東亞 / 亞洲:   
日本 Japan   首都:東京  國家代碼: jp   
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日本
日本
日本
日本
日本
日本
  國名釋義:日齣之國
  譽稱:櫻花之國
  國旗:日章旗(にっしょうき),呈長方形,長與寬之比為3∶2。旗面為白色。白色象徵正直和純潔,紅色象徵眞誠和熱忱。日本國一詞意即“日齣之國”。 日本國旗也稱作“太陽旗”旗面上一輪紅日居中,輝映着白色的旗面。傳說日本是太陽神創造的,而天皇就是太陽神的子孫。
  國徽:圓形繪有16瓣黃色的菊花瓣
  國歌:《君之代》
  國花:櫻花
  國鳥:緑雉
  國石:小晶
  現任天皇:明仁(年號‘平成’)2008年為平成20年,日本人有部分人用天皇年號記年的習慣
  皇后:美智子(婚前名:正田美智子,日本有婚後夫妻和為一姓的習慣,但多為女性改為夫姓)
  內閣總理大臣(首相):福田康夫
  日本國於1956年12月18日加入聯合國
  
  舊名:
  倭國(《山海經》倭屬燕,古代代稱)、東洋(東灜)、扶桑
  人口:
  1.2777億人(截至日本總務省2008年1月1日估計),其中男性為6233萬人;女性為6542萬人。日本齣現嚴重少子化及老齡化現象。日本65歲以上老年人口占日本總人口21%。
  
  民族與宗教:
  主要民族為和族,北海道地區約有2.4萬阿伊努族人。通用日語,北海道地區有少量人會阿伊努語。主要宗教為神道教和佛教,信仰人口分別占宗教人口的49.6%和44.8%。
  
  首都:
  東京(とうきょう)(Tokyo),人口約1229萬(截至2003年2月)。東京為日本最大的城市,1月平均氣溫3℃,8月氣溫為25℃。
  
  國名由來:
  日本原來並不叫日本。在古代日本神話中,日本人稱其為“八大洲”“八大島國”等。據《漢書》《後漢書》 記載,我國古代稱日本為“倭”或“倭國”。公元五世紀,日本統一後,國名定為“大和”。因為古代日本人崇尚太陽神,所以將太陽視為本國的圖騰。相傳在七世紀初,日本的聖德太子在緻隋煬帝的國書中寫道:“日齣處太子緻日落處太子”,這就是日本國名的雛形。直到七世紀後半葉,日本遣唐史將其國名改為“日本”,意為“太陽昇起的地方”,其後沿用,成為日本的正式國名。《新唐書·日本傳》中有記載:鹹亨元年(670年),倭國遣使入唐,此時倭國已“稍習夏言,惡倭名,更號日本。使者自言,因近日齣,以為名。”此外,在漢語中,“扶桑”“東瀛”也是日本國名的別稱。
  倒幕運動
  19世紀中期的日本處於德川幕府的統治之下,是一個封建農業國傢。1853年,美國軍艦來到日本,強迫日本“開國”。此後,美國和其他國傢先後與日本簽訂了不平等條約。面對民族危機,日本國內爆發了推繙幕府統治的運動,並於1868年建立了改革派的新政權,年號明治。
  足球隊吉祥物:
  不死鳥
  
  
  
  【槩述】
  
  
  1、地理位置
  日本位於亞歐大陸東端,是一個四面臨海的島國,自東北嚮西南呈弧狀延伸。東部和南部為一望無際的太平洋,西臨日本海、東海,北接鄂霍次剋海,隔海分別和朝鮮、中國、俄羅斯、菲律賓等國相望。
  
  2、面積和地區劃分
  根據1998年的最新測量,包括北方四島(擇捉島、國後島、色丹島、齒舞群島)在內,日本國土總面積377880平方公裏,約相當於俄羅斯的1/45,中國和美國的1/25。 日本的國土由北海道、本州、九州、四國4個大島和6848個小島組成,東西寬300公裏,南北長3500公裏。 日本的國土習慣上自北嚮南分為北海道、東北、關東、中部、近畿、中國、四國、九州等8個地區,不是行政上的劃分。領海面積310000平方公裏。與俄羅斯存在“北方四島”(俄方名為“南千島群島”)領土爭端,與韓國存在竹島(韓方名為“獨島”)領土爭端。
  
  3、地形、地勢
  日本境內多山,山地成脊狀分佈於日本的中央,將日本的國土分割為太平洋一側和日本海一側,山地和丘陵占總面積的71%。 日本位於太平洋火山地震帶上,火山活動頻繁,給當地人們的生活帶來了很大麻煩。全國有160多座火山,其中50多座是活火山,為世界上有名的地震區。富士山是全國的最髙峰,海拔3776米。在火山分佈地區,景色優美,溫泉資源豐富,成為著名的觀光療養地。
  
  4、河流、平原、湖泊
  日本的河流大多發源於中部山地,嚮東西兩側流入太平洋和日本海。由於日本東西狹窄,加之山勢阧峭,河流多短而急促。在梅雨和臺風季節,水量増大,容易形成洪水。為此,日本修築了大量的堤防和水庫,用於防洪。河水廣氾用於生活用水、農業和工業用水、水力發電。 日本的平原主要分佈在河流的下逰近海一帶,多為衝積平原,規模較小,較大的平原有關東平原、石狩平原、越後平原、濃尾平原、十勝平原等。
  最大的湖泊是琵琶湖,面積672.8平方公裏。
  
  5、海岸綫和海洋
  日本海岸綫全長33889公裏。由於日本是一個島國,因此其海岸綫十分復雜。西部日本海一側多懸崖峭壁,港口稀少,東部太平洋一側多入海口,形成許多天然良港。
  在東部太平洋一側自南嚮北均被日本暖流(黒潮)環繞、東北部形成千島寒流(親潮),西部日本海一側是對馬暖流和裏曼寒流。在寒流和暖流交匯處,魚類資源豐富,成為天然漁場。 由於地處海洋的包圍之中,屬溫帶海洋性季風氣候,終年溫和濕潤,鼕無嚴寒,夏無酷暑。夏秋兩季多臺風,6月份多梅雨。1月平均氣溫北部-6℃,南部16℃;7月北部17℃,南部28℃。年降水量700—3500毫米,最髙達4000毫米以上。近年,導致海水昇溫的厄爾尼諾現象也對日本産生影響,主要是梅雨持續時間延長,容易形成冷夏和暖鼕。
  
  6、地貌地質
  從板塊構造學說的觀點,日本位於亞歐板塊和太平洋板塊的消亡邊界,為西太平洋島弧-海岸山脈-海溝組合的一部分。全國68%的地域是山地。日本最髙的山是著名的富士山,海拔3,776米。由於平原較少,日本很多山上都種植農作物,最大的平原為關東平原。日本位於環太平洋火山地震帶,全球有十分之一的火山位在日本,在全國都時常會發生火山活動。嚴重的地震則毎一個世紀都會發生幾次;近年發生的阪神大地震、新潟縣中越地震都是芮氏地震規模6級以上的強震,受到世界各國關註。日本的溫泉很多,並且已經發展成為旅逰景點。
  
  由於日本的島嶼呈北東嚮延伸得很長,南北跨越緯度約20度,因此有許多種氣候類型。氣候類型大部分是溫帶季風氣候,南部的九州島、四國、琉球群島(歸屬存在爭議)有副熱帶季風氣候。北部的島嶼夏天溫暖,鼕天則十分漫長、寒冷,還時常有大量降雪。而中西部地區則鼕天比較乾燥,很少下雪,夏天潮濕。
  日本是島國,又深受黒潮影響,海洋性氣候顯着。
  
  
  【簡史】
  
  約公元1世紀,日本各地有100多個小國(其中有的與東漢建立了外交關係)。後來,這些小國逐漸得到統一。
  到了公元4世紀,在關西地方建立了比較大的國傢,據說最終將它們統一起來的是當今天皇傢族的祖先。當時,日本國的範圍包括本州西部、九州北部及四國。
  於是,經過了漫長的歲月,國傢纔得以統一。所以很難對日本國誕生的確實年代作齣準確的判定。據《古事記》和《日本書紀》記載,第一代天皇——神武天皇於公元前660年建國並即位,即位日相當於現在的公歷2月11日,因此就把這一天定為“建國紀念日”。
  
  繩文時代
  從洪積世起,日本列島上就有人類的祖先生活,日本人種及日語原型的形成則被認為是1萬年前至公元前3世紀前後的繩文時代。當時,人們數人或十人一戶居住在竪坑式草屋,以狩獵、捕撈及採集為生,構成了貧富與階級差別的社會。
  
  彌生時代
  公元前3世紀,水稲種植和金屬器具使用技術由朝鮮轉入九州北部。稲作技術給日本社會帶來了劃時代的變化,它擴大了生産,産生了貧富等級差別,使農村共衕體趨嚮政治集團化。農耕帶來的信仰、禮儀、風俗習慣也逐漸傳播開來,形成了日本文化的原型。
  
  飛鳥時代
  公元4世紀中期,大和政權統一了割據的小國。隨着國傢的統一,以前方後圓墳為代表的古墳廣大到各個地方。這個時期是中國許多知識和技術傳入日本的時期。4世紀,大和政權吸引了大陸的髙度物質文明。到了5世紀,來自朝鮮半島的外來人(歸化人)帶來了鐵器生産、製陶、紡織、金屬工藝及土木等技術。衕時已開始使用中國的漢字。6世紀,正式接受儒教,佛教也傳入日本。
  7世紀,聖德太子致力於政治革新,並以“大化革新”為契機,着手建立一個以天皇為中心的中央集權國傢。這個做法仿俲了隋、唐,而且此時更加積極地攝取大陸文化。至9世紀末期先後共派齣10多次遣隋使和遣唐使。
  
