shǒuyè>> >> 社会学>> 'ěr · Karl Marx   guó Germany   zhì guó   (1818niánwǔyuè5rì1883niánsānyuè14rì)
gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán The Communist Manifesto
  1847 nián 6 yuègòng chǎn zhù zhě tóng méng 1 dài biǎo huì shàngtǎo lùn liǎo 'ēn cǎo de zhǔn bèi zuò wéi tóng méng gāng lǐng degòng chǎn zhù xìn tiáo cǎo 'àn》, jué dìng jìn tǎo lùn xiū gǎitóng nián 9 yuètóng méng lǐng dǎo rén K. shā pèi 'ěr、 H. bào wēi 'ěr J. 'ěr chū de wéigòng chǎn zhù wèn de cǎo 'àndài yòu kōng xiǎng shè huì zhù de cǎishāo hòu zhēn zhèng de shè huì zhù zhě M. zài chū xiū zhèng qián zhě de cǎo 'ànzài wěi yuán huì huì shàngēn duì zhè cǎo 'àn zuò liǎo jiān ruì pínghuì wěi tuō 'ēn chū xīn cǎo 'ànēn xiě liǎo zuò wéi gāng lǐng chū gǎo degòng chǎn zhù yuán 》。 1847 nián 11 yuè xíng de gòng chǎn zhù zhě tóng méng 2 dài biǎo huìjīng guò liè biàn lùn jiē shòu 'ēn de guān diǎnwěi tuō men cǎo zhōu xiáng de lùn shí jiàn de dǎng gāng ēn zài lún dūn sài 'ěr jiù cǎo xuān yán jiāo huàn jiàn zhì rèn shíbìng yán jiū liǎo xuān yán de zhěng nèi róng jié gòuyóu zhí xiě chéngzhōng yāng wěi yuán huì jiē dàoxuān yánshǒu gǎo hòu yìn chū bǎn。 1848 nián 2 yuè ,《 xuān yánzài lún dūn 1 dān xíng běn wèn shìzhōng guó zuì zǎo degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánzhōng běn xiàn shān dōng shěng guǎng ráo xiàn wáng zhènxiàn cún dōng yíng shì shǐ guǎnguǎng ráo xiàn)。
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - xīn nèi róng
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》( yòu bèi wéigòng chǎn zhù xuān yán》) shì 'ěr · · ēn wéi gòng chǎn zhù zhě tóng méng cǎo de gāng lǐngguó gòng chǎn zhù yùn dòng gāng lǐng xìng wén xiàn zhù dàn shēng de zhòng yào biāo zhì。 1847 nián 11 yuè gòng chǎn zhù zhě tóng méng 'èr dài biǎo huì wěi tuō 'ēn cǎo zhōu xiáng de lùn shí jiàn de dǎng gāng ēn zhì rèn shíbìng yán jiū liǎo xuān yán de zhěng nèi róng jié gòuyóu zhí xiě chéng。 1848 nián 2 yuè,《 xuān yánzài lún dūn dān xíng běn wèn shì
  
  《 xuān yán quán miàn tǒng chǎn shù liǎo xué shè huì zhù lùnzhǐ chū gòng chǎn zhù yùn dòng chéng wéi kàng de shǐ cháo liúquán wén bāo kuò jiǎn duǎn de yǐn lùn chǎn zhě chǎn zhě chǎn zhě gòng chǎn dǎng rénshè huì zhù de gòng chǎn zhù de wén xiàngòng chǎn dǎng rén duì zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài děng fēngòu chéngxuān yán xīn de běn yuán shìměi shǐ shí dài zhù yào de shēng chǎn fāng shì jiāo huàn fāng shì rán yóu chǎn shēng de shè huì jié gòushì gāi shí dài zhèng zhì de jīng shén de shǐ suǒ lài què de chǔbìng qiě zhǐ yòu cóng zhè chǔ chū shǐ cái néng dào shuō míngcóng yuán shǐ shè huì jiě lái rén lèi shè huì de quán shǐ dōushì jiē dǒu zhēng de shǐzhè shǐ bāo kuò liè zhǎn jiē duànxiàn zài jīng dào zhè yàng jiē duàn chǎn jiē guǒ tóng shí shǐ zhěng shè huì bǎi tuō rèn xuē jiē huàfēn jiē dǒu zhēngjiù néng shǐ cóng chǎn jiē de xuē tǒng zhì xià jiě fàng chū lái
  
  《 xuān yányùn yòng biàn zhèng wéi zhù shǐ wéi zhù fēn shēng chǎn shēng chǎn guān chǔ shàng céng jiàn zhù de máo dùnfēn jiē jiē dǒu zhēng bié shì běn zhù shè huì jiē dǒu zhēng de chǎn shēng zhǎn guò chénglùn zhèng běn zhù rán miè wáng shè huì zhù rán shèng de guān guī zuò wéi běn zhù jué rén de chǎn jiē jiān de shì jiè shǐ shǐ mìng。《 xuān yángōng kāi xuān yòng mìng de bào tuī fān chǎn jiē de tǒng zhìjiàn chǎn jiē dezhèng zhì tǒng zhì”, biǎo shù liǎo chǎn jiē zhuān zhèng dài chǎn jiē zhuān zhèng de xiǎng。《 xuān yánhái zhǐ chū chǎn jiē zài duó zhèng quán hòu zài zhǎn shēng chǎn de chǔ shàng , zhú jìn xíng de shè huì gǎi zào , jìn 'ér dào xiāo miè jiē duì jiē běn shēn de cún zài tiáo jiàn。《 xuān yán pàn dāng shí zhǒng fǎn dòng de shè huì zhù cháoduìkōng xiǎng de pàn de shè huì zhù zuò liǎo xué de fēn píng jià
  
  《 xuān yánchǎn shù zuò wéi chǎn jiē xiān jìn duì de gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì diǎn dǒu zhēng lüè , zhǐ chū wéi dǎng de zuì jìn mùdì 'ér fèn dǒu zhēng shí xiàn gòng chǎn zhù zhōng mùdì zhī jiān de lián 。《 xuān yánzuì hòu zhuāng yán xuān gào:“ chǎn zhě zài zhè mìng zhōng shī de zhǐ shì suǒ liàn men huò de jiāng shì zhěng shì jiè。” bìng chū guó zhù de zhàn dǒu hào zhào:“ quán shì jiè chǎn zhělián lái !”  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - shí jiàn yǐng xiǎng
  
  《 xuān yánde běn yuán shì guān guī de xué zǒng jié ēn zhǐ chū:“ zhè xiē běn yuán de shí yùn yòngzhèng xuān yánzhōng suǒ shuō desuí shí suí dōuyào dāng shí de shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn 。” men fēi cháng zhòng shì zài shí jiàn zhōng jiǎn yàn de lùnyán jiū xīn de shǐ jīng yàn shí zǒng jié gōng shè (1792 1794) de jīng yàn bìng zuò wéi duìxuān yánde chōng xiū gǎi jiù shì fàn quán shì jiè chǎn jiē zhí xuān yánzuò wéi zhēng jiě fàng de xiǎng
  
  《 xuān yánzài 20 shì chū kāi shǐ chuán zhōng guó 1906 nián xiē bào kān shàng chū xiànxuān yánde mǒu xiē nèi róng jiè shào piàn duàn wén。 1920 nián chū bǎn chén wàng dào fān degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》, shìxuān yánzài zhōng guó zuì zǎo de quán wén běn
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - shǐ bèi jǐng
  
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yányóu 'ēn xiě 1847 nián 12 yuè zhì 1848 nián 1 yuè biǎo 1848 nián 2 yuè
  
  《 xuān yánshì chǎn jiē fǎn duì chǎn jiē de dǒu zhēng jiān ruì tiáo jiàn xià chǎn shēng de
  
  《 xuān yánshì ēn jìn xíng lùn yán jiū lùn dǒu zhēng zhēng chéng xiào de qíng kuàng xià chǎn shēng de
  
  《 xuān yánshì 'ēn wéi jiàn chǎn jiē zhèng dǎng 'ér dǒu zhēng de shí jiàn zhōng chǎn shēng de
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - nèi róng yào
  
  
  1848 nián 2 yuè 24 'ēn zhù degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánzài lún dūn chū bǎnzhè xuān yán shì gòng chǎn zhù zhě tóng méng 'èr dài biǎo huì wěi tuō ēn cǎo de tóng méng gāng lǐng
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánbāo kuò yǐn yán zhèng wén zhāng。 1872 nián héng 1893 nián 'ēn xiān hòu wéixuān yánde wéné wényīng wén lán wén wén bǎn zhuàn xiě liǎo piān yán piān yán jiǎn yào shuō míng liǎoxuān yánde běn xiǎng zài guó gòng chǎn zhù yùn dòng zhōng de shǐ wèizhǐ míngxuān yánde lùn yuán shì shǐ wéi zhù bìng gēn chǎn jiē mìng de jīng yàn jiào xùnduìxuān yánzuò liǎo chōng xiū gǎi
  
   yǐn yán fēn shuō míng xiě zuòxuān yánde bèi jǐng mùdì
  
  “ chǎn zhě chǎn zhězhè zhāng ēn yùn yòng shǐ wéi zhù de běn guān diǎnfēn liǎo chǎn jiē chǎn jiē de chǎn shēng zhǎn xiāng dǒu zhēng de guò chéngjiē shì liǎo běn zhù rán miè wáng shè huì zhù rán shèng de guān guī chǎn míng liǎo chǎn jiē de shǐ shǐ mìnglùn shù liǎo zhù de jiē dǒu zhēng xué shuō
  
   jiē dǒu zhēng shì tuī dòng jiē shè huì zhǎn de zhí jiē dòng 1--5 duàn)。
  
   kǎo chá chǎn jiē de chǎn shēng zhǎn guò chéngjiē shì běn zhù rán miè wáng de guī 6-28 duàn)。
  
   chǎn jiē de chǎn shēng zhǎn shǐ shǐ mìng 29--54 duàn)。
  
  “ chǎn zhě gòng chǎn dǎng rénzhè zhāng ēn chǎn míng liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì diǎn de rèn gòng chǎn dǎng de lùn běn gāng lǐng pàn liǎo chǎn jiē gōng gòng chǎn zhù de zhǒng miù lùnchǎn shù liǎo chǎn jiē zhuān zhèng de běn xiǎng tōng xiàng gòng chǎn zhù de yóu zhī
  
   gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì diǎn běn gāng lǐng 1--14 duàn)。
  
   chǎn jiē gōng gòng chǎn zhù de zhǒng miù lùn 15--68 duàn)。
  
   chǎn jiē zhuān zhèng de běn xiǎng tōng xiàng gòng chǎn zhù de yóu zhī 69--86 duàn)。
  
  “ shè huì zhù gòng chǎn zhù de wén xiànzhè zhāngfēn pàn liǎo dāng shí de zhǒng jiǎ shè huì zhù kōng xiǎng shè huì zhù zhǐ chū men dài biǎo de jiē dàn shì dǎzháo shè huì zhù de hào jìn xíng huó dòngfēn liǎo zhǒng jiǎ shè huì zhù liú pài chǎn shēng de shè huì shǐ tiáo jiànbìng jiē liǎo men de jiē shí zhì
  
   fǎn dòng de shè huì zhù 1--34 duàn)。
  
   bǎo shǒu de huò chǎn jiē de shè huì zhù 35--42 duàn)。
  
   pàn de kōng xiǎng de shè huì zhù gòng chǎn zhù 43--56 duàn)。
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán
  
  “ gòng chǎn dǎng rén duì zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài zhè zhāngzhù yào shì cóng gòng chǎn dǎng rén duì dài zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài shàngchǎn shù liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng rén mìng dǒu zhēng de xiǎng lüè
  
   gòng chǎn dǎng rén zhèng zhì dǒu zhēng lüè de běn yuán 1--4 duàn)。
  
   gòng chǎn dǎng rén zài guó de dǒu zhēng lüè 5--7 duàn)。
  
   gòng chǎn dǎng rén yùn yòng dǒu zhēng lüè de mùdì 8--12 duàn)。
  
  《 xuān yánshì xué gòng chǎn zhù de gāng lǐng xìng wén xiàn biāo zhì zhe zhù de dàn shēng。《 xuān yángāng gāng biǎojiù yíng lái liǎo 'ōu zhōu 1848 nián de mìng fēng bào
  
  《 xuān yánwán zhěng tǒng 'ér yán chǎn shù liǎo zhù de zhù yào xiǎngchǎn shù liǎo zhù de shì jiè guān bié shì de jiē dǒu zhēng xué shuōjiē shì liǎo běn zhù shè huì de nèi zài máo dùn zhǎn guī lùn zhèng liǎo běn zhù miè wáng shè huì zhù shèng de rán xìng。《 xuān yánlùn shù liǎo chǎn jiē zuò wéi běn zhù jué rén de wěi shǐ shǐ mìngchǎn shù liǎo zhù guān chǎn jiē zhuān zhèng de xiǎngchǎn míng liǎo gòng chǎn zhù mìng jǐn yào tóng chuán tǒng de suǒ yòu zhì guān shí xíng zuì chè de jué lièér qiě yào tóng chuán tǒng guān niàn shí xíng zuì chè de jué lièchǎn míng liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng de xìng zhì rèn zhè zhù zuò cóng dàn shēng jiù tuī dòng zhe quán shì jiè chǎn jiē zhēng jiě fàng dǒu zhēngchéng wéi chǎn jiē zuì ruì de zhàn dǒu ēn zhǐ chū shì quán shè huì zhù wén xiàn zhōng chuán zuì guǎng zuì guó xìng de zhù zuòshì shì jiè guó qiān bǎi wàn gōng rén gòng tóng de gāng lǐng
  
