
  Tacit consent
  
  The theory of an implicit social contract holds that by remaining in the territory controlled by some government, people give consent to be governed. This consent is what gives legitimacy to the government. Philosopher Roderick Long argues that this is a case of question begging, because the argument has to presuppose its conclusion:
  
   I think that the person who makes this argument is already assuming that the government has some legitimate jurisdiction over this territory. And then they say, well, now, anyone who is in the territory is therefore agreeing to the prevailing rules. But they’re assuming the very thing they're trying to prove – namely that this jurisdiction over the territory is legitimate. If it's not, then the government is just one more group of people living in this broad general geographical territory. But I've got my property, and exactly what their arrangements are I don't know, but here I am in my property and they don't own it – at least they haven't given me any argument that they do – and so, the fact that I am living in "this country" means I am living in a certain geographical region that they have certain pretensions over – but the question is whether those pretensions are legitimate. You can’t assume it as a means to proving it.
  
  Criticisms of natural rights
  
  Contractualism is based on the notion that rights are agreed upon in order to further our interests: each individual subject is accorded individual rights, which may or may not be inalienable, and form the basis of civil rights, as in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. It must be underlined, however, as Hannah Arendt did on her book on imperialism, that the 1789 Declarations, in this agreeing with the social contract theory, bases the natural rights of the human-being on the civil rights of the citizen, instead of the reverse as the contractualist theory does. This criticism derives from a long tradition going back to St. Augustine of Hippo, who in The City of God (book) envisioned a unified Christian society presided over by a king who was responsible for the welfare of his subjects. Political Augustinianism with its insistence on divine sovereignty and on the two separate spheres of a heavenly and an earthly community, has indeed been regarded as incompatible with social contract theories. This raises the question of whether social contractarianism, as a central plank of liberal thought, is reconcilable with the Christian religion, and particularly with Catholicism and Catholic social teaching. The individualist and liberal approach has also been criticized since the 19th century by thinkers such as Marx, Nietzsche & Freud, and afterward by structuralist and post-structuralist thinkers, such as Lacan, Althusser, Foucault, Deleuze or Derrida
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  作者:盧梭〔法〕
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