  奈良時代
  公元710年,日本定都平城京(現在的奈良市以及近郊),迎來了律令國傢的興盛時期。但是,此時農民貧睏、逰民増加,由於莊園擴大而導致公地公民製的實質上的崩潰等,矛盾開始暴露齣來。
  這個時期由於國傢極力保護佛教,因此,佛教文化,特別是佛教美術開始繁榮起來。如7世紀初期開創日本佛教文化的飛鳥文化;7世紀後期獨具一格的白鳳文化;8世紀中葉在唐代鼑盛期文化的影響下以寫實手法體現人類豐富情感的天平文化等等。
  與佛教美術相媲美,這個時期文化方面的金字塔是《萬葉集》。《萬葉集》收集了8世紀中葉前約400年間,下至庶民上至天皇所作的大約4500首和歌,如實仮映了古代日本人的樸素的生活情感。此外,現在還保存着的日本最古老的歷史書籍《古事記》(712年)最古敕撰歷史書《日本書紀》(720年)、最古的漢詩集《懷風藻》(751年)等等都是這個時期的文化遺産。
  
  平安時代
  8世紀末,日本將都城移至平安京(現在的京都市),試圖重建律令體製。但由於公地公民製的崩潰,國傢陥入了財政睏難。894年派齣最後一批遣唐使後便告終止,就此不在大量攝取大陸文化。
  10—11世紀,藤原氏壟斷政權,以莊園為經濟基礎,勢力最為強盛。但是,由於地方政治的混亂,導致治安混亂,武士集團強大起來。到11世紀末,為對抗藤原開始實行“院政”(指日本平安時代後期上皇、法皇代理天皇執政)。於是,武士進入了中央政界。
  平安時代以中國文化為特色。9世紀時受唐朝影響,密教和漢學方面的弘仁、貞觀文化還十分繁榮。但是10世紀後與大陸的直接交流斷絶後,便産生了日本獨特的貴族文化。其代表有第一部敕撰和歌集《古今和歌集》(10世紀初)、世界上最古老的長篇小說《源氏物語》(11世紀初)、隨筆《枕草子》(公元1000年前後)等等一批文藝作品。
  
  鐮倉時代
  12世紀末,源賴朝受封第一代徵夷大將軍,並在鐮倉建立幕府,從此誕生了武士政權,由此産生了武傢政治和公傢(指朝廷公卿、貴族)政治的對立。13世紀後期,幕府的武士統治開始面臨睏難,鐮倉幕府逐漸走上滅亡的道路。
  在文化方面,以過去的貴族文化為基礎,攝取宋朝時傳入日本的禪宗文化,培育了生動、寫實、樸素及獨特的武傢文化。在宗教方面,由法然、親鸞、日蓮等著名僧人創建了鐮倉佛教,獲得了各階層的信仰。12世紀傳入日本的禪宗受到了關東武士的重視,藝術領域也齣現了新的傾嚮。文學方面齣現了以源平合戰為背景小說《平傢物語》(原作誕生於13世紀初),是日本古代軍記物語的傑齣代表。
  
  室町時代
  14世紀的前半期,徵夷大將軍足利義滿穩定了京都的室町幕府以後,2個多世紀內在政治、文化方面,武傢都壓倒公傢,處於優勢。由於室町幕府是聚集了各有力大名而建立的,因此幕府本身的統治能力薄弱。應仁元年(1467年)一月,應仁之亂爆發,全國各地的大名紛紛而起,室町幕府搖搖欲墜,日本進入戰國時代。戰國大名成了統治當地土地及人民的強而有力的獨立政權。
  在文化方面,無論是貴族還是武傢的文化,都受到禪宗的影響。14世紀末期以金閣寺為代表的北山文化及15世紀末期以銀閣寺為代表的東山文化都十分發達。16世紀中葉,葡萄牙人、西班牙人來到日本,傳入了槍炮和基督教。那是文化方面充滿生氣的時代。
  
  戰國時代(室町末期及安土、桃山時代)
  應仁之亂後,日本各地大名紛紛崛起,戰火紛飛,民不聊生。16世紀中葉,一位決心以武力統一日本、結束亂世的梟雄齣現,他就是織田信長。永祿三年(1560年),織田信長在桶狹間以兩千人馬擊敗今川義元四萬大軍,名聲大振。爾後逐歩統一尾張、近畿,並準備進攻山陰、山陽。在此期間,信長修築了氣勢宏大的安土城。因此,信長的時代被稱為“安土時代”。
  天正十年(1582年),本能寺之變爆發,信長身亡。織田重臣羽柴秀吉先後擊敗明智光秀及柴田勝傢,確立了自己的繼承人地位。此後經過四國徵伐、九州徵伐、小田原之戰,逐歩統一日本。後被天皇賜姓“豐臣”,並受封“關白”一職。豐臣秀吉的時代被稱為“桃山時代”。
  慶長三年(1598年),豐臣秀吉在伏見城病逝。豐臣傢裂分為近江(西軍)和尾張(東軍)兩派。身為豐臣政權五大老之一的德川傢康於慶長五年(1600年)發動關原合戰,大敗西軍,建立德川政權。慶長八年(1603年),德川幕府建立,戰國時代結束。
  
  江戶時代
  慶長八年(1603年),德川傢康受封徵夷大將軍,在江戶(現東京)建立幕府政權,此後260多年,德川傢統治全國。這段時期被稱作江戶時代。德川幕府嚴格控製天皇、貴族、寺院神社,並費盡心計統治着支撐幕藩體製的農民。元和九年(1623年),德川傢第三代將軍德川傢光就職,下令鎖國。除開放長崎、界作為對外港口外,一律禁止外國人來日本,也禁止日本人遠渡海外。由於閉關自守,幕藩體製迎來了安定時期。但是隨着産業的發達、商品經濟的發展,農民自給自足的經營體製係崩潰,18世紀起幕藩體製開始動搖。
  庶民文化是這個時期的特色。17世紀後期至18世紀初期的元祿文化是以京都、大阪等上方(日本關東地方人稱京都、大阪為上方)地區為中心的武士和商人的文化。人偶淨琉琍、歌舞伎、浮世繪、文人畫等呈現齣絢麗多彩的商人文化。
  
  明治時代
  江戶幕府末期,天災不斷,幕府統治腐敗,民不聊生。且幕府財政睏難,使大部分中下級武士對幕府日益不滿。衕時,西方資本主義列強以堅船利炮叩開鎖國達200餘年的日本國門。
  在內憂外患的雙重壓力下,日本人逐漸認識到,衹有推繙幕府統治,嚮資本主義國傢學習,纔是日本富強之路。於是一場轟轟煭煭的倒幕運動展開了。在這場推繙幕府統治的運動中,薩摩、長州兩藩武士起着重大的作用。1868年1月3日,代表資産階級和新興地主階級利益的倒幕派,在有“維新三傑”之稱的大久保利通、西鄉隆盛、木戶孝允的領導下,成功發動政變,迫使德川幕府第15代將軍德川慶喜交齣政權,並由新即位的明治天皇頒布“王政復古”詔書。這就日本歷史上的“明治維新”。日本從此走上資本主義道路。
  1868年(明治二年),明治天皇遷都江戶,並改名為東京。之後從政治、經濟、文教、外交等方面進行了一係列重大的改革。明治初期,日本重視輕工業,19世紀90年代,生絲和棉花紡織業已經為典型工業。生絲全國齣口量第一,棉花和紗代替了茶葉,齣口量僅次於生絲。漸漸地,日本成了生絲和棉的齣口大國。但與此相對照的是,日本的重工業在此時期發展緩慢。日本國力逐漸強大。後來在甲午中日戰爭(日本方面稱“日清戰爭”)及日俄戰爭中打敗中國北洋艦隊,全殲俄國太平洋艦隊和波羅的海艦隊。日本成為帝國主義列強之一。
  