  《 xuān yánjié shù shí qiáng diàogòng chǎn dǎng rén xiàng quán shì jiè xuān yòng bào mìng tuī fān quán xiàn chéng de shè huì zhì shí xiàn gòng chǎn zhù ràng qiē fǎn dòng jiē zài gòng chǎn zhù mìng de miàn qián dǒu chǎn jiē mìng zhōng shī de zhǐ shì suǒ liàn jiāng huò zhěng shì jiè。《 xuān yányòng xiǎng yún xiāo de zuì qiáng yīn chū chǎn jiē guó zhù de wěi hào zhàoquán shì jiè chǎn zhělián lái
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 -1872 nián wén bǎn yán
  
   gòng chǎn zhù zhě tóng méng zhè zài dāng shí tiáo jiàn xià rán zhǐ néng shì tuán de guó gōng rén zhì, 1847 nián 11 yuè zài lún dūn dài biǎo huì shàng wěi tuō men liǎng rén cǎo zhǔn bèi gōng de zhōu xiáng de lùn shí jiàn de dǎng gāngjiēguǒ jiù chǎn shēng liǎo zhè xuān yán》,《 xuān yányuán gǎo zài 'èr yuè mìng qián xīng dào lún dūn yìn。《 xuān yánzuì chū yòng wén chū bǎnhòu lái yòu yòng wén zài guóyīng guó měi guó zhì shǎo fān yìn guò shí 'èr yīng běn shì yóu 'ài lín · mài lín shì fān de 1850 nián zài lún dūnhóng gòng dǎng rén zhì shàng biǎohòu lái zài 1871 nián zhì shǎo yòu yòu sān zhǒng tóng de yīng běn zài měi guó chū bǎn běn 1848 nián liù yuè qián jiǔ zài yìn xíngzuì jìn yòu zài niǔ yuēshè huì zhù zhě bàoshàng dēngzǎixiàn zài yòu yòu rén zài zhǔn bèi xīn běn lán wén běn zài guó běn chū bǎn wèn shì hòu jiǔ jiù zài lún dūn chū xiàné běn shì liù shí nián dài zài nèi chū bǎn dedān mài wén běn shì zài yuán shū wèn shì hòu jiǔ jiù chū bǎn liǎo
  
   guǎn zuì jìn 'èr shí nián lái de qíng kuàng shēng liǎo duō biàn huàzhè xuān yánzhōng suǒ huī de bān běn yuán zhěng shuō lái zhí dào xiàn zài hái shì wán quán zhèng què de bié fāng běn lái zuò mǒu xiē xiū gǎizhè xiē yuán de shí yùn yòngzhèng xuān yánzhōng suǒ shuō desuí shí suí dōuyào dāng shí de shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn suǒ 'èr zhāng wěi chū de xiē mìng cuò shī bìng méi yòu shénme shū de xiàn zài zhè duàn zài duō fāng miàn yìng gāi yòu tóng de xiě liǎoyóu zuì jìn 'èr shí nián lái gōng yòu hěn zhǎn 'ér gōng rén jiē de zhèng dǎng zhì gēn zhe zhǎn láiyóu shǒu xiān yòu liǎo 'èr yuè mìng de shí jīng yàn 'ér hòu lái yóu shì yòu liǎo chǎn jiē zhǎng zhèng quán liǎng yuè zhī jiǔ de gōng shè de shí jīng yànsuǒ zhè gāng lǐng xiàn zài yòu xiē fāng jīng guò shí liǎo bié shì gōng shè jīng zhèng míng:“ gōng rén jiē néng jiǎn dān zhǎng xiàn chéng de guó jiā bìng yùn yòng lái dào de mùdì。”( jiàn lán nèi zhànguó gōng rén xié huì zǒng wěi yuán huì xuān yán wén bǎn shí jiǔ zhè xiǎng huī gèng jiā wán bèi。) hěn míng xiǎnduì shè huì zhù wén xiàn suǒ zuò de pàn zài jīn tiān kàn lái shì wán quán deyīn wéi zhè pàn zhǐ bāo kuò dào 1847 nián wéi zhǐtóng yàng hěn míng xiǎnguān gòng chǎn dǎng rén duì zhǒng fǎn duì dǎng pài de tài wèn suǒ chū de jiàn zhāngsuī rán shàng zhì jīn hái shì zhèng què dedàn shì yóu zhèng zhì xíng shì jīng wán quán gǎi biànér dāng shí suǒ liè de xiē dǎng pài fēn bèi shǐ de zhǎn jìn chéng suǒ chè sǎo chúsuǒ zhè xiē jiàn zài shí jiàn fāng miàn jìng shì guò shí liǎo
  
   dàn shìxuān yánshì shǐ wén jiàn men méi yòu quán lái jiā xiū gǎixià zài bǎn shí néng jiā shàng piān bāo kuò cóng 1847 nián dào xiàn zài zhè duàn shí de dǎo yánzhè zài bǎn tài cāng liǎo zhì men jìng lái zuò zhè jiàn gōng zuò
  
   'ěr · · ēn 1872 nián 6 yuè 24 lún dūn
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 -1883 nián wén bǎn yán
  
   běn bǎn yán xìng zhǐ néng yóu rén shǔ míng liǎo zhè wèi rèn réndōu gèng yìng shòu dào 'ōu měi zhěng gōng rén jiē gǎn xiè de rén jīng cháng mián hǎi gōng de shàng jīng chū cháng chū liǎo qīng cǎozài shì shì hòujiù gèng tán shàng duìxuān yánzuò shénme xiū gǎi huò chōng liǎoyīn rèn wéi gèng yòu yào zài zhè zài míng què shēn shù xià miàn zhè diǎn
  
   guàn chuānxuān yánde běn xiǎngměi shǐ shí dài de jīng shēng chǎn rán yóu chǎn shēng de shè huì jié gòushì gāi shí dài zhèng zhì de jīng shén de shǐ de chǔyīn ( cóng yuán shǐ gōng yòu zhì jiě lái ) quán shǐ dōushì jiē dǒu zhēng de shǐ shè huì zhǎn jiē duàn shàng bèi xuē jiē xuē jiē zhī jiānbèi tǒng zhì jiē tǒng zhì jiē zhī jiān dǒu zhēng de shǐér zhè dǒu zhēng xiàn zài jīng dào zhè yàng jiē duàn bèi xuē bèi de jiē ( chǎn jiē ), guǒ tóng shí shǐ zhěng shè huì yǒng yuǎn bǎi tuō xuē jiē dǒu zhēngjiù zài néng shǐ cóng xuē de jiē ( chǎn jiē ) xià jiě fàng chū láihéng héng zhè běn xiǎng wán quán shì shǔ rén de
  
   zhè diǎn jīng shuō guòdàn zhèng shì xiàn zài zàixuān yánběn shēn de qián miàn xiě míng zhè diǎn
  
   · ēn   1883 nián 6 yuè 28 lún dūn
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - zhōng guó běn zhōng běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán
  
  
   jiǎn jiè
  
   zài dōng yíng shì guǎng ráo xiàn shōu cáng zhe 1920 nián 8 yuè chū bǎn de guó zuì zǎo degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánzhōng wén běnzhè kàn píng cháng de běn shūquè bèi chēng wéiguó bǎo”, de bǎo cún liú chuánjīng liǎo shì de fēng fēng
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánjié biǎo
  
  1919 nián 4 yuè 6 ,《 měi zhōu píng lùn shí liù hào zàimíng zhùlán nèi kānzǎigòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 ( jié ) 'èr zhāng chǎn zhě gòng chǎn dǎng rénhòu miàn shǔ gāng lǐng de duànbìng zài 'àn zhōng zhǐ chū:“ zhè xuān yán shì 'ēn zuì xiān zuì zhòng de jiàn。 ...... yào zhǐ zài zhù zhāng jiē duàn zhàn zhēngyào qiú de láo gōng lián 。 ...... shì biǎo shì xīn shí dài de wén shū。”
  
  《 měi zhōu píng lùn shí liù hào hái biǎo liǎo chén xiù de duǎn wéngāng cháng míng jiào》, wén zhāng shuō:“ ōu zhōu guó shè huì zhù de xué shuō jīng liú xíng liǎoé xiōng bìng qiě chéng liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng de shì jièzhè zhǒng fēng kǒng shàng jiù yào lái dào dōng fāng。”
  
  
  
   běn zhōng běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánde xiàn
   guǎng ráo cáng běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 ( cún dōng yíng shì shǐ guǎn ) guǎng ráo cáng běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 ( cún dōng yíng shì shǐ guǎn )
  
     1975 nián,《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánzhōng wén běn zài guǎng ráo de xiàn wèi shí tiān jīng chū liǎo xīn de qíng kuàng bìng zuò chū liǎo xīn de shuō míngguǎng ráo cáng běn píng zhuāng běncháng 18 kuān 12 xiàn zài de 32 kāi běn lüè xiǎo diǎnshū miàn yìn yòu shuǐ hóng bàn shēn xiàngshàng duān cóng yòu zhì zuǒ yìn zheshè huì zhù yán jiū xiǎo cóng shū zhǒng”, shàng shǔ ān 'ěr zhù”、“ chén wàng dào ”。 quán wén yòng 5 hào qiān shù pái 56 fēng yìn yòu qiān jiǔ bǎi 'èr shí nián yuè chū bǎn”、“ dìng jià yáng jiǎo yàngyìn shuà xíng zhě shìshè huì zhù yán jiū shè”。 jīng diào chá yán jiū chū guǎng ráo cáng běn jiū zhèng liǎo guò zài shàng hǎi cáng běn bào dào zhōng de què zhī chùguǎng ráo cáng běn de fēng miàn biāo shìgòng dǎng chǎn xuān yán”, ér shìgòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán”。《 dǎng shǐ liào cóng kānsuǒ kānzǎi de shàng hǎi 8 yuè cáng běn de jiè shào wén zhāng zhào piàn biāo míng shàng hǎi běn de fēng miàn biāo shìgòng dǎng chǎn xuān yán”。 jīng guò duì zhàoguǎng ráo běn shàng hǎi běn wán quán shì bǎn běn 'èrguǎng ráo běn liǎo běn zhèngde miànguò rèn wéigòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánquán běn zài guó chū bǎn shì 1920 nián 8 yuè shuōzhǐ yòu shàng hǎi dàng 'àn guǎn běn shí zuò zhèngbèi chēng wéi běn”、“ zhèng”。 yòu liǎo guǎng ráo cáng běnlìng shàng hǎi shū guǎn shàng yòu tóng běn), zài jiā shàng běi jīng shū guǎn bǎo cún de cán běnzhì shǎo shì yòu liǎo 4 běn 8 yuè de bǎn běnxiàn zài zhèng míng,《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánquán běn shì 1920 nián 8 yuè chū bǎn de sānjìn nòng qīng liǎo chū bǎn qíng kuàngcóng guǎng ráo cáng běn shàng hǎi dàng 'àn guǎnshàng hǎi shū guǎn de shōu cáng běn fēng miàn biāo dōushìgòng dǎng chǎn xuān yánzhè qíng kuàng lái kàn, 8 yuè bǎn běn fēng miàn biāo zhī bìng fēi shēng zài bié yìn běn zhī shàngzhè fēng miàn biāo cuò xiǎn rán shì yīn pái yìn huò jiàoduì shū suǒ zào chéng deér fēi shénme huò yuán yīn suǒ zào chéng deyīn wéifēi shàng shù pái de biāo qīng chǔ yìn zhegòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán duàn dìngzhèng shì yīn wéi shēng xiàn liǎo zhè bǎn fēng miàn biāo de xíng wén cuò yòu jiā xīn shū shòu qìng zài 9 yuè jiān jìn xíngzài bǎnshí jiū zhèng liǎo fēng miàn biāo cuò cóng xiàn yòu xiàn de bǎn běn fēn , 1920 nián 8 yuè bǎn běnjiù shì zuì zǎo de bǎn běnér qiě 8 yuè bǎn běn fēng fēn míng yìn zhechū bǎn”, 9 yuè bǎn běn yìn zhezài bǎn”, zhōng yāng dàng 'àn guǎn shōu cáng de 1924 nián 6 yuè bǎn běn yìn zhe sān bǎn yàng shuō míngjiǎ dìng 8 yuè bǎn běn zhī qián hái yòu bǎn běn de huà 8 yuè běn jiù yìng wéizài bǎn”, 9 yuè běn wéisān bǎn”, 1924 nián 6 yuè běn chéng liǎo bǎn”, dàn zhè zhǒng qíng kuàng bìng cún zài
  
