《局外人》这本书可以说是存在主义文学的代表作品,同时,它也是一本当代青年不可不读的经典名著。
《局外人》以“今天,妈妈死了,也许是昨天,我不知道”开始,以“我还希望处决我的那一天有很多人来看,对我发出仇恨的喊叫声”结束。小说以这种不动声色而又蕴含内在力量的平静语调为我们塑造了一个惊世骇俗的“荒谬的人”:对一切都漠然置之的默尔索。
全书分为两个部分,第一部分从默尔索的母亲去世开始,到他在海滩上杀死阿拉伯人为止,是按时间顺序叙述的故事。
默尔索不仅在接到通知母亲去世的电报时没有哭,而且在母亲下葬时也没有哭,他没有要求打开棺材再看母亲最后一眼,反而在母亲的棺材面前抽烟、喝咖啡,人们不禁要愤然了:一个人在母亲下葬时不哭,他还算得是人吗?更有甚者,他竟在此后的第二天,就去海滨游泳,和女友一起去看滑稽影片,并且和她一起回到自己的住处。默尔索的行为越来越让人惊讶愕然,名声不好的邻居要惩罚自己的情妇,求他帮助写一封信,他竟答应了,觉得“没有理由不让他满意”。老板建议他去巴黎开设一个办事处,他竟没有表示什么热情,虽然他“并不愿意使他不快”。对于人人向往的巴黎, 他竟有这样的评价: “很脏。有鸽子, 有黑乎乎的院子。”玛丽要跟他结婚,他说随便怎么样都行。玛丽坚持问默尔索是否真的爱她,她原来指望听到肯定的回答,可是他竟说“大概是不爱她”。
《局外人》远眺凯旋门
这种叙述毫无抒情的意味,而只是默尔索内心自发意识的流露,因而他叙述的接二连三的事件、对话、姿势和感觉之间似乎没有必然的联系,给人以一种不连贯的荒谬之感,因为别人的姿势和语言在他看来都是没有意义的,是不可理解的。惟一确实的存在便是大海、阳光,而大自然却压倒了他,使他莫名其妙地杀了人:“我只觉得铙钹似的太阳扣在我的头上我感到天旋地转。海上泛起一阵闷热的狂风,我觉得天门洞开,向下倾泻大火。我全身都绷紧了,手紧紧握住枪。枪机扳动了”
在第二部分里,牢房代替了大海,社会的意识代替了默尔索自发的意识。司法机构以其固有的逻辑,利用被告过去偶然发生的一些事件把被告虚构成一种他自己都认不出来的形象:即把始终认为自己无罪、对一切都毫不在乎的默尔索硬说成一个冷酷无情、蓄意杀人的魔鬼。因为审讯几乎从不调查杀人案件,而是千方百计把杀人和他母亲之死及他和玛丽的关系联系在一起。
《局外人》咖啡馆
迷迷糊糊地杀了人的默尔索,对法庭上的辩论漠然置之,却非常有兴趣断定自己辩护律师的才华大大不如检察官。就在临刑的前夜,他觉醒了:“面对着充满信息和星斗的夜”,他“第一次向这个世界的动人的冷漠敞开了心扉”。他居然感到他“过去曾经是幸福的”, “现在仍然是幸福的”。他似乎还嫌人们惊讶得不够,接着又说:“为了使我感到不那么孤独,我还希望处决我的那一天有很多人来观看,希望他们对我报以仇恨的喊叫声。”
默尔索因为感受到这个现代社会人际关系的冷漠,而毫不迟疑地远离社会、抛弃社会,可是社会也抛弃了他,他最终成为了一个排除于生活中心的局外人。
《局外人》-专家点评
《局外人》阿尔伯特·加缪