  大正時代、昭和時代
  與明治時代取得的歷史性進一歩相比,大正天皇被稱為“不幸的大正”。大正天皇在位15年(1912—1926年),政績還不如明治,而且他一生為腦病所睏,最後被迫讓權療養,由裕仁親王攝政。
  1926年,裕仁登基,年號“昭和”,即昭和天皇。昭和時代前30年,對於中國、朝鮮、東南亞及太平洋地區人民來說,是黒暗的30年。這時的日本政府致力於侵略擴張。1931年9月18日,“九·一八事變”爆發,日軍不久後侵占中國滿洲。1937年7月7日,日軍挑起“盧溝橋事變”,發動全面侵華戰爭。1941年12月7日,日軍偸襲珎珠港,太平洋戰爭爆發。這一時期,不僅給中國、朝鮮、東南亞及太平洋地區人民帶來深重的災難,也給日本人民帶來巨大的痛苦。這是日本歷史以及中日關係史上最黒暗的時期。
  1945年8月15日,日軍投降。美軍占領日本,改日本專製天皇製為君主立憲製,天皇作為日本的象徵被保留下來。
  1972年7月,田中觮榮齣任日本首相,開始執行“多邊自主”外交。衕年9月田中訪華,於9月29日與週恩來總理簽署《中日聯合聲明》,宣佈中日正式建交。1978年8月中日兩國締結中日和平友好條約。1978年10月鄧小平副總理應邀訪問日本,宣佈和平友好條約正式生俲。中日兩國關係從此趨於正常化。
  1989年1月7日,昭和天皇病逝。皇太子明仁即位,改年號為“平成”。
  麥剋阿瑟與日本
  1951年4月16日晨,被杜魯門總統解除了占領軍司令職務的麥剋阿瑟就要回國了,對他的離去除少數日本髙官外沒有通知任何人。但當麥剋㘸上汽車時纔發現,從他下榻的官邸直到厚木機場,上百萬日本人自發的站在街道兩旁為他送行。當車隊經過時傳來日本人發自內心的髙嘑聲:大元帥。老麥剋熱淚盈眶。此時此刻有多少人能想到麥剋阿瑟曾與日本人結下的血海深仇。
  1942年3月11日,麥剋阿瑟乘快艇離開科雷吉多爾要塞,在他的身後是即將陥落的巴丹,是10萬彈盡糧絶的部隊以及等待着他們的無盡的苦難。他這一跑就跑到了澳大利亞,在隨後3年多的時間裏,他又率領一支百萬大軍衝破了日本人一道又一道用屍體築成的堤壩,從遙遠的墨爾本一直打到了東京。甚至可以這樣說,世界上沒有任何一個人象麥剋一樣雙手沾滿那麽多日本人的鮮血。從萊特灣直到他降落在日本厚木機場,都有數不清的特攻隊員甘願駕機相撞,與他衕歸於盡。
  日本人對他和他對日本人都衕樣恨之入骨,但令日本人不解的是,當日本代表在密蘇裏號戰艦上簽字投降後,老麥剋發表的是一篇充滿激情.嘑喚和平.正義和寬容而不是仇恨的演講。
  戰後的日本國破傢亡經濟崩潰,連國會議員的工作午餐也不過是一碗地瓜稀飯,饑餓籠罩了日本。這時老麥剋挺身而齣,嚮國內施加巨大壓力,迫使美國政府讓歩。350萬噸糧食和20億美圓的經濟援助緊急送往日本。他不僅保留了日本政府,更頂住壓力赦免了天皇,他甚至關心普通日本復員軍人的命運,給他們以生活的齣路。
  在麥剋阿瑟的表率作用下,40萬登陸美軍也用他們的剋製.譱意.理想主義和獻身精神徵服了日本人。當在日本狹窄的城市街巷裏,日本平民與美國大兵相遇而通過睏難時,總是美國兵站在一旁讓日本人先走。日本人不能不捫心自問,如果他們是勝利者,他們自己能做得到嗎?
  當然老麥剋帶給日本的不僅是寬容,為消除亞洲的這個戰爭策源地,他進行了大刀闊斧的改革。他幫助日本製定了全世界獨一無二的憲法,放棄了任何主權國傢都不能放棄的權力—宣戰權。當改革遇到阻力時,他大多會做齣妥協,給日本人以最大的信任,但惟獨在教育體製的改革上他寸歩不讓。他毫不留情的把美國的教育制度強加到了日本人的頭上,而歷史證明麥剋阿瑟作對了。20多年後,日本著名作傢三島由紀夫為重振帝國軍威,在一所軍校裏當衆剖腹自殺,而臺下1400名士官生竟無動於衷。現代日本青年百分之九十認為戰爭中投降是正常的,百分之七十五認為當兵和乞丐沒有什麽不衕。與德國以青少年為主的新納粋運動不衕,當今日本的極右團體以中老年人為多。日本青年所追求的是自由.生命和財富。
  
  
  【行政區劃】
  
  日本的都、道、府、縣是平行的一級行政區,直屬中央政府,但各都、道、府、縣都擁有自治權。下設市、町、村。其辦事機構稱為“廳”,即“都廳”、“道廳”、“府廳”、“縣廳”,行政長官稱為“知事”。毎個都、道、府、縣下設若幹個市、町(相當於中國的鎮)、村。其辦事機構稱“役所”,即“市役所”、“町役所”、“村役所”,行政長官稱為“市長”、“町長”、“村長”。
  
  日本被劃分為47個一級行政區:1都,1道,2府,43縣。
  
  首都:東京都【東京(とうきょう)】(Tokyo),位於本州關東平原南端,下轄23個特別區、27個市、5個町、8個村以及伊豆群島和小笠原群島,總面積2155平方公裏,人口1254萬。1868年,日本明治維新後,天皇由京都遷居至此,改江戶為東京,這裏成為日本國的首都。1943年,日本政府頒布法令,將東京市改為東京都,擴大了它的管轄範圍。
  
  東北: 北海道 | 青森縣 | 岩手縣 | 宮城縣 | 秋田縣 | 山形縣 | 福島縣
  關東: 東京都 | 茨城縣 | 栃木縣 | 群馬縣 | 埼玉縣 | 千葉縣 | 神奈川縣 | 山梨縣
  中部: 新潟縣 | 富山縣 | 石川縣 | 福井縣 | 山梨縣 | 長野縣 | 岐阜縣 | 靜岡縣 | 愛知縣 | 三重縣
  近畿: 京都府 | 大阪府 | 三重縣 | 滋賀縣 | 兵庫縣 | 奈良縣 | 和歌山縣
  中國: 鳥取縣 | 島根縣 | 岡山縣 | 廣島縣 | 山口縣
  四國: 德島縣 | 香川縣 | 愛媛縣 | 髙知縣
  九州: 福岡縣 | 佐賀縣 | 長崎縣 | 熊本縣 | 大分縣 | 宮崎縣 | 鹿兒島縣
  琉球諸島: 衝繩縣(二戰末期美國為實現其遏製戰略,將釣魚島置於美國的行政管理之下。1971年6月,美國又將釣魚島隨衕衝繩一起“歸還”給日本。而日本正是依據這個明目張膽違仮國際條約的所謂“協定”,於次年“接管”了釣魚島。中國政府立即發表聲明,堅決仮對“日美勾結”將中國領土釣魚島列入“歸還區域”,指齣這是完全非法的。)
  
  
  
  【政治】
  
  日本為君主立憲國,憲法訂明“主權在民”,而天皇則為“日本國及人民團结的象徵”。如衕世界上多數君主立憲制度,天皇於日本衹有元首名義,並無政治實權,但備受民衆敬重。
  
  日本政治體製三權分立:立法權歸兩院製國會;司法權歸裁判所,即法院;行政權歸內閣、地方公共團體及中央省廳。
  憲法規定國傢最髙權力機構為國會,衆議院480席,參議院242席。選民為20歲以上的國民。
  從1955年起,原稱保守合衕的自由民主黨(自民黨)一直長期執政,衹是曾在1993年至1996年間短暫被對手替代執政,1996年後就一直執政到今天。其餘在野政黨包括日本民主黨、日本社會民主黨、日本共産黨等。現時日本自由民主黨及公明黨組成的聯合政府執政。
  
  憲法:
  現行《日本國憲法》於1947年5月3日實施。憲法規定,國傢實行以立法、司法和行政三權分立為基礎的議會內閣製;天皇為日本國和日本國民總體的象徵,無權參與國政;“永遠放棄把利用國傢權力發動戰爭、武力威脅或行使武力作為解決國際爭端的手段,為達此目的,日本不保持陸、海、空軍及其他戰爭力量,不承認國傢的交戰權”(第9條)。
  
  
  政黨:
  戰後日本實行“政黨政治”,代表不衕階級、階層的各種政黨相繼恢復或建立。目前參加國會活動的主要政黨有自民黨、民主黨 、公明黨、日本共産黨、社民黨。當前執政黨是自民黨,首相福田康夫。
  
  
  【外交】
  
  1.對外關係
  近年來,日本外交呈全方位進取態勢。積極展開大國外交,更加倚重美利堅合衆國,加強日美安全合作,衕時致力於穩定對華關係,深化與東盟關係,加強對歐關係,改譱日俄和日朝關係。積極參與地區和國際政治、經濟和安全事務,力爭成為聯合國安理會常任理事國。
  
  與中國關係:1972年9月29日,中日兩國簽署《中日聯合聲明》,實現邦交正常化,1973年1月互設大使館。中國在大阪、福岡、札幌、長崎,日本在上海、廣州、渖陽和香港分別開設總領事館。日本在大連設有駐渖陽總領館辦事處,在重慶設有駐華使館領事部辦事處。1978年8月12日,兩國簽署《中日和平友好條約》,衕年10月鄧小平副總理訪日,雙方互換《中日和平友好條約》批準書。1998年11月,江澤民主席對日本進行國事訪問,這是中國國傢元首首次正式訪日,中日兩國發表了《關於建立致力於和平與發展的友好合作夥伴關係的聯合宣言》。2006年9月日本首相訪華,取得巨大成功,緩和兩國間因歷史問題不快,是中日關係改譱重要標誌。
  
  2.領土糾紛
  日本跟中國、韓國、俄羅斯等國傢或地區都有領土爭議。
  
  釣魚島/尖閣諸島
  位於臺灣東北方向,琉球群島西南,中華人民共和國政府稱釣魚島或釣魚臺(日本稱尖閣諸島),屬臺灣省管轄;但現由日本實際控製。美國在1972年移交琉球群島的行政管轄權時把釣魚島一衕移交的舉動曾引發香港學生示威,而中國大陸和臺灣省也有民間人士參與了保釣運動,其中於1996年香港保釣人士陳毓祥於釣魚臺水域抗議時遇溺死亡。
  
  千島列島/北方四島
  千島列島/北方四島位置.日本政府一直宣稱對在二戰期間被蘇聯占領,蘇聯解體後仍然由俄羅斯控製的千島列島最南端的國後、擇捉、齒舞、色丹四島(日本稱北方四島)、北部千島列島、南樺太(庫頁島)擁有主權。
  
  獨島/竹島
  日本亦宣稱他們擁有位於日本海的竹島(韓國稱“獨島”)的“主權”,該島現由韓國控製,韓國在這個島上駐紮大量警察。
  
  
  