   shū de yóu lái chuán
  
     guǎng ráo shōu cáng de zhè běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánxiān shì zài Jǐnán gòng chǎn zhù zhě shǒu zhōnghòu yòu chuán dào liǎo guǎng ráo céng xiǎng jīng liǎo fān màn cháng 'ér zhé de guò chéng
     yóu 1919 nián yùn dòng bào de dǎo huǒ xiàn shì shān dōng wèn 'ér,“ shí shān dōng de 'ài guó fǎn dǒu zhēng bié gāo zhǎng guǎng fànzhè jiù shǐ zhù zuògòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánzài shān dōng chuán kāi lái shíměi zhōu píng lùnxiàng xué xiào shòushì nián qiūwáng jìn měidèng 'ēn míngwáng xiáng qiān děng zài Jǐnán chéng xué shuō yán jiū huìxué yán jiū de zhù yào wén xiàn shìgòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 huì yuán táng huí shuō:“ dāng shí de zhù yào xué liào shìgòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》、《 xiàng dǎodài huí jiā qīn kàn liǎo wéi chēng zànshuō shì shèng rén。” guǎng ráo shōu cáng de zhè běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánzuì chū jiù shì zài Jǐnán gòng chǎn zhù zhě zhōng liú chuánxué de
     zài guǎng ráo cáng běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánde shǒu yòu xià jiǎo gài yòu fāngbǎo chénzhū hóng yìn hénér zhè wèibǎo chénshì shuí jīng diào chá shì Jǐnán de zǎo tuán yuán dǎng yuán zhāng bǎo chénzhōng yāng dàng 'àn guǎn bǎo cún de 1923 nián 12 yuè 15 Jǐnán tuán yuán diào chá biǎobiǎo míngzhāng bǎo chén shì jiāng rén, 1922 nián 1 yuè 1 tuánhòu dào Jǐnán gōng zuòcóng shì qīng nián yùn dòngzhōng yāng dàng 'àn guǎn hái yòu dàng 'àn shuō míng shì Jǐnán tuán de zhù yào rén zhī zhù guǎnjiào jiān xínggōng zuò 1922 nián céng rèn Jǐnán dǎng de dài shū de xiān huí zhāng bǎo chén shì dāng shí zài Jǐnán de míng dǎng yuán zhī wáng biànliú jiǔ děng Jǐnán de zǎo dǎng yuán huí zhāng bǎo chén dāng shí zài dào shēng yínháng zuò zhí yuánzài dǎng nèi guǎn dǎngtuán kān de xíng gōng zuòdào shēng yínháng shì shā 'é zài zhōng guó kāi shè de yínhángzǒng xíng shè zài shàng hǎishí yuè mìng hòu réng kāi bànzhāng bǎo chén shì gāi xíng Jǐnán fēn xíng de zhí yuáncháng lái wǎng shàng hǎiJǐnán zhī jiānyòu zài dǎng nèi dǎng tuán kān liè shū de xíng gōng zuòyīn néng shōu cún zhè zuì zǎo bǎn běn degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 me yòu shì zěn yàng chuán dào guǎng ráo xiàn liú cūn de yuán lái shì tōng guò lìng míng zǎo gòng chǎn dǎng yuán liú huī
     liú huī shì guǎng ráo xiàn liú cūn réncéng xiān hòu jiù nán yǎng cán jiǎng suǒ zhōu chǎn xué xiào, 1925 nián xià hòu huí Jǐnán zhí xué xiào rèn jiàozài Jǐnán jiān jié shí liǎo Jǐnán shī de wáng biànhóu lán pèi zhēnliú shū qínwáng lán yīng děng duō gòng chǎn dǎng yuántóng nián yóu pèi zhēn jiè shào jiā zhōng guó gòng chǎn dǎng men cháng yán zhēnliú jiǔ yún shēngzhāng bǎo chén děng nán tóng zhì xué huó dòngzhè yàng běn gài yòubǎo chényìn hén degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánjiù niǎn zhuǎn dào liǎo liú huī de shǒu zhōng。 1926 nián chūn jié tóng xiāng yán zhēnliú jiǔ tóng huí jiā xǐngqīn shíjiù zhè běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán duō zhù shū dǎng de xuān chuán cái liào dài huí liǎo guǎng ráo xiàn liú cūncóng zhè běn mìng wén xiàn biàn zài zhè piān de nóng cūn jīng liǎo píng fán de 50 chūn qiū
    guǎng ráo liú dǎng zhī shì zài 1925 nián chūn jiàn deliú jiǔ zài bāng zhù jiàn liú dǎng zhī shí céng cóng wài dài huí guò běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán liè zhù zuòdǎng de xuān chuán wén jiàn
     zhè běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yándāng shí yóu zhī shū liú liáng cái bǎo cún hòu, 1926 nián chūn jié jiānliú huī yòu gěi liú zhī dài lái liǎo běn gài yòubǎo chényìn hén degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 zhè yàngliú zhī liù dǎng yuánjiù yōng yòu liǎo liǎng běngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 zhè zài dāng shí tōng de nóng cūn dǎng zhī lái shuōwěi shí nán néng guìzhī shū liú liáng cái jīng cháng zài wǎn shàng zhào dǎng yuán menzài jiā de sān jiān běi méi yóu dēng xià xué gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán wén jiàn dōng nóng xián jiédǎng zhī hái bàn nóng mín xiàoyóu liú liáng cái huò dǎng yuán xuān jiǎng mìng dào wén huà zhī shí。《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yányòu chéng liǎo liú liáng cái děng tóng zhì bèi de hǎo cái liàocóng xiàn cúngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán kàn chūyóu zhè běn shū dāng nián jīng cháng bèi fān yuè zhì zài shū de zuǒ xià jiǎo liú xià liǎo míng xiǎn de zhǐ hén sǔn
    《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánshì zhù zhù zuò zài zhōng guó chuán zuì zǎozuì guǎng fàn de bǎo shū zài chéng shìzài zhī shí fènzǐ zhōngzài mìng de xiān zhī xiān jué zhě huī liǎo wéi zhòng yào de zuò yòngdàn shì xiàng guǎng ráo cáng běn zhè yàng de chuán qíng kuàng shì duō jiàn de zài dāng shí shān dōng zhè yàng zhǐ yòu bǎi rén jiā de xiǎo cūnzài pín nóng mín dāng zhōng chuán huī zhuóshí shí zài zài de zuò yòngzhè duì rèn shí hòu zhù zài zhōng guó chuán de guǎng shēn néng shuō shì
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - zhǐ dǎo xiǎng
  
   guàn chuānxuān yánquán piān de běn xiǎng huò zhǐ dǎo shì wéi zhù shǐ guān,《 xuān yánde zhōng xīn xiǎng shì guān liǎng rán xìngde yuán yùn yòng wéi shǐ guān lùn zhèng bìng chǎn míng chǎn jiē jiě fàng de xìng zhìtiáo jiàn bān mùdìyóu shì guān xiàn dài gōng rén jiē de wěi shǐ zuò yòng shǐ shǐ mìnggōng rén jiē xiān jìn zhèng dǎng shǐ wèi shǐ shǐ mìng zhǐ dǎo xiǎng de xiān jìn xìng jiàn xìngzhàn dǒu xìngyuán xìng lüè xìng děng zhēngcóng 'ér wéi gōng rén jiē quán rén lèi de chè jiě fàng zhǐ míng liǎo xué de jìng
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - zhù yào diǎn
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánshì ēn quán chéng shú zhù zuò de gāng lǐng hóng xiànshì jiě shénme shì zhù de guān jiàn ēn de quán zhù zuòjiù shì wéi shí xiànxuān yánzhōng deliǎng rán xìng”, wéi shí xiàn chǎn jiē de chè jiě fàng 'ér jìn xíng de lùn yán jiū duàn wán shàn zhǎn xué shè huì zhù lùnbìng shǐ lùn biàn wéi gāng lǐngshǐ gāng lǐng zhū shí shīshì lùn tóng shí jiàn xiāng jié shǐ xué shè huì zhù tóng gōng rén yùn dòng xiāng jié zhè jiù shì zhù de xué shè huì zhù xíng xíng de shè huì zhù xiāng bié de zhù yào diǎn
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 -
  
  ( )《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánquè liǎo xué shè huì zhù de běn yuán
  
   xué lùn zhèng liǎo gòng chǎn zhù de shǐ rán xìng
  
   'èrmíng què zhǐ chū liǎo chǎn jiē mìng de běn xiàn zhù yào rèn
  
   sāně yào chǎn míng liǎo chǎn jiē de jiàn dǎng xué shuō lüè yuán
  
  ( èr)《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánshì gōng rén jiē jiě fàng de wěi zhì
  
   gōng rén jiē yùn hán zhe jiě fàng de zuì qiáng de liàng yuán quánshì tuī dòng shǐ qián jìn de huǒ chē tóugōng rén jiē shì zài gǎi zào jiù shì jièjiàn shè xīn shè huì de kào liàng lǐng dǎo liàngzhè zhǒng liàng de xiàn chéng liǎo xué shè huì zhù lùn de kuài zhù yào de shí”。 yóu zhù shì gōng rén jiē de lùn biǎo xiàn chǎn jiē jiě fàng tiáo jiàn de lùn gài kuòyīn dàn chǎn shēng chū láibìng xiàng gōng rén jiē jìn xíng guàn shū hòu jiù néng zhǎng qiān bǎi wàn chǎn zhě de xīn líng bèi jué de gōng rén suǒ jiē shòuchéng wéi gōng rén jiē de shì jiè guāndǎo zhì gōng rén jiē zhèng dǎng de chǎn shēngcóng 'ér shǐ chǎn jiē yóu zài jiē xiàng wéi jiē zhuǎn biàn
  
  《 xuān yánchǎn míng liǎo gōng rén jiē de shǐ zuò yòng shǐ shǐ mìng chǎn jiē jiě fàng de xìng zhìtiáo jiàn mùdì
  
  《 xuān yánshì chǎn jiē gēn běn de lùn biǎo xiàn
  
   zhù lùn jīng zhǎng qún zhòngjiù huì wéi zhàn shèng de zhì liàng
  
  ( sān)《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánjǐyǔ zhōng guó gòng chǎn dǎng rénzhōng guó mìng shè huì zhù shì de wěi yǐng xiǎng guāng huī zhǐ dǎo
  
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》( xià jiǎn chēngxuān yán》) shì 'ēn wéi gòng chǎn zhù zhě tóng méng cǎo de dǎng gāngshì xué shè huì zhù de gāng lǐng xìng wén xiàn。《 xuān yánjiē shì liǎo rén lèi shè huì zhǎn de guān guī duì zhōng guó shè huì de zhǎn chǎn shēng liǎo shēn yuǎn de yǐng xiǎng duō shì láizhōng guó chǎn shēng liǎo sān wèi zhàn zài shí dài qián liè de dài biǎo rén sūn zhōng shānmáo dōng zhāo mendōu shòu dàoxuān yánde zhí jiē yǐng xiǎng jiào
  
  1896 niánzhōng guó mìng de xiān xíng zhě sūn zhōng shān liú yīng guó jiānjiù zài yīng guǎn dàoxuān yánděng zhù lùn zhù céng dūn liú xué shēng yán jiū de běn lùngòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》。 1899 nián 3 yuè shàng hǎiwàn guó gōng bàokānzǎi jié de yīng guó shè huì xué jiā jié de tóng xué wén jiù shè dàoxuān yánde yòu guān nèi róng。 1905 nián chǎn jiē mìng pài zhū zhí xìn zài tóng méng huì guān bàomín bào 'èr hào shàng biǎo de zhì shè huì mìng jiā xiǎozhuàn wén shù liǎo 'ēn de shēng píng xué shuōbìng jiǎn yào jiè shào liǎoxuān yánde xiě zuò bèi jǐng běn xiǎng shǐ hái xuān yánde wén běn bìng cān zhào yīng wén běn zhāi liǎo gāi shū de duàn wén 'èr zhāng de shí gāng lǐng quán wénbìng zuò liǎo jiě shìzuò zhě jiāng gāi shū de shū míng wéigòng chǎn zhù xuān yán》。 1908 nián 3 yuè 15 liú shī péishǔ míng shēn shūzàitiān bào biǎo liǎo gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán 》。 zhè shì zhōng guó rén wéixuān yánzuò hòuyòu guānxuān yánde wén zhāng duàn jiàn zhū bào duān
  
  1917 nián 'é guó shí yuè mìng de shèng jìn huàn xǐng liǎo zhōng guó de xiān jìn fènzǐ。“ yùn dòngqián hòuzhōng guó chū xiàn liǎo duō jiè shào tǎo lùnxuān yánde wén zhāng zhù zài zhōng guó dào guǎng fàn de chuán 。 1920 nián 3 yuè zhāo chàng dǎo chéng deběi jīng xué héng héng biān ji zhùxué yán jiū huì fān liǎo wén bǎnxuān yánde quán wényìn liǎo shǎo liàng yóu yìn běn zài dāng shí de xiān jìn fènzǐ zhōng chuán yuè。 1920 nián 8 yuèyóu chén wàng dào gēn wén yīng wén bǎn běn fān dexuān yánde zhōng wén běn zài gòng chǎn guó de zhù xià yóu shàng hǎi shè huì zhù yán jiū shè zhèng shì chū bǎnchén wàng dào běn zài hòu de 20 nián zhōngduō chóngyìnguǎng wéi liú chuánmáo dōng zài 1920 nián yuè liǎo kǎo zhù dejiē dǒu zhēng》、 chén wàng dào fān degòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán yīng guó rén zuò deshè huì zhù shǐ》。 zhōu 'ēn lái duì chén wàng dào jiù shuō guò:“ mendōu shì jiào chū lái de。”
  