加缪曾经把《局外人》的主题概括为一句话:“在我们的社会里,任何在母亲下葬时不哭的人都有被判死刑的危险。” 这种近乎可笑的说法隐藏着一个十分严酷的逻辑:任何违反社会的基本法则的人必将受到社会的惩罚。这个社会需要和它一致的人,背弃它或反抗它的人都在惩处之列,都有可能让检察官先生说:“我向你们要这个人的脑袋。” 默尔索的脑袋已经被检察官以社会的名义要了去。社会抛弃了默尔索,然而,默尔索宣布:“我过去曾经是幸福的,我现在仍然是幸福的。”谁也不会想到默尔索会有这样的宣告,他通过自己的宣告也抛弃了社会。然而这正是他的觉醒,他认识到了人与世界的分裂,他完成了荒诞的旅程的第一阶段。
谈《局外人》而不谈荒诞,就如同谈萨特的《恶心》而不谈存在主义。加缪在这本书中列举了荒诞的种种表现,例如:人和生活的分离;演员和布景的分离;怀有希望的精神和使之失望的世界之间的分裂;肉体的需要对于使之趋于死亡的时间的反抗;世界本身所具有的、使人的理解成为不可能的那种厚度和陌生性;人对人本身所散发出的非人性感到的不适及其堕落,等等。由于发现了“荒诞”,默尔索的消极、冷漠、无动于衷、执著于瞬间的人生等等顿时具有了一种象征的意义,小说于是从哲学上得到了阐明。因为人和世界的分离,世界于人是荒诞的,人对世界无能为力,因此不抱任何希望,对一切事物都无动于衷。加缪指出:“荒诞,就是确认自己的界限的清醒的理性。”“荒诞的人”就是“那个不否认永恒、但也不为永恒做任何事情的人”。尤其是当加缪指出“一个能用歪理来解释的世界,还是一个熟悉的世界,但是在一个突然被剥夺了幻觉和光明的宇宙中,人就感到自己是个局外人”的时候,我们更会一下子想到默尔索的。“荒诞的人”就是“局外人”,“局外人”就是具有“清醒的理性的人”。
《局外人》阿尔伯特·加缪
小说家加缪同时还有另一重身份,那就是作为存在主义代表人物之一的哲学家加缪。从某种意义上来说,这两种身份的混淆往往容易在小说创作中带来这样一个问题,那就是思想大于形象。从另一个角度来说,对于这类小说评价往往着重于其思想性。通俗地说,那就是加缪的小说,《局外人》也好,《鼠疫》也好,成败与否由其中心思想决定。《纽约时报书评》对《局外人》思想与形式的关系是这样分析的:“中心思想并不是创造性艺术的最高形式,但是,它却有可能重要到这个地步:如果为了艺术批判的缘故而抛弃它则将会亵渎人类精神。”阅读这部小说就可以让人明白,《局外人》并不是一个哲学观念的简单图解,而是一部成功的小说。它以奇特而又新颖的笔调塑造了一个显然与众不同的人物,不想和别人有任何联系、只想保持自己个性不受干扰的人物。《局外人》的读者可以不知道默尔索什么模样,是高还是矮,是胖还是瘦,但他们不可能不记住他,不可能不在许多场合想到他。小说以自身的独立的存在展示了人与世界的关系。它迫使我们向自己提出这样的问题:世界是晦涩的,还是清晰的?是合乎理性的,还是不可理喻的?人在这个世界上是幸福的,还是痛苦的?人与这个世界的关系是和谐一致的,还是分裂矛盾的?