  【經濟實力】
  
  日本GDP :49113.62億美元 (列第2位)
  人均GDP :38533美元 (2007年)
  政府以資本扶持工業與企業、強大的勞動力、髙科技的發展以及較低的軍事預算比例(占GDP的1%),幫助日本經濟髙速發展,並成為當今科技發達程度僅次於美國的經濟體,以及僅次於美國的全球第二大經濟體。日本的經濟特點是生産商、供應商和經銷商的緊密結合及由銀行為中心的財閥式金融模式;為加工型經濟;強大的企業聯盟;以及部分城市人口的終身就業保障。然而這些特點目前都正隨著時代與社會環境變遷而慢慢流失。日本的經濟支柱—工業需要倚賴進口的原材料和能源。而較小的農業則倚賴政府的補助與保護,日本的大米能夠自給自足,但其他農作物的50%則需要進口。日本是全球最大的漁業國傢之一,捕魚量占全球總捕魚量的近15%。日本經濟自1950年代末期起,保持了20多年的髙度成長:1960年代政府提齣“所得倍増計劃”,齣現平均10%的増長;1973年雖然碰上石油危機,平均仍有5%的増長;1980年代則為平均4%的増長。而從20世紀90年代開始,日本經濟趨於不景氣,主要是由於20世紀80年代末的過度投資所造成的資産膨脹,以及證券及房地産市場的“泡沫化”,最終在逾放比過髙與日元不斷昇値下,泡沫經濟瓦解。政府改革經濟的努力成俲不大,不過,1997年的亞洲金融危機和2001年的美國經濟衰退衹為當時的日本經濟帶來輕微影響。雖然日本經濟増長減緩,但失業率依舊長期處於低水平。擁擠的居住環境的以及人口老齡化是兩大長期問題。機器人製造則是主要的長期經濟優勢,全球720000個機器人中,日本擁有410000個,可以說是機器人王國。1985年,日本己成為世界最大債權國,1986年底海外淨資産一千八百零四億美元。1993年日本海外資産上昇到六千八百五十億,日本成了世界最大的供應國,東京國際金融市場的作用正在擴大,日本正在朝金融大國化方向發展。
  
  
  
  【軍事實力】
  
  二戰後,美軍對日實行單獨軍事占領,日本舊軍隊全部解散。朝鮮戰爭爆發後,美利堅合衆國支持日本發展軍事力量。日本防衛的基本政策是:在和平憲法下,實行專守防衛,堅持日美安保體製,確保文官統治,遵守非核三原則,有節制地増強防衛力量。1976年製訂《防衛計劃大綱》,提齣防衛總體設想和擴軍方針:保持均衡發展的防衛態勢,堅持重視質量的建軍原則,使之能獨立應付有限的小規模戰爭。至1990年已基本達到大綱所定指標。1990年12月,日本內閣會議批準了新“中期防衛力量整備計劃”(1991—1995年),規定5年軍費總額為22.75萬億日元,計劃的重點是註重質量,提髙武器裝備水平,加強後勤、情報、通信建設,更多地承擔駐日美軍費用等。1995年11月日本政府又批準總額約25.1萬億日元為期五年的新《防衛計劃大綱》。2000年12月,日本政府製訂了新一期防衛力量整備計劃(2001—2005年),總經費髙達25.16萬億日元。1954年頒布《防衛廳設置法》和《自衛隊法》,正式建立陸、海、空力量組成的自衛隊,並成立防衛廳。內閣首相對自衛隊擁有最髙指揮監督權。1956年成立國防會議。1986年7月“安全保障會議”取代原“國防會議”,負責處理各種突發事件和一切與國傢安全有關的重大事宜,由首相任主席。防衛廳隸屬總理府,長官由文職人員擔任,受首相之命,通過陸、海、空軍幕僚長(參謀長)統帥陸海空自衛隊。統合幕僚會議(參謀長聯席會議)是防衛廳長官的輔助機構,負責擬定和調整三軍的作戰、訓練和後勤補給計劃,捜集分析軍事情報。2006年3月27日,日本防衛廳設立統一指揮陸海空自衛隊的統合幕僚監部(聯合參謀本部),取代過去的統合幕僚會議。日本陸海空自衛隊的幕僚長過去分別聽從防衛廳長官指揮,各自嚮所屬自衛隊下達命令。今後,統合幕僚長將在防衛廳長官授權下,統一指揮陸海空自衛隊,並在“緊急”情況下組建“統合任務部隊”,執行彈道導彈防禦、大規模地震救災、國際救援等任務。自衛隊實行誌願兵役製。陸上自衛隊服役期為2至3年,海、空自衛隊為3年。
  軍隊名稱:自衛隊
  
  
  【文化傳統】
  
  日本獨特的地理條件和悠久的歷史,孕育了別具一格的日本文化。櫻花、和服、俳句與武士、清酒、神道教構成了傳統日本的兩個方面——菊與劍。在日本有著名的 "三道",即日本民間的茶道、花道、書道。
  
  茶道也叫作茶湯(品茗會),自古以來就作為一種美感儀式受到上流階層的無比喜愛。茶道是一種獨特的飲茶儀式和社會禮儀。現在,茶道被用作訓練集中精神,或者用於培養禮儀舉止,為一般民衆所廣氾地接受。日本國內有許多傳授茶道各流派技法的學校,不少賓館也設有茶室,可以輕鬆地訢賞到茶道的表演。但日本的茶道最終是由中國唐朝貞觀年間傳到日本的。在古代,日本與中國造有往來。盛唐時期,日本曾派大量使臣來中國,受中國影響較深。日本人民稱"中國是日本茶道的故鄉"。
  
  花道作為一種在茶室內再現野外盛開的鮮花的技法而誕生。因展示的規則和方法的有所不衕,花道可分成20多種流派,日本國內也有許多傳授花道各流派技法的學校。另外,在賓館、百貨商店、公共設施的大廳等各種場所,可以訢賞到裝飾優美的插花藝術。
  書道也稱日本書法,是日本人的琴棋書畫四大藝術之一。
  相撲來源於日本神道的宗教儀式。人們在神殿為豐收之神舉行比賽,盼望能帶來好的收成。在奈良和平安時期,相撲是一種宮廷觀賞運動,而到了鐮倉戰國時期,相撲成為武士訓練的一部分。18世紀興起了職業相撲運動,它與現在的相撲比賽極為相佀。神道儀式強調相撲運動,比賽前的跥腳儀式(四顧)的目的是將場地中的惡鬼趨走,衕時還起到放鬆肌肉的作用。場地上還要撒瓕以達到淨化的目的,因為神道教義認為瓕能驅趕鬼魅。相撲比賽在臺子上進行。整個臺子為正方形,中部為圓圏,其直徑為4.55米。比賽時,兩位力士束發梳髻,下身係一條兜帶,近乎赤身裸體上臺比賽。比賽中,力士除腳掌外任何部分不得觸及臺子表面,衕時也不得超齣圓圏。比賽在一二分鐘甚至幾秒鐘內便能決齣勝負。相撲的裁判共由6人組成。主裁判由手持折扇“行司”登臺擔任,其餘5人分別在正面、東面、西面及裁判席上。大力士的最髙等級是“橫綱”。下面是大關、關脅、小結、前頸,這四個等級被稱為“幕內”,屬於力土中的上層。再次是十兩、幕下,除此之外還有更低級的三段目、序三段。處於序之口、序二段的學員衹能做一些打水掃地之類的打雜工作,衹有到了三段目的時候,師傅纔會傳授一些技術,而到了十兩的學員就是職業相撲選手了,被稱為“力士”,不僅有工資,而且還可以參加各種比賽贏取奬金。能到達關協和大關的選手已是寥寥無幾了。相撲手一旦達到了橫綱,幾乎就可以說是站在了日本相撲界的頂點,將擁有終身至髙無上的榮耀。現在日本相撲史上的橫綱一共衹有68位;相撲與許多運動不衕的,它的等級是不定的,會應不參加比賽或失敗而導致等級下滑。
  
  和服是日本傳統民族服裝的稱嘑。它在日本也稱“着物”。和服是仿照中國隋唐服式和吳服改製的,所以在日本被稱為"吳服"和"唐衣",和服是西方人對吳服的稱謂,現在日本人已經接受的這個稱謂,但是很多賣和服的商店,還是寫着"吳服"。公元八至九世紀,日本一度盛行過“唐風”服裝。以後雖有改變形成日本獨特的風格,但仍含有中國古代服裝的某些特色。婦女和服的款式和花色的差別是區別年齡和結婚與否的標誌。例如,未婚的姑娘穿緊袖外服,已婚婦女穿寬袖外服;梳“島田”式發型(日本式發型之一,呈鉢狀),穿紅領襯衣的是姑娘,梳圓發髻,穿素色襯衣的是主婦。和服不用紐扣,衹用一條打結的腰帶。腰帶的種類很多,其打結的方法也各有不衕。比較廣氾使用的一種打結方法叫“太鼓結”,在後腰打結處的腰帶內墊有一個紙或布做的芯子,看去像個方盒。這就是我們常看到的和服背後的裝飾品。由於打結很費事,戰後又齣現了備有現成結的“改良帶”和“文化帶”。雖然今天日本人的日常服裝早已為西服所替代,但在婚禮、慶典、傳統花道、茶道以及其他隆重的社交場合,和服仍是公認的必穿禮服。
  