  《 xuān yánduì dāng shí zài guó wài qín gōng jiǎn xué de qīng nián chǎn shēng liǎo zhòng yào de yǐng xiǎng。 1920 nián chūcài sēn zài guó xiān hòu fān chūxuān yán》、《 shè huì zhù cóng kōng xiǎng dào xué de zhǎnděng zhù zuò de zhòng yào duàn luòzài qín gōng jiǎn xué de xué shēng zhōng guǎng wéi liú chuándèng xiǎo píng shì zài guó qín gōng jiǎn xué shí dàoxuān yánde hòu lái shuō de mén lǎo shī shìgòng chǎn dǎng xuān yángòng chǎn zhù 》。
  
   suí zhe zhōng guó mìng xíng shì de zhǎnduìxuān yánde qiú zēng。《 xuān yánde zhōng wén běn chū bǎn hòu dào 1949 nián zhōng huá rén mín gòng guó chéng yòu yòu 5 zhōng wén běn wèn shì wén zhì liàng duàn gāosuǒ shōu yán duàn zēng jiā xíng shù liàng kuò
  
   xīn zhōng guó chéng hòu, 1949 nián 11 yuè zài běi jīng yìn liǎo lián wài jiāo chū bǎn chū bǎn de shōu yòu 'ēn xiě de quán 7 piān yán dexuān yánbǎi zhōu nián niàn běn。 1958 nián zhōng gòng zhōng yāng biān jiàodìng liǎoxuān yánde zhōng běnshōu 'ēn quán juàn。 1964 nián gēn wén bìng cān kǎo yīng 'é děng wén běn zài zuò liǎo jiàodìngchū bǎn liǎo dān xíng běnshì zhōng guó liú chuán zuì guǎng de bǎn běn。 1972 nián 5 yuèxīn biān de juàn běn 'ēn xuǎn zhèng shì chū bǎn zhōng shōu liǎoxuān yánde zhèng wén 'ēn xiě de 7 piān yán。 1995 nián 6 yuèyòu biān ji chū bǎn liǎo 'èr bǎnzhè bǎn 'ēn xuǎn duì shōu zài de wén xiàn zuò liǎo jiào tiáozhěngbìng 'àn yuán zhù wén duì wén chóngxīn zuò liǎo jiàodìng。 1997 nián 8 yuè rén mín chū bǎn shè yòu gēn 'ēn xuǎn zhōng wén 'èr bǎn juàn zhōng dexuān yánde xīn wén chū bǎn liǎo dān xíng běnbìng zuò wéi liè zhù zuò de liè shū liè níng zhù wén zhī zhǒng chū bǎn xíngzhè shìgòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán jīn zài guó chū bǎn de zuì xīn bǎn běn
  
   jiāng mín tóng zhì zài dǎng de shí bào gào zhōng zhǐ chū:“ jìn 20 nián lái gǎi kāi fàng xiàn dài huà jiàn shè chéng gōng de gēn běn yuán yīn zhī jiù shì liǎo xiē chāo yuè jiē duàn de cuò guān niàn zhèng yòu zhì liǎo pāo shè huì zhù běn zhì de cuò zhù zhāng”。 zhè jiù qīng chǔ gào men wán zhěng zhǔn què jiě guān shè huì zhù chū jiē duànzhè jiù jué dìng liǎo men xiàn jiē duàn de fèn dǒu biāo shì jiàn shè zhōng guó de shè huì zhù men yào wèicǐ 'ér gòng xiàn de qiēshè 'ér kōng tán gòng chǎn zhù jiù shì yòu huò duō huò shǎo bèi pàn liǎo gòng chǎn zhù
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - xué tài fāng
  
  ( duì běn yuán de shí yùn yòngsuí shí suí dōuyào dāng shí de shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn
  
   zàixuān yánde chū bǎn yán zhōng duō shuō míngduì běn yuán de shí yùn yòngsuí shí suí dōuyào dāng shí de shǐ tiáo jiàn wéi zhuǎn duì bié yuán yuán gèng yào gēn shí de shí qíng kuàng jìn xíng de fēn zhè guān jiàn shì zhǔn què běn yuán yuán de xué jiè xiànyīn wéi duì běn yuán shì néng wéi bèi dewéi bèi liǎo běn yuán jiù huì zǒu xiàng zhù de fǎn miànzàng sòng mìng chéng guǒcóng 'ér néng chéng wéi zhù de chǐ pàn
  
  ( èryào shí shì qiú shì jiān chí zhù de wéi biàn zhèng guān diǎn
  
   cóng cháng yuǎn kànshè huì zhù zhōng jiāng chè zhàn shèng běn zhù zhōng jiāng zài quán shì jiè fàn wéi nèi wán quán shèng ér zài zhī qiánshè huì zhù zài měi guó jiā de shí jiàn yòu néng shēng shèn zhì duō de zàn shí shī bài huò cuò zhéguó shè huì zhù yùn dòng hái néng jīng ruò gān gāo cháo jiāo de shí yīn duì shè huì zhù de qián mìng yùn yào mǎn huái xìn xīn yòu diào qīng xīnrèn bēi guān de lùn tiáohé máng guān jiǎo xìng xīn dōushì cuò shí fēn yòu hài de
  
  ( sān zhù shì chéng biàn de jiào tiáo suí zhe shí dài de zhǎn 'ér duàn dào fēng zhǎn
  
   dèng xiǎo píng tóng zhì shuō guò:“ zhēn zhèng de liè níng zhù zhě gēn xiàn zài de qíng kuàngrèn shí chéng zhǎn liè níng zhù 。 ..... xīn de xiǎngguān diǎn chéng zhǎn zhù shì zhēn zhèng de zhù zhě。” fèi chú jìng zhǐ xué yán jiū zhù de fāng kāi běn guó de shí shí dài zhǎn lái tán zhù méi yòu chū méi yòu zhèng dǎng de shí bào gào zhǐ chū de yàng:“ dìng yào guó gǎi kāi fàng xiàn dài huà jiàn shè de shí wèn men zhèng zài zuò de shì qíng wéi zhōng xīnzhuóyǎn zhù lùn de yùn yòngzhuóyǎn duì shí wèn de lùn kǎozhuóyǎn xīn de shí jiàn xīn zhǎn。”
  
  ( yào zhèng què rèn shí cónggòng chǎn dǎng xuān yándào dèng xiǎo píng lùn de chéng zhǎn guān
  
   dèng xiǎo píng lùn de běn guān diǎn tónggòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánde běn yuán jīng shén shí zhì shì zhì debāo kuògòng chǎn dǎng xuān yánzài nèi de liè zhù máo dōng xiǎng shì dèng xiǎo píng lùn de shēn hòu gēn zhù yào lái yuándèng xiǎo píng lùn shì bāo kuòxuān yánzài nèi de liè zhù máo dōng xiǎng de běn yuán yuán de chéng zhǎnèr zhě tóng chù xué zhī zhōngshì fēn de tǒng yìng rén wéi 'èr zhě duì lái huò liè kāi láisuǒ duì xiē shì guān zhòng yuán de shì fēi wèn chéng qīngduì jīng zào chéng hěn de liáng yǐng xiǎng de yòu xiē fēi zhù de cuò xiǎng guān diǎn yīngdāng rèn zhēn jiā jiū zhèng
  《 gòng chǎn dǎng xuān yán》 - jié
  
   zài guò dào bàn shì zhōngshè huì zhù de shí jiàn jīng jīng sān gāo cháo gāo cháo shì gōng shè de chuàng 'èr gāo cháo shì 'é guó shí yuè mìng de shèng shǒu xiān zài lián jiàn shè shè huì zhù guó jiā sān gāo cháo shì 'èr shì jiè zhàn hòu zhì 70 nián dàishè huì zhù mìng jiàn shè zài liè guó jiā bié shì zài zhōng guó shèng
  
   shè huì zhù de shí jiàn biǎo míngshí xiàn shè huì zhù gòng chǎn zhù jué shì shénme kōng xiǎngér shì jīng huò jiāng yào biàn chéng huó shēng shēng de xiàn shízhè shì jīng guò mìng zhèng dǎng rén mín chí jiǔ fèn dǒu zhōng jiāng zuì hòu shèng de chóng gāo xiǎngtóng shí biǎo míngshí xiàn shè huì zhù de dào shì hěn zhé de yào jīng guò duō de chéng gōng shī bàigāo cháo cháozhè yàng huí zhé de chéng
  
   zhù zhǎn shǐ jiù shì duàn chuàng zào xìng zhǎn yòng xīn de yuán dài bié jiù de yuán de guò chéngjiù zhù zuò wéi xué lùn 'ér yán yǒng yuǎn huì guò shíyīn wéi shí jiàn wéi yuán tóu huó shuǐ duàn shí jìnhuì guò shí de shì bié yuán ér bié de yuán de guò shízhèng shì zhěng zhù xué xué shuō yǒng huó de bǎo zhèng jīn wéi zhǐhái méi yòu zhǒng lùn xué shuōzài zǒng shàng néng xiàng zhù zhè yàng wéi rén men rèn shí gǎi zào shì jiè gōng xué de běn lùn fāng jiù yòu zhǒng lùn xué shuō xiàng zhù zhè yàng qiáng diào lùn de yùn yòng lián shí yòu chuàng zào xìng


  Manifesto of the Communist Party (German: Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei), often referred to as The Communist Manifesto, was published on February 21, 1848, and is one of the world's most influential political manuscripts. Commissioned by the Communist League and written by communist theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, it laid out the League's purposes and program. It presents an analytical approach to the class struggle (historical and present) and the problems of capitalism, rather than a prediction of communism's potential future forms.
  
  Friedrich Engels has often been credited in composing the first drafts, which led to The Communist Manifesto. In July 1847, Engels was elected into the Communist League, where he was assigned to draw up a catechism. This became the Draft of a Communist Confession of Faith. The draft contained almost two dozen questions that helped express the ideas of both Engels and Karl Marx at the time. In October 1847, Engels composed his second draft for the Communist League entitled, The Principles of Communism. The text remained unpublished until 1914, despite its basis for The Manifesto. From Engels's drafts Marx was able to write, once commissioned by the Communist League, The Communist Manifesto, where he combined more of his ideas along with Engels's drafts and work, The Condition of the Working Class in England.
  
  Although the names of both Engels and Karl Marx appear on the title page alongside the "persistent assumption of joint-authorship", Engels, in the preface introduction to the 1883 German edition of the Manifesto, said that the Manifesto was "essentially Marx's work" and that "the basic thought... belongs solely and exclusively to Marx."
  
  Engels wrote after Marx's death,
  
   "I cannot deny that both before and during my forty years' collaboration with Marx I had a certain independent share in laying the foundations of the theory, but the greater part of its leading basic principles belong to Marx....Marx was a genius; we others were at best talented. Without him the theory would not be by far what it is today. It therefore rightly bears his name."
  
  Textual history
  
  The Communist Manifesto was first published (in German) in London by a group of German political refugees in 1848. It was also serialised at around the same time in a German-language London newspaper, the Deutsche Londoner Zeitung. The first English translation was produced by Helen Macfarlane in 1850. The Manifesto went through a number of editions from 1872 to 1890; notable new prefaces were written by Marx and Engels for the 1872 German edition, the 1882 Russian edition, the 1883 French edition, and the 1888 English edition. This edition, translated by Samuel Moore with the assistance of Engels, has been the most commonly used English text since.
  
  However, some recent English editions, such as Phil Gasper's annotated "road map" (Haymarket Books, 2006), have used a slightly modified text in response to criticisms of the Moore translation made by Hal Draper in his 1994 history of the Manifesto, The Adventures of the "Communist Manifesto" (Center for Socialist History, 1994).
  Contents
  
  The Manifesto is divided into an introduction, three substantive sections, and a conclusion.
  Preamble
  
  The introduction begins with the notable comparison of communism to a "spectre", claiming that across Europe communism is feared, but not understood, and thus communists ought to make their views known with a manifesto:
  
   A spectre is haunting Europe—the spectre of Communism. All the Powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre: Pope and Czar, Metternich and Guizot, French Radicals and German police-spies.
   Where is the opposition party that has not been decried as Communist by its opponents in power? Where is the opposition party that has not hurled back the branding reproach of Communism, against the more advanced opposition parties, as well as against its reactionary adversaries?
  
  I. Bourgeois and Proletarians
  
  The first section, "Bourgeois and Proletarians", puts forward Marx's neo-Hegelian version of history, historical materialism, claiming that
  
   The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.
  
   Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, have stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.
  
  The section goes on to argue that the class struggle under capitalism is between those who own the means of production, the ruling class or bourgeoisie, and those who labour for a wage, the working class or proletariat.
  
   The bourgeoisie, wherever it has got the upper hand, has put an end to all feudal, patriarchal, idyllic relations. It ... has left remaining no other nexus between man and man than naked self-interest, than callous “payment in cash” ... for exploitation, veiled by religious and political illusions, it has substituted naked, shameless, direct, brutal exploitation ... Constant revolutionizing of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones ... All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned, and man is at last compelled to face with sober senses, his real conditions of life, and his relations with his kind.
  
  However:
  
   The essential condition for the existence and rule of the bourgeois class is the accumulation of wealth in private hands, the formation and increase of capital; the essential condition of capital is wage-labour. Wage-labour rests entirely on the competition among the workers.
  