加缪的小说风格介于传统小说和新小说之间。一方面,存在主义文学是反传统的,作者从不介入小说,从不干预主人公的命运,从来不发表自己的议论;另一方面,小说的语言又极其简单明晰,可以说具有古典主义的散文风格,具有极强的表现力和感染力。《局外人》成为一本于平淡中见深度、从枯涩中出哲理的很不平常的书。
《局外人》阿尔伯特·加缪
加缪还写过以论荒诞为主旨的长篇哲学随笔《西西弗神话》。事实上,人们的确是常常用《西西弗神话》来解释《局外人》,而开此先例的正是萨特。他最早把这两本书联系在一起,认定《局外人》是“荒诞的证明”,是一本“关于荒诞和反对荒诞的书”。也可以说《西西弗神话》正是《局外人》的注脚。加缪在1941年2月21日的一则手记中写道:“完成《神话》。三个‘荒诞’到此结束。”这三个“荒诞”指的就是:哲学随笔《西西弗神话》,小说《局外人》和剧本《卡利古拉》。
当加缪因车祸去世后,《纽约时报》这样概括他的思想: “加缪在荒诞的车祸中丧身,实属辛辣的哲学讽刺。因为他思想的中心是如何对人类处境做出一个思想深刻人士的正确回答,人们毫不感到意外,我们的时代接受了加缪的观点。血腥的二次世界大战,可怕的氢弹威胁,这一切使现代社会能够接受加缪严肃的哲学,并使之长存于人们的心中。”
如今40多年过去了,人们没有忘记他,人们也不会忘记他,越来越多的人在研究他的著作与思想。《局外人》也一再重版,印数突破千万册。加缪在世的时候由于是一个在贫穷、普通的家庭里长大的孩子,因而常被痛恨他的人贬低,孤独之时他总对他的一个知己说: “但愿他们了解真正的我。”
他是与文学沙龙、文学名人、荣誉、勋章保持距离的“局外人”,但他的思考却深入到了现代社会的腹地。
《局外人》-妙语佳句
大家都很幸运,这个世界上只有幸运的人。
在所有智力健全的人都或多或少期望他们所爱的人死去。
《局外人》以“今天,妈妈死了,也许是昨天,我不知道”开始,以“我还希望处决我的那一天有很多人来看,对我发出仇恨的喊叫声”结束。小说以这种不动声色而又蕴含内在力量的平静语调为我们塑造了一个惊世骇俗的“荒谬的人”:对一切都漠然置之的默尔索。
全书分为两个部分,第一部分从默尔索的母亲去世开始,到他在海滩上杀死阿拉伯人为止,是按时间顺序叙述的故事。
默尔索不仅在接到通知母亲去世的电报时没有哭,而且在母亲下葬时也没有哭,他没有要求打开棺材再看母亲最后一眼,反而在母亲的棺材面前抽烟、喝咖啡,人们不禁要愤然了:一个人在母亲下葬时不哭,他还算得是人吗?更有甚者,他竟在此后的第二天,就去海滨游泳,和女友一起去看滑稽影片,并且和她一起回到自己的住处。默尔索的行为越来越让人惊讶愕然,名声不好的邻居要惩罚自己的情妇,求他帮助写一封信,他竟答应了,觉得“没有理由不让他满意”。老板建议他去巴黎开设一个办事处,他竟没有表示什么热情,虽然他“并不愿意使他不快”。对于人人向往的巴黎, 他竟有这样的评价: “很脏。有鸽子, 有黑乎乎的院子。”玛丽要跟他结婚,他说随便怎么样都行。玛丽坚持问默尔索是否真的爱她,她原来指望听到肯定的回答,可是他竟说“大概是不爱她”。
《局外人》远眺凯旋门
这种叙述毫无抒情的意味,而只是默尔索内心自发意识的流露,因而他叙述的接二连三的事件、对话、姿势和感觉之间似乎没有必然的联系,给人以一种不连贯的荒谬之感,因为别人的姿势和语言在他看来都是没有意义的,是不可理解的。惟一确实的存在便是大海、阳光,而大自然却压倒了他,使他莫名其妙地杀了人:“我只觉得铙钹似的太阳扣在我的头上我感到天旋地转。海上泛起一阵闷热的狂风,我觉得天门洞开,向下倾泻大火。我全身都绷紧了,手紧紧握住枪。枪机扳动了”
在第二部分里,牢房代替了大海,社会的意识代替了默尔索自发的意识。司法机构以其固有的逻辑,利用被告过去偶然发生的一些事件把被告虚构成一种他自己都认不出来的形象:即把始终认为自己无罪、对一切都毫不在乎的默尔索硬说成一个冷酷无情、蓄意杀人的魔鬼。因为审讯几乎从不调查杀人案件,而是千方百计把杀人和他母亲之死及他和玛丽的关系联系在一起。