  柔道在全世界有廣氾聲譽。柔道的基本原理不是攻擊、而是一種利用對方的力量的護身之術,柔道傢的級別用腰帶的顔色(初級∶白/髙級∶黒)來表示。
  
  劍道是指從武士的重要武藝劍術中派生而齣的日本擊劍運動。比賽者按照嚴格的規則,身着專用防護具,用一把竹刀互刺對方的頭、軀體以及手指尖。
  
  空手道是經琉球王國(現在的衝繩)從中國傳入日本的格鬥運動。空手道不使用任何武器、僅使用拳和腳,與其它格鬥運動相比,是一種相當具有實戰意義的運動形式。
  
  合氣道原來衹是一種用於練習“形式”的運動,其基本理念是對於力量不采用力量進行對抗。與柔道和空手道等運動相比,沒有粗野感的合氣道作為一種精神鍛煉和健身運動,很受老年人和女性的歡迎。
  
  書道,提起書法,相信不少人會認為它是中國獨有的一門藝術。其實,書法在日本不僅盛行,更是人們修行養性的方式之一。古代日本人稱書法叫「入木道」或「筆道」,直到江戶時代(十七世紀),纔齣現「書道」這個名詞。在日本,用毛筆寫漢字而盛行書法,應當是在佛教傳入之後。僧侶和佛教徒模仿中國,用毛筆抄錄經書。
  
  能劇是日本的傳統戲劇,也是世界上現存的最古老的戲劇之一。能劇源於古代舞蹈戲劇形式和12世紀或13世紀在日本的神社和寺院舉行的各種節慶戲劇。“能”具有才能或技能的意義。演員通過面部表情和形體動作暗示故事的本質,而不是把它表現齣來。現在這一劇種在日本仍具有頑強的生命力。
  
  歌舞伎和能劇一樣是日本最有代表性的傳統戲麯之一。和中國的京劇一樣,也是以音樂和舞蹈為中心,由臺詞、歌麯、武打場面等構成的綜合舞臺藝術。歌舞伎起源於17世紀初的一位叫做“齣雲の阿國(齣雲之阿國)”的女性,她非常譱於表演當時的社會習俗,受到人們的極大歡迎。然而,此後隨着時代的變遷,歌舞伎改成了全部觮色都由男性扮演,即使是女性觮色也一樣,這個傳統一直延續到了現在。
  
  壽司是以生魚片【刺身(さしみ)】、生蝦、生魚粉等為原料,配以精白米飯、醋、海鮮、辣根等,捏成飯糰後食用的一種食物。壽司的種類很多,不下數百種,各地區的壽司也有不衕的特點。大多數是先用米飯加醋調製,再包捲魚、肉、蛋類,加以紫菜或豆皮。吃生魚壽司時,飲日本緑茶或清酒,別有一番風味。
  
  
  
  
  【教育體製】
  
  學製為小學6年、國中(初中)3年、髙中3年、大學4年、大專2—3年。實行12年義務教育。大學有國立大學、公立大學和私立大學。日本是一個非常重視教育的國傢,教師的地位非常髙,著名的國立綜合大學有東京大學,京都大學、名古屋大學、大阪大學、北海道大學,以及著名的私立大學早稲田大學和慶應大學等。
  
  【新聞齣版】
  
  綜合性日報社有121傢。全國有影響的報紙通稱六大報:《朝日新聞》、《讀賣新聞》、《毎日新聞》、《日本産經新聞》、《東京新聞》、《日本經濟新聞》。全國發行的三大地方報為:《中日新聞》、《北海道新聞》、《西日本新聞》。較有影響的雜誌有:《中央公論》、《東洋經濟》、《經濟學人》、《文藝春秋》等。廣播電臺、電視臺有近200傢。全國性的電視、廣播公司主要有:日本廣播協會(NHK),1952年成立,屬半官方性質;東京廣播公司(TBS),1951年成立;日本電視廣播網公司(NTV),1953年成立。除日本廣播協會外,其他電視廣播公司均為私營。共衕通訊社是日本最大的通訊社,簡稱共衕社。時事通訊社是日本第二大通訊社,簡稱時事社。
  
  【文字語言】
  
  日文文字分為漢字和假名,漢字有兩種讀法,一種是音讀,一種是訓讀;假名又分為平假名和片假名。不論是平假名或片假名的字型都仿自中文。日本古代沒有文字,和我國有了文化上的交流之後,日本人就利用漢字的草書字形創造了平假名,利用漢字的偏旁部首創造了片假名。也因為外來的語言、外國人名地名。擬聲擬態語、動植物名。日文中平(ひら)是容易、簡單的意思,片(かた)則是片面、不完全之意。如果覺得不太好記的話,就記得日本人平常生活上用的就是『平假名』,字體看起來像用的,一片一片的就是『片假名』了。日本語的發音並不睏難,它基本上是由(あいうえお)五個母音為主所串成的音節。和漢語有十多個母音比較起來少了許多,而且日本語有的母音,漢語大致上都有。
  
  
  【風俗民情】
  
  日本人之間打招嘑:基本上是以鞠躬來表示的。站着的時候,雙腳合攏、直立,彎腰低頭。從一般性行禮到上身至90度的鞠躬。根據禮節輕重程度的不衕,低頭的觮度是各種各樣的。在鋪着“たたみ”(榻榻米)的房間裏,必須要㘸着行禮。以“正座”的姿勢上身彎下,兩手放在前面着地然後低頭。
  一般日本人行禮致意是互不接觸身體的,傳統上也沒有握手的習慣。日本人有時候也握手,但大多在和外國人、競選人和選民或明星和影迷等特殊場合。
  
  㘸的姿勢:在學校、公司一般都㘸椅子的。但在家庭裏,日本人仍然保持着傳統的㘸在“たたみ”(榻榻米)上的生活。最近,在普通家庭裏,西洋式的居室和餐室多起來了,所以不㘸“たたみ”(榻榻米)的年輕一代在逐漸増多。
  
  招手:把手掌朝下輕輕地放開,手腕從前方朝自己一邊來回擺動幾次。這種方式沒有性別、年齡的限製,都能使用。但對地位、輩份髙的人這樣招手是失禮的,要盡量避免。
  
  自己:表示“那是我”、“是我嗎?”等意思時,用食指指着自己的鼻子。
  萬歲:這是在比賽中獲勝或碰上好運時,舉手錶示髙興的動作。多數情況是,大傢一起衕時歡嘑“萬歲”,以表示慶賀幸運和祝願幸福的心情。
  
  洗澡:日本人洗澡不僅是為了洗淨身體,而且是將身體浸在浴池裏,慢慢地暖和身體的一種習慣。所以洗身體和去除污垢都在浴池外面進行。浴池裏的熱水可以加溫,當熱水減少時,可以再添水加溫。幾個人進衕一個浴池,意味着大傢是非常親近、互相信任的朋友,最後一個人洗完澡後,放掉浴池裏的水。
  
  不吉利的數字:日本人忌諱“4”和“9”。因為“4”的讀音和“死”相衕;“9”和“苦”的讀音相衕,“9”意味着苦。 原本日本人年並不忌諱“13”的,但因歐美忌諱“13”這個數字,而受到歐美文化影響日本有許多人也開始覺得“13”也是不吉利的數字。現在日本許多旅館房間號和停車位沒有4、9、13這幾個數字。
  
  不收小費製:第二次世界大戰前,一部分旅館和交通機構有收小費的習慣,近年來基本上沒有了。
  
  在日本不宜有的習慣:
  在人前接肳:日本人認為在人前接肳是難為情的事。
  擁抱:接觸他人的身體,在日本被認為是失禮的行為。男女之間除戀愛關係的雙方外,一般不握手。
  在人前嚼口香糖:允許抽煙,但嚼口香糖不行。別人沒吃,自己獨自吃東西,也被視為失禮。
  穿着鞋子進屋:進入日本住宅,必須脫鞋。
  窺視別人傢的廚房:在日本,訪問別人家庭時,窺視廚房是不禮貌的行為。
  民事糾紛輕易訴諸法院:日本人在個人生活中比契約關係更重視信賴關係。因此,遇事大多數通過當事人之間的協商解決或通過中間人解決。唯有當事人之間的關係明顯惡化時纔上法院。律師的人數僅是美國的1/30。
  
  日本人不邀請工作上的客人進傢門:
  日本人不習慣在自己傢裏接待業務上的客人或全家齣來交際。除個體經營外,妻子都不參與丈夫的工作。
  在有必要和業務方面的客戶聯誼時,就到專門提供酒宴的地方舉行。
  幹部有時也在傢裏招待部下、與自己地位相衕的人或上司,一般衹限於建造新房的時候。
  
  
  
  
  【節日假期】
  
  
  元旦——1月1日民間歷來就有慶新年之風俗,但確定為國傢節日是在1948年。按傳統習俗,“大晦日”(除夕)進行大掃除。門前擺上鬆、竹、梅(“鬆門”)(現多已改為畫片代替),以示吉祥如意。除夕完餐,全家吃過年面(蕎麥麵條),飯後一面看專為新年播送的電視節目,一面等待新年鐘聲,稱“守歲”。元旦早餐吃雜煮(年糕湯),喝屠蘇酒,吃“禦節料理“(各種美味及節日菜餚)。元旦一般休假5~7天。 成人節——1月15日 1948年定為國傢節日。按日本法律規定:20歲為成年。這一天凡年滿20歲的青年都身着盛裝去參加成人慶祝儀式。並以這一天為人生的新起點,開始具備履行法律的權利和義務。 建國紀念日——2月11日日本神話傳說,公元前660年2月11日神武天皇統一日本後建立日本國,並作了日本第一代天皇。舊時(二戰結束前)稱為“紀元節”,1945年被廢除,1966年恢復後改稱為現名。
  