  This section further explains that the proletarians will eventually rise to power through class struggle: the bourgeoisie constantly exploits the proletariat for its manual labour and cheap wages, ultimately to create profit for the bourgeois; the proletariat rise to power through revolution against the bourgeoisie such as riots or creation of unions. The Communist Manifesto states that while there is still class struggle amongst society, capitalism will be overthrown by the proletariat only to start again in the near future; ultimately communism is the key to class equality amongst the citizens of Europe.
  II. Proletarians and Communists
  
  The second section, "Proletarians and Communists," starts by outlining the relationship of conscious communists to the rest of the working class:
  
   The Communists do not form a separate party opposed to other working-class parties.
   They have no interests separate and apart from those of the proletariat as a whole.
   They do not set up any sectarian principles of their own, by which to shape and mould the proletarian movement.
   The Communists are distinguished from the other working-class parties by this only: 1. In the national struggles of the proletarians of the different countries, they point out and bring to the front the common interests of the entire proletariat, independently of all nationality. 2. In the various stages of development which the struggle of the working class against the bourgeoisie has to pass through, they always and everywhere represent the interests of the movement as a whole.
  
  It goes on to defend communism from various objections, such as the claim that communists advocate "free love", and the claim that people will not perform labor in a communist society because they have no incentive to work.
  
  The section ends by outlining a set of short-term demands. These included, among others, the abolition of both private land ownership and of the right to inheritance, a progressive income tax, universal education, centralization of the means of communication and transport under state management, and the expansion of the means of production owned by the state. The implementation of these policies, would, the authors believed, be a precursor to the stateless and classless society.
  
  One particularly controversial passage deals with this transitional period:
  
   When, in the course of development, class distinctions have disappeared, and all production has been concentrated in the hands of a vast association of the whole nation, the public power will lose its political character. Political power, properly so called, is merely the organized power of one class for oppressing another. If the proletariat during its contest with the bourgeoisie is compelled, by the force of circumstances, to organize itself as a class, if, by means of a revolution, it makes itself the ruling class, and, as such, sweeps away by force the old conditions of production, then it will, along with these conditions, have swept away the conditions for the existence of class antagonisms and of classes generally, and will thereby have abolished its own supremacy as a class.
  
  It is this concept of the transition from socialism to communism which many critics of the Manifesto, particularly during and after the Soviet era, have highlighted. Anarchists, liberals, and conservatives have all asked how an organization such as the revolutionary state could ever (as Engels put it elsewhere) "wither away."
  
  In a related dispute, later Marxists make a separation between "socialism", a society ruled by workers, and "communism", a classless society. Engels wrote little and Marx wrote less on the specifics of the transition to communism, so the authenticity of this distinction remains a matter of dispute.
  10 point program of Communism
  
   1. Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes.
   2. A heavy progressive or graduated income tax.
   3. Abolition of all right of inheritance.
   4. Confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels.
   5. Centralisation of credit in the hands of the State, by means of a national bank with State capital and an exclusive monopoly.
   6. Centralisation of the means of communication and transport in the hands of the State.
   7. Extension of factories and instruments of production owned by the State; the bringing into cultivation of waste-lands, and the improvement of the soil generally in accordance with a common plan.
   8. Equal liability of all to labour. Establishment of industrial armies, especially for agriculture.
   9. Combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries; gradual abolition of the distinction between town and country, by a more equitable distribution of the population over the country.
   10. Free education for all children in public schools. Abolition of children's factory labour in its present form. Combination of education with industrial production.
  
  According to the Communist Manifesto, all these were prior conditions for a transition from capitalism to communism, but Marx and Engels later expressed a desire to modernize this passage.
  III. Socialist and Communist Literature
  
  The third section, "Socialist and Communist Literature," distinguishes communism from other socialist doctrines prevalent at the time the Manifesto was written. While the degree of reproach of Marx and Engels toward rival perspectives varies, all are eventually dismissed for advocating reformism and failing to recognize the preeminent role of the working class. Partly because of Marx's critique, most of the specific ideologies described in this section became politically negligible by the end of the nineteenth century.
  IV. Position of the Communists in Relation to the Various Opposition Parties
  
  The concluding section, "Position of the Communists in Relation to the Various Opposition Parties," briefly discusses the communist position on struggles in specific countries in the mid-nineteenth century such as France, Switzerland, Poland, and Germany. It then ends with a declaration of support for other communist revolutions and a call to action:
  
   In short, the Communists everywhere support every revolutionary movement against the existing social and political order of things.
   The Communists disdain to conceal their views and aims. They openly declare that their ends can be attained only by the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win.
  
  Workers of the world, unite!
yán
   yōu língzhù de yōu língzài 'ōu zhōu yóu dàngwèile duì zhè yōu líng jìn xíng shén shèng de wéi jiǎojiù 'ōu zhōu de qiē shì jiào huáng shā huángméi niè zuǒ guó de jìn pài guó de lián lái liǎo
   yòu fǎn duì dǎng bèi de dāng zhèng de rén wéi yòu yòu fǎn duì dǎng zhù zhè zuì míng huí jìng gèng jìn de fǎn duì dǎng rén de fǎn dòng rén
   cóng zhè shì shí zhōng chū liǎng jié lùn
   zhù jīng bèi 'ōu zhōu de qiē shì gōng rèn wéi zhǒng shì
   xiàn zài shì rén xiàng quán shì jiè gōng kāi shuō míng de guān diǎn de mùdì de bìng qiě dǎng de xuān yán lái fǎn guān zhù yōu líng de shén huà de shí hòu liǎo
   wèile zhè mùdì guó rén huì lún dūn dìng liǎo xià de xuān yányòng yīng wén wén wén wén máng wén dān mài wén gōng shì