《局外人》咖啡馆
迷迷糊糊地杀了人的默尔索,对法庭上的辩论漠然置之,却非常有兴趣断定自己辩护律师的才华大大不如检察官。就在临刑的前夜,他觉醒了:“面对着充满信息和星斗的夜”,他“第一次向这个世界的动人的冷漠敞开了心扉”。他居然感到他“过去曾经是幸福的”, “现在仍然是幸福的”。他似乎还嫌人们惊讶得不够,接着又说:“为了使我感到不那么孤独,我还希望处决我的那一天有很多人来观看,希望他们对我报以仇恨的喊叫声。”
默尔索因为感受到这个现代社会人际关系的冷漠,而毫不迟疑地远离社会、抛弃社会,可是社会也抛弃了他,他最终成为了一个排除于生活中心的局外人。
《局外人》-专家点评
《局外人》阿尔伯特·加缪
加缪曾经把《局外人》的主题概括为一句话:“在我们的社会里,任何在母亲下葬时不哭的人都有被判死刑的危险。” 这种近乎可笑的说法隐藏着一个十分严酷的逻辑:任何违反社会的基本法则的人必将受到社会的惩罚。这个社会需要和它一致的人,背弃它或反抗它的人都在惩处之列,都有可能让检察官先生说:“我向你们要这个人的脑袋。” 默尔索的脑袋已经被检察官以社会的名义要了去。社会抛弃了默尔索,然而,默尔索宣布:“我过去曾经是幸福的,我现在仍然是幸福的。”谁也不会想到默尔索会有这样的宣告,他通过自己的宣告也抛弃了社会。然而这正是他的觉醒,他认识到了人与世界的分裂,他完成了荒诞的旅程的第一阶段。
谈《局外人》而不谈荒诞,就如同谈萨特的《恶心》而不谈存在主义。加缪在这本书中列举了荒诞的种种表现,例如:人和生活的分离;演员和布景的分离;怀有希望的精神和使之失望的世界之间的分裂;肉体的需要对于使之趋于死亡的时间的反抗;世界本身所具有的、使人的理解成为不可能的那种厚度和陌生性;人对人本身所散发出的非人性感到的不适及其堕落,等等。由于发现了“荒诞”,默尔索的消极、冷漠、无动于衷、执著于瞬间的人生等等顿时具有了一种象征的意义,小说于是从哲学上得到了阐明。因为人和世界的分离,世界于人是荒诞的,人对世界无能为力,因此不抱任何希望,对一切事物都无动于衷。加缪指出:“荒诞,就是确认自己的界限的清醒的理性。”“荒诞的人”就是“那个不否认永恒、但也不为永恒做任何事情的人”。尤其是当加缪指出“一个能用歪理来解释的世界,还是一个熟悉的世界,但是在一个突然被剥夺了幻觉和光明的宇宙中,人就感到自己是个局外人”的时候,我们更会一下子想到默尔索的。“荒诞的人”就是“局外人”,“局外人”就是具有“清醒的理性的人”。
《局外人》阿尔伯特·加缪
小说家加缪同时还有另一重身份,那就是作为存在主义代表人物之一的哲学家加缪。从某种意义上来说,这两种身份的混淆往往容易在小说创作中带来这样一个问题,那就是思想大于形象。从另一个角度来说,对于这类小说评价往往着重于其思想性。通俗地说,那就是加缪的小说,《局外人》也好,《鼠疫》也好,成败与否由其中心思想决定。《纽约时报书评》对《局外人》思想与形式的关系是这样分析的:“中心思想并不是创造性艺术的最高形式,但是,它却有可能重要到这个地步:如果为了艺术批判的缘故而抛弃它则将会亵渎人类精神。”阅读这部小说就可以让人明白,《局外人》并不是一个哲学观念的简单图解,而是一部成功的小说。它以奇特而又新颖的笔调塑造了一个显然与众不同的人物,不想和别人有任何联系、只想保持自己个性不受干扰的人物。《局外人》的读者可以不知道默尔索什么模样,是高还是矮,是胖还是瘦,但他们不可能不记住他,不可能不在许多场合想到他。小说以自身的独立的存在展示了人与世界的关系。它迫使我们向自己提出这样的问题:世界是晦涩的,还是清晰的?是合乎理性的,还是不可理喻的?人在这个世界上是幸福的,还是痛苦的?人与这个世界的关系是和谐一致的,还是分裂矛盾的?