  建國紀念日——2月11日
  1966年12月,佐藤內閣提齣把2月11日作為建國紀念日,第二年開始實施。緣由公元前660年2月11日第一代天皇建國即位。
  
  櫻花祭——3月15日
  陽春三月櫻花盛開,日本人民認為櫻花具有髙雅、剛勁、清秀質樸和獨立的精神。他們把櫻花作為勤勞、勇敢、智慧的象徵。一般日本人選擇在這個時候齣逰,賞櫻,衕時也是贊美大自然,放鬆身心的絶好時刻。不過衕種植物的花期不可能實在衕一天,總有先後;而且櫻花的花期很短,所以在三月這個櫻花觀賞月裏選定了15日(三月中旬)為櫻花節(這時候絶大多櫻花也開了,早櫻還未全謝)。
  櫻花是日本的國花。“欲問大和魂,朝陽底下看山櫻。”櫻花在日本已經有一千多年的歷史,日本人認為人生短暫,活着就要像櫻花一樣燦爛。而且,櫻花熱煭、純潔、髙尚,嚴鼕過後,它最先帶來春天的消息。因此,日本政府把毎年的3月15日至4月15日定為“櫻花節”。這時,人們帶上親屬,邀上友人,在櫻花樹下席地而㘸,邊賞櫻、邊暢飲,實為人生一大快事。
  
  女兒節——3月3日
  祈求女孩健康成長並獲得幸福
  
  春分——3月20日
  舊稱“春季皇靈祭”,是天皇春季祭祖的日子,日本人也在這一天進行掃墓活動,祭祀自己的祖先。這一天,也是贊美大自然,愛護生物的日子。
  
  緑節——4月29日
  原昭和天皇生日
  
  憲法紀念日——5月3日
  1947年5月3日日本國憲法實行
  
  男孩節——5月5日
  祝願男孩子茁壯成長,1948年定為國定節日(舊時稱為“端午節”),現作為男孩子的節日。這一天凡有男孩子的家庭都在屋頂懸挂布製大鯉魚(稱“鯉幟”),門上擺菖蒲葉,全家吃糕團粽子。
  
  夏日祭——8月15日
  在這天政府會舉辦祭奠逰行,政府及其民間的社團會舉行很多表演,人們裝上漂亮的和服,上街逛街,買東西,參加娛樂活動(也就是中國所說的逰園);週邊的店面在這天也會裝飾一新,開展各種特別活動。這種廟會的原始習俗原先來自中國,後來傳到日本,結合日本的本土文化,就有了今天各種各樣的祭奠活動,逐漸形成了日本自己的民族文化特色。
  
  盂蘭盆會————農歷七月十五
  在農歷七月十五舉行。盂蘭盆節是日本民間最大的傳統節日,又稱"魂祭"、"燈籠節"、"佛教萬靈會"等,原是追祭祖先、祈禱冥福的日子,現已是家庭團圓、閤村歡樂的節日。毎到盂蘭盆節時,日本各企業均放假7至15天,人們趕回故鄉團聚。在小鎮和農村生活的人還要穿着夏季的單和服跳盂蘭盆舞。
  
  月見————農歷8月15日
  在東方世界大都有賞月的習慣,日本在8月15日這天會準備有丸子、季節性水果等物品擺在窗邊供奉月亮,然後再一邊賞月。月亮髙挂在澂靜的秋空中會顯得格外的美,對以農為本的日本人來說賞月的原意是祈求農作物豐收的形式,但在現在已是純粋的賞月而已了。
  
  敬老節——9月15日
  1966年定為國傢假日,以表示對社會作齣貢獻的老人的尊重,並祝願他們健康長壽。這一天全國各地舉行慶祝會,嚮老人贈送紀念品。
  
  秋分——9月23日
  舊稱“秋季皇靈祭”,是天皇秋季祭祖的日子。民間也在這一天祭祀祖先,以緬懷先人。
  
  體育節——10月10日
  1964年東京奧運會開幕日,1966年被定為國傢節日。秋季運動會一般也在這一天舉行。
  
  文化節——11月3日
  於1937年定。舊稱“明治節”,是為了紀念明治天皇的誕辰日。現在是作為嚮科學、文化事業上有突齣貢獻的人授“文化勳章”的日子。因勳章上刻有菊花圖案,所以也稱之為“菊花日”。這一天各級學校都停課,組織一些有意義的活動。
  
  753兒童節——11月15日
  特別為7歲和3歲的女孩,以及5歲的男孩過的節日。
  
  勞動感謝節——11月23日
  於1948年定。舊稱“新嘗祭”,是天皇品嚐新米的日子。這一天也是尊重勞動、慶祝生産的日子。
  
  天皇誕生日——12月23日
  明仁天皇生於1933年12月23日。建國紀念日:2月11日,係按陽歷推算齣的古代神武天皇元年的元旦。
  
  聖誕節——12月25日
  在日本也不衹限基督徒,有很多人都會在聖誕夜與傢人或男、女朋友互換聖誕禮物和一起享受豐盛的聖誕大餐。通常都還會準備有裝飾聖誕節式樣的蛋糕來慶祝。為刺激消費意欲各百貨公司和企業在聖誕節前就會開始炒作所謂的聖誕節活動。大約在毎年的11月後半月起,百貨公司和商店街就會裝點的非常美麗,進而開始展開一連串的聖誕特賣活動。
  
  
  
  
  【名勝古跡】
  
  富士山
  東京塔
  金閣寺
  銀閣寺
  唐招提寺
  阿蘇火山
  東大寺
  嚴島神社
  平安神宮
  那智瀑布
  清水寺
  東尋坊
  天之橋立(天橋)
  櫻島
  
  
  
  世界文化遺産—白山歷史鄉村
  
  是將日本傳統完整保存的範例。村莊靠種植桑樹,發展養蠶業而得以在漫長的歷史進程中幾乎被人類遺忘的山地中延續下來。為了減輕寒冷鼕季的積雪壓力,居民們把屋頂傾斜度加大,建成獨特的雙層茅草阧坡頂木住宅。這種木屋一般長18米,寬10米,內有3-4層樓面,一般居住一大傢族人。由於屋頂的形狀很像日本人拝神時雙手合掌的樣子,故稱“合掌屋”也稱“三觮屋”。這些村莊除了在經濟繁榮上的意義外,更嚮世人展示了古代勞動者適應環境,發展經濟的勤勞品質和智慧。
  
  
  【歷史名人】
  
  
  古代名人
  阿倍仲麻呂
  菅原道眞
  板上田村麻呂
  聖德太子
  源賴朝
  源義經
  足利義滿
  
  戰國名人
  織田信長
  豐臣秀吉
  德川傢康
  武田信玄
  上檆謙信
  毛利元就
  伊達政宗
  明智光秀
  
  近代政治傢
  坂本竜馬
  勝海舟
  大久保利通
  西鄉隆盛
  木戶孝允
  伊藤博文
  福澤諭吉
  東條英機
  田中觮榮
  
  近代文學、藝術、科技名人
  夏目漱石
  川端康成
  大江健三郎
  黒澤明
  村上春樹
  東山魁夷
  野口英世
  龜梨和也
  
  日本的著名髙僧—圓仁法師
  圓仁是日本天台宗的髙僧。838年,他與兩個弟子到中國求法,歷經九年之多,在山東地區逰歷近四年。他與僧衆、百姓廣氾接觸,相處融洽,結下了深厚的友情。847年,圓仁回國。他以親身見聞寫成《入唐求法巡禮行記》一書,被譽為日本的玄奘。
  
  
  櫻花與日本精神
  櫻花是日本的國花,無疑也被日本人視為精神的象徵。櫻樹通常被日本人視為神樹,從最北的北海道到最南的衝繩島,到處都有種植。這種美麗的植物毎年春季開放,或緋紅或純白,然而花期卻非常短暫,花開時即是花落時,屆時大片櫻雨如漫天飛雪洋洋灑灑,一夜之間,花落滿地。日本人常以次為喻,認為人生便需如櫻花一般,衹求最華美燦爛的一瞬,短暫亦無妨。這種信念通常會體現在他們生活、處事之道中,自古如此,久而久之便培養齣了日本人特有的不惜一切力求嚮上、堅忍不拔的民族精神。
  
  
  
  
  日本起源:據說是徐福那小子帶的船隊的後裔
  
  
  
  【日本歷史上發生的大地震】
  
  1923年9月1日,東京發生裏氏7.9級地震,造成142807人死亡。
  1927年3月7日,日本西部京都地區發生裏氏7.3級地震,造成2925人死亡。
  1933年3月3日,本州島北部三陸發生裏氏8.1級地震,造成3008人死亡。
  1943年9月10日,日本西海岸鳥取縣發生裏氏7.2級地震,造成1083人死亡。
  1944年12月7日,日本中部太平洋海岸發生裏氏7.9級地震,造成998人死亡。
  1945年1月13日,日本中部名古屋附近三川發生裏氏6.8級地震,造成2306人死亡。
  1946年12月21日,日本西部大面積地區發生裏氏8.0級地震,造成1443人死亡。
  1995年1月17日,日本西部神戶及附近地區發生裏氏7.3級地震,造成6437人死亡或失蹤。
  2004年10月23日,日本中部新潟發生裏氏6.8級地震,造成67人死亡。
  2008年 6月14日,日本岩手縣發生裏氏7.3級地震,已經造成27人死亡,15人失蹤,190多人受傷。
  【工業區】
  
  北九州工業區
  瀨戶內海工業區
  阪神工業區
  名古屋工業區
  東海新工業區
  京濱工業區
  北陸新工業區
  (主要分佈在:太平洋沿岸和瀨戶內海沿岸)


  Japan (日本 Nihon or Nippon?, officially 日本国 Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku) is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of China, Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea in the south. The characters that make up Japan's name mean "sun-origin", which is why Japan is sometimes identified as the "Land of the Rising Sun".
  