  A spectre is haunting Europe -- the spectre of Communism. All the Powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre: Pope and Czar, Metternich and Guizot, French Radicals and German police-spies.
   Where is the party in opposition that has not been decried as Communistic by its opponents in power? Where the Opposition that has not hurled back the branding reproach of Communism, against the more advanced opposition parties, as well as against its reactionary adversaries?
   Two things result from this fact.
   I. Communism is already acknowledged by all European Powers to be itself a Power.
   II. It is high time that Communists should openly, in the face of the whole world, publish their views, their aims, their tendencies, and meet this nursery tale of the Spectre of Communism with a Manifesto of the party itself.
   To this end, Communists of various nationalities have assembled in London, and sketched the following Manifesto, to be published in the English, French, German, Italian, Flemish and Danish languages.
chǎn zhě chǎn zhě
  zhì jīn qiē shè huì de shǐ dōushì jiē dǒu zhēng de shǐ
   yóu mín guì píng mínlǐng zhù nóng hánghuì shī bāng gōng huà zhě bèi zhěshǐ zhōng chǔyú xiāng duì de wèijìn xíng duàn deyòu shí yǐn yòu shí gōng kāi de dǒu zhēngér měi dǒu zhēng de jié shì zhěng shè huì shòu dào gǎi zào huò zhě dǒu zhēng de jiē tóng guī jìn
   zài guò de shǐ shí dài men jīhū dào chù dōukě kàn dào shè huì wán quán huàfēn wéi tóng de děng kàn dào shè huì wèi fēn chéng de duō zhǒng duō yàng de céng zài luó yòu guì shìpíng mín zài zhōng shì yòu fēng jiàn zhùchén hánghuì shī bāng gōngnóng ér qiě jīhū zài měi jiē nèi yòu yòu xiē shū de jiē céng
   cóng fēng jiàn shè huì de miè wáng zhōng chǎn shēng chū lái de xiàn dài chǎn jiē shè huì bìng méi yòu xiāo miè jiē duì zhǐ shì yòng xīn de jiē xīn de tiáo jiànxīn de dǒu zhēng xíng shì dài liǎo jiù de
   dàn shì men de shí dài chǎn jiē shí dàiquè yòu diǎn shǐ jiē duì jiǎn dān huà liǎozhěng shè huì fēn liè wéi liǎng duì de zhèn yíngfēn liè wéi liǎng xiāng zhí jiē duì de jiē chǎn jiē chǎn jiē
   cóng zhōng shì de nóng zhōng chǎn shēng liǎo chū chéng shì de chéng guān shì míncóng zhè shì mín děng zhōng zhǎn chū zuì chū de chǎn jiē fènzǐ
   měi zhōu de xiànrào guò fēi zhōu de háng xínggěi xīn xīng de chǎn jiē kāipì liǎo xīn tiān dōng yìn zhōng guó de shì chǎngměi zhōu de zhí mín huàduì zhí mín de mào jiāo huàn shǒu duàn bān de shāng pǐn de zēng jiāshǐ shāng háng hǎi gōng kōng qián gāo zhǎngyīn 'ér shǐ zhèng zài bēng kuì de fēng jiàn shè huì nèi de yīn xùn zhǎn
   qián zhǒng fēng jiàn de huò hánghuì de gōng jīng yíng fāng shì jīng néng mǎn suí zhe xīn shì chǎng de chū xiàn 'ér zēng jiā de qiú liǎogōng chǎng shǒu gōng dài liǎo zhè zhǒng jīng yíng fāng shìhánghuì shī bèi gōng de zhōng jiān děng pái diào liǎo zhǒng hángyè zhì zhī jiān de fēn gōng suí zhe zuōfáng nèi de fēn gōng de chū xiàn 'ér xiāo shī liǎo
   dàn shìshì chǎng zǒng shì zài kuò qiú zǒng shì zài zēng jiāshèn zhì gōng chǎng shǒu gōng zài néng mǎn yào liǎo shìzhēng yǐn liǎo gōng shēng chǎn dexiàn dài gōng huà liǎo gōng chǎng shǒu gōng gōng zhōng de bǎi wàn wēng zhī zhī chǎn jūn de shǒu lǐngxiàn dài chǎn zhědài liǎo gōng de zhōng jiān děng
   gōng jiàn liǎo yóu měi zhōu de xiàn suǒ zhǔn bèi hǎo de shì jiè shì chǎngshì jiè shì chǎng shǐ shāng háng hǎi jiāo tōng dào liǎo de zhǎnzhè zhǒng zhǎn yòu fǎn guò lái jìn liǎo gōng de kuò zhǎntóng shísuí zhe gōng shāng háng hǎi tiě de kuò zhǎn chǎn jiē zài tóng chéng shàng dào zhǎnzēng jiā de běn zhōng shì liú xià lái de qiē jiē pái dào hòu miàn
   yóu jiànxiàn dài chǎn jiē běn shēn shì cháng zhǎn guò chéng de chǎn shì shēng chǎn fāng shì jiāo huàn fāng shì de liè biàn de chǎn
   chǎn jiē de zhè zhǒng zhǎn de měi jiē duàn bàn suí zhe xiāng yìng de shàng jìn zhǎn zài fēng jiàn zhù tǒng zhì xià shì bèi de děng zài gōng shè shì zhuāng de zhì de tuán zài xiē fāng chéng de chéng shì gòng guózài lìng xiē fāng chéng jūn zhù guó zhōng de shuì de sān děng hòu láizài gōng chǎng shǒu gōng shí shì děng zhì jūn zhù guó huò jūn zhù guó zhōng tóng guì kàng héng de shì ér qiě shì jūn zhù guó de zhù yào chǔzuì hòucóng gōng shì jiè shì chǎng jiàn de shí hòu zài xiàn dài de dài zhì guó jiā duó liǎo zhàn de tǒng zhìxiàn dài de guó jiā zhèng quán guò shì guǎn zhěng chǎn jiē de gòng tóng shì de wěi yuán huì liǎo
   chǎn jiē zài shǐ shàng céng jīng guò fēi cháng de zuò yòng
   chǎn jiē zài jīng liǎo tǒng zhì de fāng qiē fēng jiàn dezōng de tián yuán shī bān de guān huài liǎo qíng zhǎn duàn liǎo rén men shù tiān rán zūn cháng de xíng xíng de fēng jiàn bàn shǐ rén rén zhī jiān chú liǎo chì luǒ luǒ de hài guān chú liǎo lěng qíng dexiàn jīn jiāo ”, jiù zài méi yòu rèn bié de lián liǎo zōng jiào qián chéng shì chénxiǎo shì mín shāng gǎn zhè xiē qíng gǎn de shén shèng zuòyānmò zài zhù suàn de bīng shuǐ zhī zhōng rén de zūn yán biàn chéng liǎo jiāo huàn jià zhíyòng zhǒng méi yòu liáng xīn de mào yóu dài liǎo shù de zhèng de yóuzǒng 'ér yán zhī yòng gōng kāi de chǐ dezhí jiē de de xuē dài liǎo yóu zōng jiào huàn xiǎng huàn xiǎng yǎn gài zhe de xuē
   chǎn jiē liǎo qiē xiàng lái shòu rén zūn chóng lìng rén jìng wèi de zhí de shén shèng guāng huán shēng shījiào shìshī rén xué zhě biàn chéng liǎo chū qián zhāo de yōng láo dòng zhě
   chǎn jiē xià liǎo zhào zài jiā tíng guān shàng de wēn qíng mòmò de miàn shā zhè zhǒng guān biàn chéng liǎo chún cuì de jīn qián guān
   chǎn jiē jiē shì liǎozài zhōng shì shēn shòu fǎn dòng pài chēng de zhǒng rén de mán shǐ yòngshì duān dài duò zuò wéi xiāng yìng chōng de zhèng míng liǎorén de huó dòng néng gòu shénme yàng de chéng jiù chuàng zào liǎo wán quán tóng 'āi jīn luó shuǐ dào shì jiào táng de wán chéng liǎo wán quán tóng mín qiān shí jūn dōng zhēng de yuǎn zhēng
   chǎn jiē chú fēi duì shēng chǎn gōng cóng 'ér duì shēng chǎn guān cóng 'ér duì quán shè huì guān duàn jìn xíngfǒu jiù néng shēng cún xià fǎn zhīyuán fēng dòng bǎo chí jiù de shēng chǎn fāng shìquè shì guò de qiē gōng jiē shēng cún de shǒu yào tiáo jiànshēng chǎn de duàn biàn qiē shè huì zhuàng kuàng tíng de dòng dàngyǒng yuǎn de 'ān dìng biàn dòngzhè jiù shì chǎn jiē shí dài tóng guò qiē shí dài de fāng qiē dìng de jiāng huà de guān zhī xiāng shì yìng de bèi zūn chóng de guān niàn jiàn jiě dōubèi xiāo chú liǎo qiē xīn xíng chéng de guān děng dào dìng xià lái jiù chén jiù liǎo qiē děng de dìng de dōng yān xiāo yún sàn liǎo qiē shén shèng de dōng dōubèi xiè dòu liǎorén men zhōng yòng lěng jìng de yǎn guāng lái kàn men de shēng huó wèi men de xiāng guān
   duàn kuò chǎn pǐn xiāo de yào shǐ chǎn jiē bēn zǒu quán qiú dào chù luò dào chù kāi dào chù jiàn lián
   chǎn jiē yóu kāi tuò liǎo shì jiè shì chǎngshǐ qiē guó jiā de shēng chǎn xiāo fèi dōuchéng wéi shì jiè xìng de liǎoshǐ fǎn dòng pài wéi wǎn de shì chǎn jiē diào liǎo gōng jiǎo xià de mín chǔ lǎo de mín gōng bèi xiāo miè liǎobìng qiě měi tiān hái zài bèi xiāo miè men bèi xīn de gōng pái diào liǎoxīn de gōng de jiàn jīng chéng wéi qiē wén míng mín de shēng mìng yōu guān de wèn zhè xiē gōng suǒ jiā gōng de jīng shì běn de yuán liàoér shì lái yáo yuǎn de de yuán liào men de chǎn pǐn jǐn gōng běn guó xiāo fèiér qiě tóng shí gōng shì jiè xiāo fèijiù dekào guó chǎn pǐn lái mǎn de yàobèi xīn deyào kào yáo yuǎn de guó jiā dài de chǎn pǐn lái mǎn de yào suǒ dài liǎoguò zhǒng fāng de mín de zìjǐ guān shǒu zhuàng tàibèi mín de fāng miàn de xiāng wǎng lái fāng miàn de xiāng lài suǒ dài liǎo zhì de shēng chǎn shì jīng shén de shēng chǎn shì mín de jīng shén chǎn pǐn chéng liǎo gōng gòng de cái chǎnmín de piàn miàn xìng xiàn xìng chéng wéi néng shì yóu duō zhòngmín de fāng de wén xué xíng chéng liǎo zhǒng shì jiè de wén xué
   chǎn jiē yóu qiē shēng chǎn gōng de xùn gǎi jìnyóu jiāo tōng de biàn qiē mín shèn zhì zuì mán de mín juàn dào wén míng zhōng lái liǎo de shāng pǐn de lián jià shì yòng lái cuī huǐ qiē wàn cháng chéngzhēng mán rén zuì wán qiáng de chóu wài xīn de zhòng pào shǐ qiē mín ---- guǒ men xiǎng miè wáng de huà ---- cǎi yòng chǎn jiē de shēng chǎn fāng shì shǐ men zài tuī xíng suǒ wèi wén míng biàn chéng chǎn zhě huà 'àn zhào de miàn mào wéi chuàng zào chū shì jiè
   chǎn jiē shǐ nóng cūn chéng shì de tǒng zhì chuàng liǎo de chéng shìshǐ chéng shì rén kǒu nóng cūn rén kǒu zēng jiā láiyīn 'ér shǐ hěn fēn mín tuō liǎo nóng cūn shēng huó de mèi zhuàng tàizhèng xiàng shǐ nóng cūn cóng shǔ chéng shì yàng shǐ wèi kāi huà bàn kāi huà de guó jiā cóng shǔ wén míng de guó jiāshǐ nóng mín de mín cóng shǔ chǎn jiē de mín shǐ dōng fāng cóng shǔ fāng
   chǎn jiē shèn xiāo miè shēng chǎn liàocái chǎn rén kǒu de fēn sàn zhuàng tài shǐ rén kǒu láishǐ shēng chǎn liào zhōng láishǐ cái chǎn zài shǎo shù rén de shǒu yóu rán chǎn shēng de jiēguǒ jiù shì de zhōng dejīhū zhǐ yòu tóng méng guān de yòu tóng tóng tóng zhèng tóng guān shuì de xiàn zài jīng jié wéi yōng yòu tǒng de zhèng tǒng de tǒng de mín jiē tǒng de guān shuì de tǒng de mín
   chǎn jiē zài de dào bǎi nián de jiē tǒng zhì zhōng suǒ chuàng zào de shēng chǎn guò qiē shì dài chuàng zào de quán shēng chǎn hái yào duōhái yào rán de zhēng de cǎi yònghuà xué zài gōng nóng zhōng de yìng yònglún chuán de xíng shǐtiě de tōng xíngdiàn bào de shǐ yòngzhěng zhěng de kāi kěn chuān de tōng hángfǎng yòng shù cóng xià huàn chū lái de liàng rén kǒu, ---- guò shì liào xiǎng dào zài shè huì láo dòng yùn cáng yòu zhè yàng de shēng chǎn
   yóu jiàn chǎn jiē lài xíng chéng de shēng chǎn liào jiāo huàn shǒu duànshì zài fēng jiàn shè huì zào chéng dezài zhè xiē shēng chǎn liào jiāo huàn shǒu duàn zhǎn de dìng jiē duàn shàngfēng jiàn shè huì de shēng chǎn jiāo huàn zài zhōng jìn xíng de guān fēng jiàn de nóng gōng chǎng shǒu gōng zhì huàfēng jiàn de suǒ yòu zhì guān jiù zài shì yìng jīng zhǎn de shēng chǎn liǎozhè zhǒng guān jīng zài 'ài shēng chǎn 'ér shì jìn shēng chǎn liǎo biàn chéng liǎo shù shēng chǎn de zhì bèi zhà huǐér qiě jīng bèi zhà huǐ liǎo
   'ér dài zhī de shì yóu jìng zhēng yóu jìng zhēng xiāng shì yìng de shè huì zhì zhì chǎn jiē de jīng tǒng zhì tǒng zhì
   xiàn zài men yǎn qián yòu jìn xíng zhe lèi de yùn dòng chǎn jiē de shēng chǎn guān jiāo huàn guān chǎn jiē de suǒ yòu zhì guān zhè céng jīng fǎng yòng shù chuàng zào liǎo páng de shēng chǎn liào jiāo huàn shǒu duàn de xiàn dài chǎn jiē shè huìxiàn zài xiàng shī yàng néng zài zhī pèi yòng shù huàn chū lái de guǐ liǎo shí nián lái de gōng shāng de shǐzhǐ guò shì xiàn dài shēng chǎn fǎn kàng xiàn dài shēng chǎn guān fǎn kàng zuò wéi chǎn jiē tǒng zhì de cún zài tiáo jiàn de suǒ yòu zhì guān de shǐzhǐ yào zhǐ chū zài zhōu xìng de chóngfù zhōng yuè lái yuè wēi zhěng chǎn jiē shè huì shēng cún de shāng wēi jiù gòu liǎozài shāng wēi jiānzǒng shì jǐn yòu hěn fēn zhì chéng de chǎn pǐn bèi huǐ miè diàoér qiě yòu hěn fēn jīng zào chéng de shēng chǎn bèi huǐ miè diàozài wēi jiān shēng zhǒng zài guò qiē shí dài kàn láidōu hǎo xiàng shì huāng táng xiàn xiàng de shè huì wēn shēng chǎn guò shèng de wēn shè huì rán xiàn huí dào liǎo shí de mán zhuàng tàifǎng shì huāngyīcháng biàn de huǐ miè xìng zhàn zhēngshǐ shè huì shī liǎo quán shēng huó liàofǎng shì gōng shāng quán bèi huǐ miè liǎo, ---- zhè shì shénme yuán yīn wéi shè huì shàng wén míng guò shēng huó liào tài duōgōng shāng tài shè huì suǒ yōng yòu de shēng chǎn jīng néng zài jìn chǎn jiē wén míng chǎn jiē suǒ yòu zhì guān de zhǎnxiāng fǎnshēng chǎn jīng qiáng dào zhè zhǒng guān suǒ néng shì yìng de jīng shòu dào zhè zhǒng guān de 'àiér zhe shǒu zhè zhǒng zhàng 'àijiù shǐ zhěng chǎn jiē shè huì xiàn hùn luànjiù shǐ chǎn jiē suǒ yòu zhì de cún zài shòu dào wēi xié chǎn jiē de guān jīng tài xiá zhǎi liǎozài róng liǎo běn shēn suǒ zào chéng de cái liǎo。 ---- chǎn jiē yòng shénme bàn lái zhè zhǒng wēi fāng miàn xiāo miè liàng shēng chǎn lìng fāng miàn duó xīn de shì chǎnggèng jiā chè yòng jiù de shì chǎngzhè jiū jìng shì zěn yàng de zhǒng bàn zhè guò shì chǎn jiē zhǔn bèi gèng quán miàn gèng měng liè de wēi de bàn guò shì shǐ fáng zhǐ wēi de shǒu duàn yuè lái yuè shǎo de bàn