加缪的小说风格介于传统小说和新小说之间。一方面,存在主义文学是反传统的,作者从不介入小说,从不干预主人公的命运,从来不发表自己的议论;另一方面,小说的语言又极其简单明晰,可以说具有古典主义的散文风格,具有极强的表现力和感染力。《局外人》成为一本于平淡中见深度、从枯涩中出哲理的很不平常的书。
《局外人》阿尔伯特·加缪
加缪还写过以论荒诞为主旨的长篇哲学随笔《西西弗神话》。事实上,人们的确是常常用《西西弗神话》来解释《局外人》,而开此先例的正是萨特。他最早把这两本书联系在一起,认定《局外人》是“荒诞的证明”,是一本“关于荒诞和反对荒诞的书”。也可以说《西西弗神话》正是《局外人》的注脚。加缪在1941年2月21日的一则手记中写道:“完成《神话》。三个‘荒诞’到此结束。”这三个“荒诞”指的就是:哲学随笔《西西弗神话》,小说《局外人》和剧本《卡利古拉》。
当加缪因车祸去世后,《纽约时报》这样概括他的思想: “加缪在荒诞的车祸中丧身,实属辛辣的哲学讽刺。因为他思想的中心是如何对人类处境做出一个思想深刻人士的正确回答,人们毫不感到意外,我们的时代接受了加缪的观点。血腥的二次世界大战,可怕的氢弹威胁,这一切使现代社会能够接受加缪严肃的哲学,并使之长存于人们的心中。”
如今40多年过去了,人们没有忘记他,人们也不会忘记他,越来越多的人在研究他的著作与思想。《局外人》也一再重版,印数突破千万册。加缪在世的时候由于是一个在贫穷、普通的家庭里长大的孩子,因而常被痛恨他的人贬低,孤独之时他总对他的一个知己说: “但愿他们了解真正的我。”
他是与文学沙龙、文学名人、荣誉、勋章保持距离的“局外人”,但他的思考却深入到了现代社会的腹地。
《局外人》-妙语佳句
大家都很幸运,这个世界上只有幸运的人。
在所有智力健全的人都或多或少期望他们所爱的人死去。
The Myth of Sisyphus is a philosophical essay by Albert Camus. It comprises about 120 pages and was published originally in 1942 in French as Le Mythe de Sisyphe; the English translation by Justin O'Brien followed in 1955.
In the essay, Camus introduces his philosophy of the absurd: man's futile search for meaning, unity and clarity in the face of an unintelligible world devoid of God and eternal truths or values. Does the realization of the absurd require suicide? Camus answers: "No. It requires revolt." He then outlines several approaches to the absurd life. The final chapter compares the absurdity of man's life with the situation of Sisyphus, a figure of Greek mythology who was condemned to repeat forever the same meaningless task of pushing a boulder up a mountain, only to see it roll down again. The essay concludes, "The struggle itself...is enough to fill a man's heart. One must imagine Sisyphus happy."
The work can be seen in relation to other works by Camus: the novel The Stranger (1942), the play Caligula (1945), and especially the essay The Rebel (1951).
Summary
The essay is dedicated to Pascal Pia and is organized in three chapters and one appendix.
Chapter 1: An Absurd Reasoning
Camus undertakes to answer what he considers to be the only question of philosophy that matters: Does the realization of the meaninglessness and absurdity of life necessarily require suicide?
He begins by describing the absurd condition: much of our life is built on the hope for tomorrow yet tomorrow brings us closer to death and is the ultimate enemy; people live as if they didn't know about the certainty of death; once stripped of its common romanticisms, the world is a foreign, strange and inhuman place; true knowledge is impossible and rationality and science cannot explain the world: their stories ultimately end in meaningless abstractions, in metaphors. "From the moment absurdity is recognized, it becomes a passion, the most harrowing of all."
It is not the world that is absurd, nor human thought: the absurd arises when the human need to understand meets the unreasonableness of the world, when "my appetite for the absolute and for unity" meets "the impossibility of reducing this world to a rational and reasonable principle."
