伊曼努尔·康德

伊曼努尔·康德（德语：Immanuel Kant；德语发音：[ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl ˈkant]；1724年4月22日－1804年2月12日）为启蒙时代著名德意志哲学家，德国古典哲学创始人，其学说深深影响近代西方哲学，并开启了德国唯心主义和康德义务主义等诸多流派。 并且影响后世，诞生了新康德主义。康德是启蒙运动时期最后一位主要哲学家，是德国思想界的代表人物。他调和了勒内·笛卡儿的理性主义与法兰西斯·培根的经验主义，被认为是继苏格拉底、柏拉图和亚里士多德后，西方最具影响力的思想家之一。康德有其自成一派的思想系统，并且有不少著作，其中核心的三大著作被合称为“三大批判”，即《纯粹理性批判》、《实践理性批判》和《判断力批判》，这三部作品有系统地分别阐述他的知识学、伦理学和美学思想。《纯粹理性批判》尤其得到学术界重视，标志着哲学研究的主要方向由本体论转向认识论，是西方哲学史上划时代的巨著。此外，康德在宗教哲学、法律哲学和历史哲学方面也有重要论著。康德哲学理论的一个基本出发点是，认为将感性直观（经验）转化为知识的能力——纯粹知性概念（即“范畴”），以及将知识外的理念（如上帝，心灵，自由）加以实践的能力——纯粹理性概念，都是理性的功能，是人与生俱来的，没有它们我们就无法理解世界。

他的认识论与伦理学分别是论证知识和道德的，他批判和吸收了英国经验主义（休谟、贝克莱）与欧陆的理性主义（主要是沃尔夫-莱布尼兹的理性传统），对德国唯心主义（费希特和黑格尔）与浪漫主义影响深远。认识论与伦理学构成康德哲学的两大部分，前者关于“现象界”；后者关于“意志自由”是截然对立和二分的。两者的中介成为康德“批判哲学”的终结思，自然与自由的沟通和统一就在于《批判力批判》中。此外他还曾针对太阳系的形成提出第一个现代的理论解释，即康德-拉普拉斯假设。
 
 

Immanuel Kant (UK: /kænt/, US: /kɑːnt/; German: [ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl ˈkant, -nu̯ɛl -]; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have made him one of the most influential figures in modern Western philosophy.

In his doctrine of transcendental idealism, Kant argued that space and time are mere "forms of intuition" which structure all experience, and therefore that while "things-in-themselves" exist and contribute to experience, they are nonetheless distinct from the objects of experience. From this it follows that the objects of experience are mere "appearances", and that the nature of things as they are in themselves is consequently unknowable to us. In an attempt to counter the skepticism he found in the writings of philosopher David Hume, he wrote the Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1787), one of his most well-known works. In it, he developed his theory of experience to answer the question of whether synthetic a priori knowledge is possible, which would in turn make it possible to determine the limits of metaphysical inquiry. Kant drew a parallel to the Copernican revolution in his proposal that the objects of the senses must conform to our spatial and temporal forms of intuition, and that we can consequently have a priori cognition of the objects of the senses.^[b]

Kant believed that reason is also the source of morality, and that aesthetics arise from a faculty of disinterested judgment. Kant's views continue to have a major influence on contemporary philosophy, especially the fields of epistemology, ethics, political theory, and post-modern aesthetics. He attempted to explain the relationship between reason and human experience and to move beyond what he believed to be the failures of traditional philosophy and metaphysics. He wanted to put an end to what he saw as an era of futile and speculative theories of human experience, while resisting the skepticism of thinkers such as Hume. He regarded himself as showing the way past the impasse between rationalists and empiricists, and is widely held to have synthesized both traditions in his thought.

Kant was an exponent of the idea that perpetual peace could be secured through universal democracy and international cooperation, and that perhaps this could be the culminating stage of world history. The nature of Kant's religious views continues to be the subject of scholarly dispute, with viewpoints ranging from the impression that he shifted from an early defense of an ontological argument for the existence of God to a principled agnosticism, to more critical treatments epitomized by Schopenhauer, who criticized the imperative form of Kantian ethics as "theological morals" and the "Mosaic Decalogue in disguise", and Nietzsche, who claimed that Kant had "theologian blood" and was merely a sophisticated apologist for traditional Christian faith.^[c] Beyond his religious views, Kant has also been criticized for the racism presented in some of his lesser-known works, such as Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View and "On the Different Races of Man".

Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history. These include the Universal Natural History (1755), the Critique of Practical Reason (1788), the Metaphysics of Morals (1797), the Critique of Judgment (1790), which looks at aesthetics and teleology, and Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason (1793).