   chǎn jiē yòng lái tuī fān fēng jiàn zhì de xiàn zài què duì zhǔn chǎn jiē liǎo
   dàn shì chǎn jiē jǐn duàn zào liǎo zhì shēn de hái chǎn shēng liǎo jiāng yào yùn yòng zhè zhǒng de rén ---- xiàn dài de gōng rén chǎn zhě
   suí zhe chǎn jiē běn de zhǎn chǎn jiē xiàn dài gōng rén jiē zài tóng chéng shàng dào zhǎnxiàn dài de gōng rén zhǐ yòu dāng men zhǎo dào gōng zuò de shí hòu cái néng shēng cúnér qiě zhǐ yòu dāng men de láo dòng zēng zhí běn de shí hòu cái néng zhǎo dào gōng zuòzhè xiē líng xīng chū mài de gōng rénxiàng rèn huò yàng shì zhǒng shāng pǐnsuǒ men tóng yàng shòu dào jìng zhēng de qiē biàn huàshì chǎng de qiē dòng de yǐng xiǎng
   yóu de tuī guǎng fēn gōng chǎn zhě de láo dòng jīng shī liǎo rèn de xìng zhìyīn 'ér duì gōng rén shī liǎo rèn yǐn gōng rén biàn chéng liǎo de dān chún de shǔ pǐnyào qiú zuò de zhǐ shì jiǎn dān dān diào róng xué huì de cāo zuòyīn huā zài gōng rén shēn shàng de fèi yòngjīhū zhǐ xiàn wéi chí gōng rén shēng huó yán gōng rén hòu dài suǒ de shēng huó liàodàn shìshāng pǐn de jià cóng 'ér láo dòng de jià shì tóng de shēng chǎn fèi yòng xiāng děng deyīn láo dòng yuè shǐ rén gǎn dào yàn 'ègōng jiù yuè jiǎn shǎo jǐn yuè tuī guǎngfēn gōng yuè zhìláo dòng liàng jiù yuè zēng jiāzhè huò zhě shì yóu gōng zuò shí jiān de yán chánghuò zhě shì yóu zài dìng shí jiān nèi suǒ yào qiú de láo dòng de zēng jiā yùn zhuǎn de jiā děng děng
   xiàn dài gōng jīng jiāzhǎng shì de shī de xiǎo zuōfáng biàn chéng liǎo gōng běn jiā de gōng chǎng zài gōng chǎng de gōng rén qún zhòng jiù xiàng shì bīng yàng bèi zhì lái men shì chǎn jūn de tōng shì bīngshòu zhe jūn shì jūn guān de céng céng jiān shì men jǐn shì chǎn jiē de chǎn jiē guó jiā de bìng qiě měi měi shí shòu shòu jiān gōngshǒu xiān shì shòu jīng yíng gōng chǎng de chǎn zhě běn rén de zhè zhǒng zhì yuè shì gōng kāi yíng xuān wéi de zuì zhōng mùdì jiù yuè shì hèn kěwù
   shǒu de cāo zuò suǒ yào qiú de qiǎo yuè shǎohuàn huà shuōxiàn dài gōng yuè nán gōng jiù yuè shòu dào gōng tóng gōng de pái duì gōng rén jiē lái shuōxìng bié nián líng de chā bié zài méi yòu shénme shè huì liǎo mendōu zhǐ shì láo dòng gōng guò yīn wéi nián líng xìng bié de tóng 'ér yào tóng de fèi yòng liǎo
   dāng chǎng zhù duì gōng rén de xuē gào duàn luògōng rén lǐng dào liǎo yòng xiàn qián zhī de gōng de shí hòu shàng jiù yòu chǎn jiē zhōng de lìng fēn rén ---- fáng dōngxiǎo diàn zhùdàngpù lǎo bǎn děng děng xiàng men lái
   qián de zhōng jiān děng de xià céng xiǎo gōng jiāxiǎo shāng rén xiǎo shí zhěshǒu gōng zhě nóng mín ---- suǒ yòu zhè xiē jiē jiàng luò dào chǎn jiē de duì lái liǎoyòu de shì yīn wéi men de xiǎo běn jīng yíng gōng jīng jiào běn jiā de jìng zhēngyòu de shì yīn wéi men de shǒu jīng bèi xīn de shēng chǎn fāng nòng zhí qián liǎo chǎn jiē de duì jiù shì zhè yàng cóng mín de suǒ yòu jiē zhōng dào chōng de
   chǎn jiē jīng liǎo tóng de zhǎn jiē duàn fǎn duì chǎn jiē de dǒu zhēng shì de cún zài tóng shí kāi shǐ de
   zuì chū shì dān de gōng rénrán hòu shì mǒu gōng chǎng de gōng rénrán hòu shì mǒu fāng de mǒu láo dòng mén de gōng réntóng zhí jiē xuē men de dān chǎn zhě zuò dǒu zhēng men jǐn jǐn gōng chǎn jiē de shēng chǎn guān ér qiě gōng shēng chǎn gōng běn shēn men huǐ huài xiē lái jìng zhēng de wài guó shāng pǐndǎo huǐ shāo huǐ gōng chǎng huī jīng shī de zhōng shì gōng rén de wèi
   zài zhè jiē duàn shànggōng rén men hái shì fēn sàn zài quán guó bìng wéi jìng zhēng suǒ fēn liè de qún zhònggōng rén de guī jiéhái shì men lián de jiēguǒér shì chǎn jiē lián de jiēguǒdāng shí chǎn jiē wèile dào de mùdì 'ér qiě zàn shí hái néng gòu zhěng chǎn jiē dòng láiyīn zài zhè jiē duàn shàng chǎn zhě shì tóng de rén zuò dǒu zhēngér shì tóng de rén de rén zuò dǒu zhēng tóng jūn zhù zhì de cán zhùfēi gōng chǎn jiē xiǎo chǎn zhě zuò dǒu zhēngyīn zhěng shǐ yùn dòng zhōng zài chǎn jiē shǒu zài zhè zhǒng tiáo jiàn xià de měi shèng dōushì chǎn jiē de shèng
   dàn shìsuí zhe gōng de zhǎn chǎn jiē jǐn rén shù zēng jiā liǎoér qiě jié chéng gèng de de liàng zēngzhǎng yuè lái yuè gǎn jué dào de liàng shǐ láo dòng de chā bié yuè lái yuè xiǎoshǐ gōng jīhū dào chù jiàng dào tóng yàng de shuǐ píngyīn 'ér chǎn jiē nèi de shēng huó zhuàng kuàng yuè lái yuè zhì chǎn zhě jiànrì jiā de jìng zhēng yóu yǐn de shāng wēi shǐ gōng rén de gōng yuè lái yuè wěn dìng de xùn de duàn de gǎi liángshǐ gōng rén de zhěng shēng huó wèi yuè lái yuè méi yòu bǎo zhàngdān gōng rén dān chǎn zhě zhī jiān de chōng yuè lái yuè yòu liǎng jiē de chōng de xìng zhìgōng rén kāi shǐ chéng fǎn duì chǎn zhě de tóng méng men lián lái bǎo wèi de gōng men shèn zhì jiàn liǎo jīng cháng xìng de tuán biàn wéi néng shēng de fǎn kàng zhǔn bèi shí pǐnyòu xiē fāngdǒu zhēng bào wéi
   gōng rén yòu shí dào shèng dàn zhè zhǒng shèng zhǐ shì zàn shí de men dǒu zhēng de zhēn zhèng chéng guǒ bìng shì zhí jiē de chéng gōngér shì gōng rén de yuè lái yuè kuò de lián zhè zhǒng lián yóu gōng suǒ zào chéng de de jiāo tōng gōng 'ér dào zhǎnzhè zhǒng jiāo tōng gōng de gōng rén lián láizhǐ yào yòu liǎo zhè zhǒng lián jiù néng duō xìng zhì xiāng tóng de fāng xìng de dǒu zhēng huì chéng quán guó xìng de dǒu zhēnghuì chéng jiē dǒu zhēngér qiē jiē dǒu zhēng dōushì dǒu zhēngzhōng shì de shì mín kào xiāng jiān xiǎo dào yào bǎi nián cái néng dào de lián xiàn dài de chǎn zhě yòng tiě zhǐ yào nián jiù dào liǎo
   chǎn zhě zhì chéng wéi jiē cóng 'ér zhì chéng wéi zhèng dǎng zhè jiàn shì duàn yóu gōng rén de xiāng jìng zhēng 'ér shòu dào huàidàn shìzhè zhǒng zhì zǒng shì chóngxīn chǎn shēngbìng qiě gèng qiáng gèng jiān gèng yòu yòng chǎn jiē nèi de fēn liè shǐ men yòng xíng shì chéng rèn gōng rén de bié yīng guó de shí xiǎo shí gōng zuò 'àn jiù shì
   jiù shè huì nèi de suǒ yòu chōng zài duō fāng miàn jìn liǎo chǎn jiē de zhǎn chǎn jiē chǔyú duàn de dǒu zhēng zhōngzuì chū fǎn duì guì hòu lái fǎn duì tóng gōng jìn yòu hài chōng de fēn chǎn jiē jīng cháng fǎn duì qiē wài guó de chǎn jiē zài zhè qiē dǒu zhēng zhōng chǎn jiē dōubù xiàng chǎn jiē hūyùyào qiú chǎn jiē yuán zhùzhè yàng jiù chǎn jiē juàn jìn liǎo yùn dòng shì chǎn jiē jiù de jiào yīn fǎn duì shēn de jǐyǔ liǎo chǎn jiē
   men jīng kàn dàogōng de jìn tǒng zhì jiē de zhěng chéng yuán pāo dào chǎn jiē duì huò zhě zhì shǎo shǐ men de shēng huó tiáo jiàn shòu dào wēi xié men gěi chǎn jiē dài lái liǎo liàng de jiào yīn
   zuì hòuzài jiē dǒu zhēng jiē jìn jué zhàn de shí tǒng zhì jiē nèi dezhěng jiù shè huì nèi de jiě guò chéngjiù dào fēi cháng qiáng lièfēi cháng jiān ruì de chéng shèn zhì shǐ tǒng zhì jiē zhōng de xiǎo fēn rén tuō tǒng zhì jiē 'ér guī de jiē zhǎng zhe wèi lái de jiē suǒ zhèng xiàng guò guì zhōng yòu fēn rén zhuǎn dào chǎn jiē fāng miàn yàngxiàn zài chǎn jiē zhōng yòu fēn rén bié shì jīng gāo dào cóng lùn shàng rèn shí zhěng shǐ yùn dòng zhè shuǐ píng de fēn chǎn jiē xiǎng jiāzhuǎn dào chǎn jiē fāng miàn lái liǎo
   zài dāng qián tóng chǎn jiē duì de qiē jiē zhōngzhǐ yòu chǎn jiē shì zhēn zhèng de jiē de jiē suí zhe gōng de zhǎn 'ér mòluò miè wáng chǎn jiē què shì gōng běn shēn de chǎn
   zhōng jiān děng xiǎo gōng jiāxiǎo shāng rénshǒu gōng zhěnóng mín men tóng chǎn jiē zuò dǒu zhēngdōushì wèile wéi men zhè zhǒng zhōng jiān děng de shēng cún miǎn miè wángsuǒ men shì deér shì bǎo shǒu de jǐn men shèn zhì shì fǎn dòng deyīn wéi men shǐ shǐ de chē lún dàozhuǎn guǒ shuō men shì de shì jiàn men xíng jiāng zhuǎn chǎn jiē de duì zhè yàng men jiù shì wéi men qián de ér shì wéi men jiāng lái de men jiù kāi yuán lái de chǎngér zhàn dào chǎn jiē de chǎng shàng lái
   liú máng chǎn jiē shì jiù shè huì zuì xià céng zhōng xiāo de huà de fēn men zài xiē fāng bèi chǎn jiē juàn dào yùn dòng láidàn shìyóu men de zhěng shēng huó zhuàng kuàng men gèng gān xīn bèi rén shōu mǎi gān fǎn dòng de gòu dāng
   zài chǎn jiē de shēng huó tiáo jiàn zhōngjiù shè huì de shēng huó tiáo jiàn jīng bèi xiāo miè liǎo chǎn zhě shì méi yòu cái chǎn de men 'ér de guān tóng chǎn jiē de jiā tíng guān zài méi yòu rèn gòng tóng zhī chù liǎoxiàn dài de gōng láo dòngxiàn dài de běn lùn zài yīng guó huò guó lùn zài měi guó huò guódōushì yàng de shǐ chǎn zhě shī liǎo rèn mín xìng dào zōng jiàozài men kàn lái quándōu shì chǎn jiē piān jiànyǐn cáng zài zhè xiē piān jiàn hòu miàn de quándōu shì chǎn jiē
   guò qiē jiē zài zhēng tǒng zhì zhī hòuzǒng shì shǐ zhěng shè huì cóng men cái zhì de tiáo jiàn lái gǒng men jīng huò de shēng huó wèi chǎn zhě zhǐ yòu fèi chú de xiàn cún de zhàn yòu fāng shìcóng 'ér fèi chú quán xiàn cún de zhàn yòu fāng shìcái néng shè huì shēng chǎn chǎn zhě méi yòu shénme de dōng jiā bǎo men cuī huǐ zhì jīn bǎo bǎo zhàng yòu cái chǎn de qiē
   guò de qiē yùn dòng dōushì shǎo shù rén de huò zhě wéi shǎo shù rén móu de yùn dòng chǎn jiē de yùn dòng shì jué duō shù rén dewéi jué duō shù rén móu de de yùn dòng chǎn jiē xiàn jīn shè huì de zuì xià céng guǒ zhà huǐ gòu chéng guān fāng shè huì de zhěng shàng céngjiù néng tái tóu láitǐng xiōng lái
   guǒ jiù nèi róng 'ér jiù xíng shì lái shuō chǎn jiē fǎn duì chǎn jiē de dǒu zhēng shǒu xiān shì guó fàn wéi nèi de dǒu zhēngměi guó jiā de chǎn jiē dāng rán shǒu xiān yīnggāi běn guó de chǎn jiē
   zài shù chǎn jiē zhǎn de zuì bān de jiē duàn de shí hòu men xún tàn tǎo liǎo xiàn cún shè huì nèi huò duō huò shǎo yǐn zhe de guó nèi zhàn zhēngzhí dào zhè zhàn zhēng bào wéi gōng kāi de chǎn jiē yòng bào tuī fān chǎn jiē 'ér jiàn de tǒng zhì
   men jīng kàn dàozhì jīn de qiē shè huì dōushì jiàn zài jiē bèi jiē de duì zhī shàng dedàn shìwèile yòu néng jiē jiù bǎo zhèng zhè jiē zhì shǎo yòu néng gòu miǎnqiǎng wéi chí de bān de shēng cún de tiáo jiànnóng céng jīng zài nóng zhì xià zhēngzhá dào gōng shè shè yuán de wèixiǎo chǎn zhě céng jīng zài fēng jiàn zhì de shù xià zhēngzhá dào chǎn zhě de wèixiàn dài de gōng rén què xiāng fǎn men bìng shì suí zhe gōng de jìn 'ér shàng shēngér shì yuè lái yuè jiàng dào běn jiē de shēng cún tiáo jiàn xiàgōng rén biàn chéng chì pín zhěpín kùn rén kǒu cái zēng cháng hái yào kuàiyóu míng xiǎn kàn chū chǎn jiē zài néng zuò shè huì de tǒng zhì jiē liǎozài néng jiē de shēng cún tiáo jiàn dàngzuò zhī pèi qiē de guī qiáng jiā shè huì liǎo chǎn jiē néng tǒng zhì xià liǎoyīn wéi shèn zhì néng bǎo zhèng de wéi chí de shēng huóyīn wéi ràng de luò dào néng yǎng huó fǎn 'ér yào lái yǎng huó de shè huì zài néng zài tǒng zhì xià shēng huó xià liǎojiù shì shuō de cún zài zài tóng shè huì xiāng róng liǎo
   chǎn jiē shēng cún tǒng zhì de gēn běn tiáo jiànshì cái zài rén shǒu de lěishì běn de xíng chéng zēng zhí běn de tiáo jiàn shì yōng láo dòng yōng láo dòng wán quán shì jiàn zài gōng rén de xiāng jìng zhēng zhī shàng de chǎn jiē zhōng zào chéng 'ér yòu kàng de gōng jìn shǐ gōng rén tōng guò jié shè 'ér dào de lián dài liǎo men yóu jìng zhēng 'ér zào chéng de fēn sàn zhuàng tài shìsuí zhe gōng de zhǎn chǎn jiē lài shēng chǎn zhàn yòu chǎn pǐn de chǔ běn shēn jiù cóng de jiǎo xià bèi diào liǎo shǒu xiān shēng chǎn de shì shēn de jué rén chǎn jiē de miè wáng chǎn jiē de shèng shì tóng yàng miǎn de