He then characterizes a number of philosophies that describe and attempt to deal with this feeling of the absurd, by Heidegger, Jaspers, Shestov, Kierkegaard and Husserl. All of these, he claims, commit "philosophical suicide" by reaching conclusions that contradict the original absurd position, either by abandoning reason and turning to God, as in the case of Kierkegaard and Shestov, or by elevating reason and ultimately arriving at ubiquitous Platonic forms and an abstract god, as in the case of Husserl.
For Camus, who sets out to take the absurd seriously and follow it to its final conclusions, these "leaps" cannot convince. Taking the absurd seriously means acknowledging the contradiction between the desire of human reason and the unreasonable world. Suicide, then, also must be rejected: without man, the absurd cannot exist. The contradiction must be lived; reason and its limits must be acknowledged, without false hope. However, the absurd can never be accepted: it requires constant confrontation, constant revolt.
While the question of human freedom in the metaphysical sense loses interest to the absurd man, he gains freedom in a very concrete sense: no longer bound by hope for a better future or eternity, without a need to pursue life's purpose or to create meaning, "he enjoys a freedom with regard to common rules".
To embrace the absurd implies embracing all that the unreasonable world has to offer. Without a meaning in life, there is no scale of values. "What counts is not the best living but the most living."
Thus, Camus arrives at three consequences from the full acknowledging of the absurd: revolt, freedom and passion.
Chapter 2: The Absurd Man
How should the absurd man live? Clearly, no ethical rules apply, as they are all based on higher powers or on justification. "Integrity has no need of rules." 'Everything is permitted' "is not an outburst of relief or of joy, but rather a bitter acknowledgment of a fact."
Camus then goes on to present examples of the absurd life. He begins with Don Juan, the serial seducer who lives the passionate life to the fullest. "There is no noble love but that which recognizes itself to be both short-lived and exceptional."
The next example is the actor, who depicts ephemeral lives for ephemeral fame. "He demonstrates to what degree appearing creates being." "In those three hours he travels the whole course of the dead-end path that the man in the audience takes a lifetime to cover."
Camus' third example of the absurd man is the conqueror, the warrior who forgoes all promises of eternity to affect and engage fully in human history. He chooses action over contemplation, aware of the fact that nothing can last and no victory is final.
Chapter 3: The Myth of Sisyphus
In the last chapter, Camus outlines the legend of Sisyphus who defied the gods and put Death in chains so that no human needed to die. When Death was eventually liberated and it came time for Sisyphus himself to die, he concocted a deceit which let him escape from the underworld. Finally captured, the gods decided on his punishment: for all eternity, he would have to push a rock up a mountain; on the top, the rock rolls down again and Sisyphus has to start over. Camus sees Sisyphus as the absurd hero who lives life to the fullest, hates death and is condemned to a meaningless task.
Camus presents Sisyphus's ceaseless and pointless toil as a metaphor for modern lives spent working at futile jobs in factories and offices. "The workman of today works every day in his life at the same tasks, and this fate is no less absurd. But it is tragic only at the rare moments when it becomes conscious."
Camus is interested in Sisyphus' thoughts when marching down the mountain, to start anew. This is the truly tragic moment, when the hero becomes conscious of his wretched condition. He does not have hope, but "[t]here is no fate that cannot be surmounted by scorn." Acknowledging the truth will conquer it; Sisyphus, just like the absurd man, keeps pushing. Camus claims that when Sisyphus acknowledges the futility of his task and the certainty of his fate, he is freed to realize the absurdity of his situation and to reach a state of contented acceptance. With a nod to the similarly cursed Greek hero Oedipus, Camus concludes that "all is well," indeed, that "One must imagine Sisyphus happy."
Appendix
The essay contains an appendix titled "Hope and the Absurd in the work of Franz Kafka". While Camus acknowledges that Kafka's work represents an exquisite description of the absurd condition, he maintains that Kafka fails as an absurd writer because his work retains a glimmer of hope.
In the essay, Camus introduces his philosophy of the absurd: man's futile search for meaning, unity and clarity in the face of an unintelligible world devoid of God and eternal truths or values. Does the realization of the absurd require suicide? Camus answers: "No. It requires revolt." He then outlines several approaches to the absurd life. The final chapter compares the absurdity of man's life with the situation of Sisyphus, a figure of Greek mythology who was condemned to repeat forever the same meaningless task of pushing a boulder up a mountain, only to see it roll down again. The essay concludes, "The struggle itself...is enough to fill a man's heart. One must imagine Sisyphus happy."
The work can be seen in relation to other works by Camus: the novel The Stranger (1942), the play Caligula (1945), and especially the essay The Rebel (1951).
Summary
The essay is dedicated to Pascal Pia and is organized in three chapters and one appendix.
Chapter 1: An Absurd Reasoning
Camus undertakes to answer what he considers to be the only question of philosophy that matters: Does the realization of the meaninglessness and absurdity of life necessarily require suicide?
He begins by describing the absurd condition: much of our life is built on the hope for tomorrow yet tomorrow brings us closer to death and is the ultimate enemy; people live as if they didn't know about the certainty of death; once stripped of its common romanticisms, the world is a foreign, strange and inhuman place; true knowledge is impossible and rationality and science cannot explain the world: their stories ultimately end in meaningless abstractions, in metaphors. "From the moment absurdity is recognized, it becomes a passion, the most harrowing of all."
It is not the world that is absurd, nor human thought: the absurd arises when the human need to understand meets the unreasonableness of the world, when "my appetite for the absolute and for unity" meets "the impossibility of reducing this world to a rational and reasonable principle."
He then characterizes a number of philosophies that describe and attempt to deal with this feeling of the absurd, by Heidegger, Jaspers, Shestov, Kierkegaard and Husserl. All of these, he claims, commit "philosophical suicide" by reaching conclusions that contradict the original absurd position, either by abandoning reason and turning to God, as in the case of Kierkegaard and Shestov, or by elevating reason and ultimately arriving at ubiquitous Platonic forms and an abstract god, as in the case of Husserl.
For Camus, who sets out to take the absurd seriously and follow it to its final conclusions, these "leaps" cannot convince. Taking the absurd seriously means acknowledging the contradiction between the desire of human reason and the unreasonable world. Suicide, then, also must be rejected: without man, the absurd cannot exist. The contradiction must be lived; reason and its limits must be acknowledged, without false hope. However, the absurd can never be accepted: it requires constant confrontation, constant revolt.
While the question of human freedom in the metaphysical sense loses interest to the absurd man, he gains freedom in a very concrete sense: no longer bound by hope for a better future or eternity, without a need to pursue life's purpose or to create meaning, "he enjoys a freedom with regard to common rules".
To embrace the absurd implies embracing all that the unreasonable world has to offer. Without a meaning in life, there is no scale of values. "What counts is not the best living but the most living."
Thus, Camus arrives at three consequences from the full acknowledging of the absurd: revolt, freedom and passion.
Chapter 2: The Absurd Man
How should the absurd man live? Clearly, no ethical rules apply, as they are all based on higher powers or on justification. "Integrity has no need of rules." 'Everything is permitted' "is not an outburst of relief or of joy, but rather a bitter acknowledgment of a fact."
Camus then goes on to present examples of the absurd life. He begins with Don Juan, the serial seducer who lives the passionate life to the fullest. "There is no noble love but that which recognizes itself to be both short-lived and exceptional."
The next example is the actor, who depicts ephemeral lives for ephemeral fame. "He demonstrates to what degree appearing creates being." "In those three hours he travels the whole course of the dead-end path that the man in the audience takes a lifetime to cover."
Camus' third example of the absurd man is the conqueror, the warrior who forgoes all promises of eternity to affect and engage fully in human history. He chooses action over contemplation, aware of the fact that nothing can last and no victory is final.
Chapter 3: The Myth of Sisyphus
In the last chapter, Camus outlines the legend of Sisyphus who defied the gods and put Death in chains so that no human needed to die. When Death was eventually liberated and it came time for Sisyphus himself to die, he concocted a deceit which let him escape from the underworld. Finally captured, the gods decided on his punishment: for all eternity, he would have to push a rock up a mountain; on the top, the rock rolls down again and Sisyphus has to start over. Camus sees Sisyphus as the absurd hero who lives life to the fullest, hates death and is condemned to a meaningless task.