  The history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggles.
   Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.
   In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, plebeians, slaves; in the Middle Ages, feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations.
   The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones. Our epoch, the epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinctive feature: it has simplified the class antagonisms: Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes, directly facing each other: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.
   From the serfs of the Middle Ages sprang the chartered burghers of the earliest towns. From these burgesses the first elements of the bourgeoisie were developed.
   The discovery of America, the rounding of the Cape, opened up fresh ground for the rising bourgeoisie. The East-Indian and Chinese markets, the colonisation of America, trade with the colonies, the increase in the means of exchange and in commodities generally, gave to commerce, to navigation, to industry, an impulse never before known, and thereby, to the revolutionary element in the tottering feudal society, a rapid development.
   The feudal system of industry, under which industrial production was monopolised by closed guilds, now no longer sufficed for the growing wants of the new markets. The manufacturing system took its place. The guild-masters were pushed on one side by the manufacturing middle class; division of labour between the different corporate guilds vanished in the face of division of labour in each single workshop.
   Meantime the markets kept ever growing, the demand ever rising. Even manufacture no longer sufficed. Thereupon, steam and machinery revolutionised industrial production. The place of manufacture was taken by the giant, Modern Industry, the place of the industrial middle class, by industrial millionaires, the leaders of whole industrial armies, the modern bourgeois.
   Modern industry has established the world-market, for which the discovery of America paved the way. This market has given an immense development to commerce, to navigation, to communication by land. This development has, in its time, reacted on the extension of industry; and in proportion as industry, commerce, navigation, railways extended, in the same proportion the bourgeoisie developed, increased its capital, and pushed into the background every class handed down from the Middle Ages.
   We see, therefore, how the modern bourgeoisie is itself the product of a long course of development, of a series of revolutions in the modes of production and of exchange.
   Each step in the development of the bourgeoisie was accompanied by a corresponding political advance of that class. An oppressed class under the sway of the feudal nobility, an armed and self-governing association in the mediaeval commune; here independent urban republic (as in Italy and Germany), there taxable "third estate" of the monarchy (as in France), afterwards, in the period of manufacture proper, serving either the semi-feudal or the absolute monarchy as a counterpoise against the nobility, and, in fact, corner-stone of the great monarchies in general, the bourgeoisie has at last, since the establishment of Modern Industry and of the world-market, conquered for itself, in the modern representative State, exclusive political sway. The executive of the modern State is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie.
   The bourgeoisie, historically, has played a most revolutionary part.
   The bourgeoisie, wherever it has got the upper hand, has put an end to all feudal, patriarchal, idyllic relations. It has pitilessly torn asunder the motley feudal ties that bound man to his "natural superiors, " and has left remaining no other nexus between man and man than naked self-interest, than callous "cash payment. " It has drowned the most heavenly ecstasies of religious fervour, of chivalrous enthusiasm, of philistine sentimentalism, in the icy water of egotistical calculation. It has resolved personal worth into exchange value. And in place of the numberless and feasible chartered freedoms, has set up that single, unconscionable freedom -- Free Trade. In one word, for exploitation, veiled by religious and political illusions, naked, shameless, direct, brutal exploitation.
   The bourgeoisie has stripped of its halo every occupation hitherto honoured and looked up to with reverent awe. It has converted the physician, the lawyer, the priest, the poet, the man of science, into its paid wage labourers.
   The bourgeoisie has torn away from the family its sentimental veil, and has reduced the family relation to a mere money relation.
   The bourgeoisie has disclosed how it came to pass that the brutal display of vigour in the Middle Ages, which Reactionists so much admire, found its fitting complement in the most slothful indolence. It has been the first to show what man's activity can bring about. It has accomplished wonders far surpassing Egyptian pyramids, Roman aqueducts, and Gothic cathedrals; it has conducted expeditions that put in the shade all former Exoduses of nations and crusades.
   The bourgeoisie cannot exist without constantly revolutionising the instruments of production, and thereby the relations of production, and with them the whole relations of society. Conservation of the old modes of production in unaltered form, was, on the contrary, the first condition of existence for all earlier industrial classes. Constant revolutionising of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones. All fixed, fast-frozen relations, with their train of ancient and venerable prejudices and opinions, are swept away, all new-formed ones become antiquated before they can ossify. All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned, and man is at last compelled to face with sober senses, his real conditions of life, and his relations with his kind.
   The need of a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the whole surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connexions everywhere.
   The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world-market given a cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every country. To the great chagrin of Reactionists, it has drawn from under the feet of industry the national ground on which it stood. All old-established national industries have been destroyed or are daily being destroyed. They are dislodged by new industries, whose introduction becomes a life and death question for all civilised nations, by industries that no longer work up indigenous raw material, but raw material drawn from the remotest zones; industries whose products are consumed, not only at home, but in every quarter of the globe. In place of the old wants, satisfied by the productions of the country, we find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the products of distant lands and climes. In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal inter-dependence of nations. And as in material, so also in intellectual production. The intellectual creations of individual nations become common property. National one-sidedness and narrow-mindedness become more and more impossible, and from the numerous national and local literatures, there arises a world literature.
   The bourgeoisie, by the rapid improvement of all instruments of production, by the immensely facilitated means of communication, draws all, even the most barbarian, nations into civilisation. The cheap prices of its commodities are the heavy artillery with which it batters down all Chinese walls, with which it forces the barbarians' intensely obstinate hatred of foreigners to capitulate. It compels all nations, on pain of extinction, to adopt the bourgeois mode of production; it compels them to introduce what it calls civilisation into their midst, i. e. , to become bourgeois themselves. In one word, it creates a world after its own image.
   The bourgeoisie has subjected the country to the rule of the towns. It has created enormous cities, has greatly increased the urban population as compared with the rural, and has thus rescued a considerable part of the population from the idiocy of rural life. Just as it has made the country dependent on the towns, so it has made barbarian and semi-barbarian countries dependent on the civilised ones, nations of peasants on nations of bourgeois, the East on the West.
   The bourgeoisie keeps more and more doing away with the scattered state of the population, of the means of production, and of property. It has agglomerated production, and has concentrated property in a few hands. The necessary consequence of this was political centralisation. Independent, or but loosely connected provinces, with separate interests, laws, governments and systems of taxation, became lumped together into one nation, with one government, one code of laws, one national class-interest, one frontier and one customs-tariff. The bourgeoisie, during its rule of scarce one hundred years, has created more massive and more colossal productive forces than have all preceding generations together. Subjection of Nature's forces to man, machinery, application of chemistry to industry and agriculture, steam-navigation, railways, electric telegraphs, clearing of whole continents for cultivation, canalisation of rivers, whole populations conjured out of the ground -- what earlier century had even a presentiment that such productive forces slumbered in the lap of social labour?
   We see then: the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up, were generated in feudal society. At a certain stage in the development of these means of production and of exchange, the conditions under which feudal society produced and exchanged, the feudal organisation of agriculture and manufacturing industry, in one word, the feudal relations of property became no longer compatible with the already developed productive forces; they became so many fetters. They had to be burst asunder; they were burst asunder.
   Into their place stepped free competition, accompanied by a social and political constitution adapted to it, and by the economical and political sway of the bourgeois class.
   A similar movement is going on before our own eyes. Modern bourgeois society with its relations of production, of exchange and of property, a society that has conjured up such gigantic means of production and of exchange, is like the sorcerer, who is no longer able to control the powers of the nether world whom he has called up by his spells. For many a decade past the history of industry and commerce is but the history of the revolt of modern productive forces against modern conditions of production, against the property relations that are the conditions for the existence of the bourgeoisie and of its rule. It is enough to mention the commercial crises that by their periodical return put on its trial, each time more threateningly, the existence of the entire bourgeois society. In these crises a great part not only of the existing products, but also of the previously created productive forces, are periodically destroyed. In these crises there breaks out an epidemic that, in all earlier epochs, would have seemed an absurdity -- the epidemic of over-production. Society suddenly finds itself put back into a state of momentary barbarism; it appears as if a famine, a universal war of devastation had cut off the supply of every means of subsistence; industry and commerce seem to be destroyed; and why? Because there is too much civilisation, too much means of subsistence, too much industry, too much commerce. The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bourgeois property; on the contrary, they have become too powerful for these conditions, by which they are fettered, and so soon as they overcome these fetters, they bring disorder into the whole of bourgeois society, endanger the existence of bourgeois property. The conditions of bourgeois society are too narrow to comprise the wealth created by them. And how does the bourgeoisie get over these crises? On the one hand inforced destruction of a mass of productive forces; on the other, by the conquest of new markets, and by the more thorough exploitation of the old ones. That is to say, by paving the way for more extensive and more destructive crises, and by diminishing the means whereby crises are prevented.
   The weapons with which the bourgeoisie felled feudalism to the ground are now turned against the bourgeoisie itself.
   But not only has the bourgeoisie forged the weapons that bring death to itself; it has also called into existence the men who are to wield those weapons -- the modern working class -- the proletarians.
   In proportion as the bourgeoisie, i. e. , capital, is developed, in the same proportion is the proletariat, the modern working class, developed -- a class of labourers, who live only so long as they find work, and who find work only so long as their labour increases capital. These labourers, who must sell themselves piece-meal, are a commodity, like every other article of commerce, and are consequently exposed to all the vicissitudes of competition, to all the fluctuations of the market.
   Owing to the extensive use of machinery and to division of labour, the work of the proletarians has lost all individual character, and consequently, all charm for the workman. He becomes an appendage of the machine, and it is only the most simple, most monotonous, and most easily acquired knack, that is required of him. Hence, the cost of production of a workman is restricted, almost entirely, to the means of subsistence that he requires for his maintenance, and for the propagation of his race. But the price of a commodity, and therefore also of labour, is equal to its cost of production. In proportion therefore, as the repulsiveness of the work increases, the wage decreases. Nay more, in proportion as the use of machinery and division of labour increases, in the same proportion the burden of toil also increases, whether by prolongation of the working hours, by increase of the work exacted in a given time or by increased speed of the machinery, etc.
   Modern industry has converted the little workshop of the patriarchal master into the great factory of the industrial capitalist. Masses of labourers, crowded into the factory, are organised like soldiers. As privates of the industrial army they are placed under the command of a perfect hierarchy of officers and sergeants. Not only are they slaves of the bourgeois class, and of the bourgeois State; they are daily and hourly enslaved by the machine, by the over-looker, and, above all, by the individual bourgeois manufacturer himself. The more openly this despotism proclaims gain to be its end and aim, the more petty, the more hateful and the more embittering it is.
   The less the skill and exertion of strength implied in manual labour, in other words, the more modern industry becomes developed, the more is the labour of men superseded by that of women. Differences of age and sex have no longer any distinctive social validity for the working class. All are instruments of labour, more or less expensive to use, according to their age and sex.
   No sooner is the exploitation of the labourer by the manufacturer, so far at an end, that he receives his wages in cash, than he is set upon by the other portions of the bourgeoisie, the landlord, the shopkeeper, the pawnbroker, etc.
   The lower strata of the middle class -- the small tradespeople, shopkeepers, retired tradesmen generally, the handicraftsmen and peasants -- all these sink gradually into the proletariat, partly because their diminutive capital does not suffice for the scale on which Modern Industry is carried on, and is swamped in the competition with the large capitalists, partly because their specialized skill is rendered worthless by the new methods of production. Thus the proletariat is recruited from all classes of the population.
   The proletariat goes through various stages of development. With its birth begins its struggle with the bourgeoisie. At first the contest is carried on by individual labourers, then by the workpeople of a factory, then by the operatives of one trade, in one locality, against the individual bourgeois who directly exploits them. They direct their attacks not against the bourgeois conditions of production, but against the instruments of production themselves; they destroy imported wares that compete with their labour, they smash to pieces machinery, they set factories ablaze, they seek to restore by force the vanished status of the workman of the Middle Ages.
   At this stage the labourers still form an incoherent mass scattered over the whole country, and broken up by their mutual competition. If anywhere they unite to form more compact bodies, this is not yet the consequence of their own active union, but of the union of the bourgeoisie, which class, in order to attain its own political ends, is compelled to set the whole proletariat in motion, and is moreover yet, for a time, able to do so. At this stage, therefore, the proletarians do not fight their enemies, but the enemies of their enemies, the remnants of absolute monarchy, the landowners, the non-industrial bourgeois, the petty bourgeoisie. Thus the whole historical movement is concentrated in the hands of the bourgeoisie; every victory so obtained is a victory for the bourgeoisie.
   But with the development of industry the proletariat not only increases in number; it becomes concentrated in greater masses, its strength grows, and it feels that strength more. The various interests and conditions of life within the ranks of the proletariat are more and more equalised, in proportion as machinery obliterates all distinctions of labour, and nearly everywhere reduces wages to the same low level. The growing competition among the bourgeois, and the resulting commercial crises, make the wages of the workers ever more fluctuating. The unceasing improvement of machinery, ever more rapidly developing, makes their livelihood more and more precarious; the collisions between individual workmen and individual bourgeois take more and more the character of collisions between two classes. Thereupon the workers begin to form combinations (Trades Unions) against the bourgeois; they club together in order to keep up the rate of wages; they found permanent associations in order to make provision beforehand for these occasional revolts. Here and there the contest breaks out into riots.
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