Camus presents Sisyphus's ceaseless and pointless toil as a metaphor for modern lives spent working at futile jobs in factories and offices. "The workman of today works every day in his life at the same tasks, and this fate is no less absurd. But it is tragic only at the rare moments when it becomes conscious."
Camus is interested in Sisyphus' thoughts when marching down the mountain, to start anew. This is the truly tragic moment, when the hero becomes conscious of his wretched condition. He does not have hope, but "[t]here is no fate that cannot be surmounted by scorn." Acknowledging the truth will conquer it; Sisyphus, just like the absurd man, keeps pushing. Camus claims that when Sisyphus acknowledges the futility of his task and the certainty of his fate, he is freed to realize the absurdity of his situation and to reach a state of contented acceptance. With a nod to the similarly cursed Greek hero Oedipus, Camus concludes that "all is well," indeed, that "One must imagine Sisyphus happy."
Appendix
The essay contains an appendix titled "Hope and the Absurd in the work of Franz Kafka". While Camus acknowledges that Kafka's work represents an exquisite description of the absurd condition, he maintains that Kafka fails as an absurd writer because his work retains a glimmer of hope.
The Plague (Fr. La Peste) is a novel by Albert Camus, published in 1947, that tells the story of medical workers finding solidarity in their labour as the Algerian city of Oran is swept by a plague epidemic. It asks a number of questions relating to the nature of destiny and the human condition. The characters in the book, ranging from doctors to vacationers to fugitives, all help to show the effects the plague has on a populace.
The novel is believed to be based on the cholera epidemic that killed a large percentage of Oran's population in 1849 following French colonization, but the novel is placed in the 1940s.[1] Oran and its environs were struck by disease multiple times before Camus published this novel. According to a research report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Oran was decimated by the plague in 1556 and 1678, but outbreaks after European colonization, in 1921 (185 cases), 1931 (76 cases), and 1944 (95 cases), were very far from the scale of the epidemic described in the novel.
The Plague is considered an existentialist classic despite Camus' objection to the label.[2][3] The narrative tone is similar to Kafka's, especially in The Trial, where individual sentences potentially have multiple meanings, the material often pointedly resonating as stark allegory of phenomenal consciousness and the human condition. Camus included a dim-witted character misreading The Trial as a mystery novel as an oblique homage. The novel has been read as a metaphorical treatment of the French resistance to Nazi occupation during World War II.
Although Camus's approach in the book is severe, his narrator emphasizes the ideas that we ultimately have no control, irrationality of life is inevitable, and he further illustrates the human reaction towards the ‘absurd’. The Plague represents how the world deals with the philosophical notion of the Absurd, a theory which Camus himself helped to define.
The novel is believed to be based on the cholera epidemic that killed a large percentage of Oran's population in 1849 following French colonization, but the novel is placed in the 1940s.[1] Oran and its environs were struck by disease multiple times before Camus published this novel. According to a research report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Oran was decimated by the plague in 1556 and 1678, but outbreaks after European colonization, in 1921 (185 cases), 1931 (76 cases), and 1944 (95 cases), were very far from the scale of the epidemic described in the novel.
The Plague is considered an existentialist classic despite Camus' objection to the label.[2][3] The narrative tone is similar to Kafka's, especially in The Trial, where individual sentences potentially have multiple meanings, the material often pointedly resonating as stark allegory of phenomenal consciousness and the human condition. Camus included a dim-witted character misreading The Trial as a mystery novel as an oblique homage. The novel has been read as a metaphorical treatment of the French resistance to Nazi occupation during World War II.
Although Camus's approach in the book is severe, his narrator emphasizes the ideas that we ultimately have no control, irrationality of life is inevitable, and he further illustrates the human reaction towards the ‘absurd’. The Plague represents how the world deals with the philosophical notion of the Absurd, a theory which Camus himself helped to define.