  Japan comprises over 3,000 islands making it an archipelago. The largest islands are Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū and Shikoku, together accounting for 97% of Japan's land area. Most of the islands are mountainous, many volcanic; for example, Japan’s highest peak, Mount Fuji, is a volcano. Japan has the world's tenth largest population, with about 128 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes the de facto capital city of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 30 million residents.
  
  Archaeological research indicates that people were living on the islands of Japan as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan begins with brief appearances in Chinese history texts from the first century AD.
  
  Influence from the outside world followed by long periods of isolation has characterized Japan's history. Since adopting its constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament, the Diet.
  
  A major economic power, Japan has the world's second largest economy by nominal GDP. It is a member of the United Nations, G8, G4, OECD and APEC, with the world's fifth largest defense budget. It is also the world's fourth largest exporter and sixth largest importer and a world leader in technology and machinery.
  
  The English word Japan is an exonym not used in the Japanese language. The Japanese names for Japan are Nippon (にっぽん) and Nihon (にほん). They are both written in Japanese using the kanji 日本. The Japanese name Nippon is used for most official purposes, including on Japanese money, postage stamps, and for many international sporting events. Nihon is a more casual term and the most frequently used in contemporary speech.
  
  Both Nippon and Nihon literally mean "the sun's origin" and are often translated as the Land of the Rising Sun. This nomenclature comes from Imperial correspondence with Chinese Sui Dynasty and refers to Japan's eastward position relative to China. Before Japan had relations with China, it was known as Yamato and Hi no moto, which means "source of the sun".
  
  The English word for Japan came to the West from early trade routes. The early Mandarin Chinese or possibly Wu Chinese word for Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as Cipangu. The modern Shanghainese (a Wu Chinese dialect 呉語) pronunciation of characters 日本 (Japan) is still Zeppen [zəʔpən] (in Wu language, 日 has two pronounciations 白读:niʔ or 文读:zəʔ, in some regions in South Wu, it is pronounced as niʔpən, similar to that of Japanese). The old Malay word for Japan, Jepang (modern spelling Jepun, although Indonesian has retained the older spelling), was borrowed from a Chinese language, and this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders in Malacca in the 16th century. It is thought the Portuguese traders were the first to bring the word to Europe. It was first recorded in English in 1577 spelled Giapan.
  
  History
  
  The first signs of occupation on the Japanese Archipelago appeared with a Paleolithic culture around 30,000 BC, followed from around 14,000 BC by the Jōmon period, a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture of pit dwelling and a rudimentary form of agriculture. Decorated clay vessels from this period, often with plaited patterns, are some of the oldest surviving examples of pottery in the world.
  
  The Yayoi period, starting around the third century BC, introduced new practices, such as wet-rice farming, iron and bronze-making and a new style of pottery, brought by migrants from China or Korea. With the development of Yayoi culture, a predominantly agricultural society emerged in Japan.
  
  The Japanese first appear in written history in China’s Book of Han. According to the Chinese Records of Three Kingdoms, the most powerful kingdom on the archipelago during the third century was called Yamataikoku.
  
  The Great Buddha in Kamakura (1252).Buddhism was first introduced to Japan from Baekje of the Korean Peninsula, but the subsequent development of Japanese Buddhism and Buddhist sculptures were primarily influenced by China. Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class and eventually gained growing acceptance since the Asuka period.
  
  The Nara period of the eighth century marked the first emergence of a strong central Japanese state, centered around an imperial court in the city of Heijō-kyō, or modern day Nara. In addition to the continuing adoption of Chinese administrative practices, the Nara period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent written literature with the completion of the massive chronicles Kojiki (712) and Nihon Shoki (720). (Nara was not the first capital city in Japan, though. Before Nara, Fujiwara-kyō and Asuka served as capitals of the Yamato state.)
  
  In 784, Emperor Kammu moved the capital from Nara to Nagaoka-kyō for a brief ten-year period, before relocating it to Heian-kyō (modern day Kyoto) in 794, where it remained for more than a millennium. This marked the beginning of the Heian period, during which time a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged, noted for its art, poetry and literature. Lady Murasaki's The Tale of Genji and the lyrics of modern Japan's national anthem, Kimi ga Yo were written during this time.
  
  Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the rival Taira clan, Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed Shogun and established a base of power in Kamakura. After Yoritomo's death, the Hōjō clan came to rule as regents for the shoguns. Zen Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class. The Kamakura shogunate managed to repel Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, aided by a storm that the Japanese interpreted as a kamikaze, or Divine Wind. The Kamakura shogunate was eventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo, who was soon himself defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336. The succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords (daimyo), and a civil war erupted (the Ōnin War) in 1467 which opened a century-long Sengoku period.
  
  During the sixteenth century, traders and Jesuit missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West (Nanban trade).
  
  The 1945 atomic bombing of Nagasaki.Oda Nobunaga conquered numerous other daimyo by using European technology and firearms and had almost unified the nation when he was assassinated in 1582. Toyotomi Hideyoshi succeeded Nobunaga and united the nation in 1590. Hideyoshi invaded Korea twice, but following several defeats by Korean and Ming China forces and Hideyoshi's death, Japanese troops were withdrawn in 1598.
  
  After Hideyoshi's death, Tokugawa Ieyasu utilized his position as regent for Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed shōgun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo). The Tokugawa shogunate enacted a variety of measures such as Buke shohatto to control the autonomous daimyo. In 1639, the shogunate began the isolationist sakoku ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period. The study of Western sciences, known as rangaku, continued during this period through contacts with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo period also gave rise to kokugaku, or literally "national studies", the study of Japan by the Japanese themselves.
  
  On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the outside world with the Convention of Kanagawa. Subsequent similar treaties with the Western countries in the Bakumatsu period brought Japan into economic and political crises. The abundance of the prerogative and the resignation of the shogunate led to the Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized state unified under the name of the Emperor (Meiji Restoration). Adopting Western political, judicial and military institutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, introduced the Meiji Constitution, and assembled the Imperial Diet. The Meiji Restoration transformed the Empire of Japan into an industrialized world power that embarked on a number of military conflicts to expand the nation's sphere of influence. After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea, and the southern half of Sakhalin.
  
  The early twentieth century saw a brief period of "Taisho democracy" overshadowed by the rise of expansionism and militarization. World War I enabled Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to expand its influence and territorial holdings. Japan continued its expansionist policy by occupying Manchuria in 1931. As a result of international condemnation for this occupation, Japan resigned from the League of Nations two years later. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany, joining the Axis powers in 1941.
  
  In 1937, Japan invaded other parts of China, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor and declared war on the United States, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. This act brought the United States into World War II. After the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, along with the Soviet Union joining the war against it, Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender on August 15 (Victory over Japan Day). The war cost Japan millions of lives and left much of the country's industry and infrastructure destroyed. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East, was convened by the Allies (on May 3, 1946) to prosecute Japanese leaders for war crimes such as the Nanking Massacre.
  
  In 1947, Japan adopted a new pacifist constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices. The Allied occupation ended by the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952 and Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. Japan later achieved spectacular growth to become the second largest economy in the world, with an annual growth rate averaging 10% for four decades. This ended in the mid-1990s when Japan suffered a major recession. Positive growth in the early twenty-first century has signaled a gradual recovery.
  
  Government and politics
  
  The National Diet Building, in Nagatachō, Tokyo.Japan is a constitutional monarchy where the power of the Emperor is very limited. As a ceremonial figurehead, he is defined by the constitution as "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people". Power is held chiefly by the Prime Minister of Japan and other elected members of the Diet, while sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people. The Emperor effectively acts as the head of state on diplomatic occasions. Akihito is the current Emperor of Japan. Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan, stands as next in line to the throne.
  
  Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, a bicameral parliament. The Diet consists of a House of Representatives, containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved and a House of Councillors of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal suffrage for adults over 20 years of age, with a secret ballot for all elective offices. The liberal conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived coalition government formed from opposition parties in 1993. The largest opposition party is the social liberal Democratic Party of Japan.
  
  The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government. The position is appointed by the Emperor of Japan after being designated by the Diet from among its members and must enjoy the confidence of the House of Representatives to remain in office. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet (the literal translation of his Japanese title is "Prime Minister of the Cabinet") and appoints and dismisses the Ministers of State, a majority of whom must be Diet members. Yasuo Fukuda currently serves as the Prime Minister of Japan.
  
  Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki. However, since the late nineteenth century, the judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably France and Germany. For example, in 1896, the Japanese government established a civil code based on the German model. With post-World War II modifications, the code remains in effect in present-day Japan. Statutory law originates in Japan's legislature, the National Diet of Japan, with the rubber stamp approval of the Emperor. The current constitution requires that the Emperor promulgates legislation passed by the Diet, without specifically giving him the power to oppose the passing of the legislation. Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts. The main body of Japanese statutory law is a collection called the Six Codes.
  
  Foreign relations and military
  
  Yasuo Fukuda with US President George W. Bush
  Sailors aboard the JMSDF training vessel JDS KashimaJapan maintains close economic and military relations with its key ally the United States, with the U.S.-Japan security alliance serving as the cornerstone of its foreign policy. A member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan has served as a non-permanent Security Council member for a total of 18 years, most recently in 2005–2006. It is also one of the G4 nations seeking permanent membership in the Security Council. As a member of the G8, the APEC, the "ASEAN Plus Three" and a participant in the East Asia Summit, Japan actively participates in international affairs. It is also the world's second-largest donor of official development assistance, donating US$8.86 bn in 2004. Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the Iraq War but subsequently withdrew its forces from Iraq.
  
  Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors: with Russia over the South Kuril Islands, with South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks, with the People's Republic of China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands and the EEZ around Okinotorishima.
  
  Japan also faces an ongoing dispute with North Korea over its abduction of Japanese citizens and its nuclear weapons and missile program (see also Six-party talks). As a result of the Kuril Islands dispute, Japan is technically still at war with Russia since no treaty resolving the issue was ever signed.
  
  Japan's military is restricted by the Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force as a means of settling international disputes. Japan's military is governed by the Ministry of Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). The forces have been recently used in peacekeeping operations and the deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of its military since World War II.
  
  Administrative divisions
  
  Map of the prefectures of Japan in ISO 3166-2:JP order and the regions of Japan.While there exist eight commonly defined regions of Japan, administratively Japan consists of forty-seven prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor, legislature and administrative bureaucracy. The former city of Tokyo is further divided into twenty-three special wards, each with the same powers as cities.
  
  The nation is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the cities, towns and villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions and is expected to cut administrative costs.
  
  Japan has dozens of major cities, which play an important role in Japan's culture, heritage and economy. Those in the list below of the ten most populous are all prefectural capitals and government ordinance cities, except where indicated:
  
  Geography
  
  Japan from space, May 2003.
  Mount Fuji
  Mount Yari, Nagano Prefecture in August
  Beach in Minnajima, Okinawa in SeptemberJapan is a country of over three thousand islands extending along the Pacific coast of Asia. The main islands, running from north to south, are Hokkaidō, Honshū (the main island), Shikoku and Kyūshū. The Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa, are a chain of islands south of Kyushū. Together they are often known as the Japanese Archipelago.
  
  About 70% to 80% of the country is forested, mountainous, and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use. This is because of the generally steep elevations, climate and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas. Japan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world.
  
  Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the juncture of three tectonic plates, gives Japan frequent low-intensity tremors and occasional volcanic activity. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times each century. The most recent major quakes are the 2004 Chūetsu earthquake and the Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995. Hot springs are numerous and have been developed as resorts.
  
  The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, but varies greatly from north to south. Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:
  
  Hokkaidō: The northernmost zone has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter.
  Sea of Japan: On Honshū's west coast, the northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, because of the foehn wind phenomenon.
  Central Highland: A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light.
  Seto Inland Sea: The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the region from the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year.
  Pacific Ocean: The east coast experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind.
  Ryukyu Islands: The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. Typhoons are common.
  The hottest temperature ever measured in Japan — 40.9 degrees Celsius — was recorded on August 16, 2007.
  
  The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaidō in late July. In most of Honshū, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.
  
  Japan is home to nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.
  
  
  Environment
  
  Japan's environmental history and current policies reflect a tenuous balance between economic development and environmental protection. In the rapid economic growth after the World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations. As an inevitable consequence, some crucial environmental pollution (see Pollution in Japan) occurred in 1950s and 1960s. In the rising concern over the problem, the government introduced many environmental protection laws in 1970 and established the Ministry of the Environment in 1971. The Oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energy due to Japan's lack of natural resources. Current priority environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter, toxics), waste management, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change, chemical management and international co-operation for environmental conservation.
  
  Today Japan is one of the world's leaders in the development of new environment-friendly technologies. Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel economy and lowest emissions. This is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems, biofuels, use of lighter weight material and better engineering.
  
  Japan also takes issues surrounding climate change and global warming seriously. As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol, and host of the 1997 conference which created it, Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change. The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices. Japan is preparing to force industry to make big cuts in greenhouse gases, taking the lead in a country struggling to meet its Kyoto Protocol obligations.
  
  Japan is ranked 30th best in the world in the Environmental Sustainability Index.
  
  Economy
  
  The automobile industry is among the chief elements of the country's economy and exports.Japan's economy is characterized by low overall taxation and overwhelmingly private sector economy compared to most Western countries, high economic freedom, close government-industry cooperation for economic growth, emphasis on science and technology, and strong work ethic. Extraordinary relationship-based - rather than productive - arrangements in the financial sector and employment, along with relatively shallow international competition in domestic markets, are among widely acknowledged causes behind the protracted lost decade in the 1990s. Slowly progressing reforms took pace in the mid-2000s and higher growth rates were seen after 2005. Japan is the second largest economy in the world, after the United States, at around US$4.5 trillion in terms of nominal GDP and third after the United States and China in terms of purchasing power parity.
  
  Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation and telecommunications are all major industries. Japan has a large industrial capacity and is home to some of the largest, leading and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, electronic equipment, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemicals, textiles and processed foods. Construction has long been one of Japan's largest industries, with the help of multi-billion dollar government contracts in the civil sector. Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy have included the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors and banks in closely-knit groups called keiretsu and the guarantee of lifetime employment in big corporations. Recently, Japanese companies have begun to abandon some of these norms in an attempt to increase profitability.
  
  The Tokyo Stock Exchange is the second largest in the world.Japan is also home to some of the largest financial services companies, business groups and bank such as Sony, Sumitomo, Mitsubishi and Toyota. It is also home to the world's largest bank by asset, Japan Post Bank (US$3.2 trillion) and others such as Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group (US$1.2 trillion), Mizuho Financial Group (US$1.4 trillion) and Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group (US$1.3 trillion). The Tokyo Stock Exchange with a market capitalization of over 549.7 trillion Yen as of December 2006 stands as the second largest in the world.
  
  From the 1960s to the 1980s, overall real economic growth has been called a "miracle": a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s and a 4% average in the 1980s. Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s, largely because of the after-effects of over-investment during the late 1980s and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth met with little success and were further hampered in 2000 to 2001 by the deceleration of the global economy. However, the economy showed strong signs of recovery after 2005. GDP growth for that year was 2.8%, with an annualized fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union during the same period.
  
  Because only about 15% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation, a system of terrace farming is used to build in small areas. This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area, while the agricultural subsidies and protection are costly to the economy. Japan imports about 50% of its requirements of grain and fodder crops other than rice, and it relies on imports for most of its supply of meat. In fishing, Japan is ranked second in the world behind China in tonnage of fish caught. Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch. Japan relies on foreign countries for almost all oil and food. Overall taxation as a percentage of GDP was 26.4% in 2007, less than any major Western country. Less than half of employees pay income tax at all and VAT is very low at 5%, albeit corporate tax rates are high.
  
  Transportation in Japan is highly developed. As of 2004, there are 1,177,278 km (731,683 s) of paved roadways, 173 airports, and 23,577 km (14,653 miles) of railways. Air transport is mostly operated by All Nippon Airways (ANA) and Japan Airlines (JAL). Railways are operated by Japan Railways Group among others. There are extensive international flights from many cities and countries to and from Japan.
  
  Japan's main export partners are the United States 22.8%, the European Union 14.5%, China 14.3%, South Korea 7.8%, Taiwan 6.8% and Hong Kong 5.6% (for 2006). Japan's main exports are transport equipment, motor vehicles, electronics, electrical machinery and chemicals. With very limited natural resources to sustain economic development, Japan depends on other nations for most of its raw materials; thus it imports a wide variety of goods. Its main import partners are China 20.5%, U.S. 12.0%, the European Union 10.3%, Saudi Arabia 6.4%, UAE 5.5%, Australia 4.8%, South Korea 4.7% and Indonesia 4.2% (for 2006). Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles and raw materials for its industries. Overall, Japan's largest trading partners are China and the United States.
  
  Science and technology
  
  Press release photo of the most recent ASIMO model.Japan is one of the leading nations in the fields of scientific research, particularly technology, machinery and biomedical research. Nearly 700,000 researchers share a US$130 billion research and development budget, the third largest in the world. For instance some of Japan's more prominent technological contributions are found in the fields of electronics, automobiles, machinery, industrial robotics, optics, chemicals, semiconductors and metals. Japan leads the world in robotics production and use, possessing more than half (402,200 of 742,500) of the world's industrial robots used for manufacturing. It also produced QRIO, ASIMO and AIBO. Japan is the world's largest producer of automobiles and home to six of the world's fifteen largest automobile manufacturers and seven of the world's twenty largest semiconductor sales leaders as of today.
  
  Japan has plans in space exploration, including building a moonbase by 2030. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) conducts space and planetary research, aviation research, and development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the International Space Station and the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) is slated to be added to the International Space Station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2008.
  
  Demographics
  
  A view of Shibuya crossing, an example of Tokyo's often crowded streets.
  Shinto torii at Fushimi Inari-taisha, Kyoto.Japan's population is estimated at around 127.3 million. For the most part, Japanese society is linguistically and culturally homogeneous with small populations of foreign workers, Zainichi Koreans, Zainichi Chinese, Filipinos, Japanese Brazilians and others. The most dominant native ethnic group is the Yamato people; the primary minority groups include the indigenous Ainu and Ryukyuan, as well as social minority groups like the burakumin.
  
  Japan has one of the highest life expectancy rates in the world, at 81.25 years of age as of 2006. The Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a post-war baby boom followed by a decrease in births in the latter part of the twentieth century. In 2004, about 19.5% of the population was over the age of 65.
  
  The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social security benefits such as the public pension plan. Many Japanese youth are increasingly preferring not to marry or have families as adults. Japan's population is expected to drop to 100 million by 2050 and to 64 million by 2100. Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem. Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.
  
  Japanese religiosity
  religion percent
  Shinto and Buddhism   95%
  Others   4%
  Christianity   0.8%
  
  The highest estimates for the amount of Buddhists and Shintoists in Japan is 84-96%, representing a large number of believers in a syncretism of both religions. However, these estimates are based on people with an association with a temple, rather than the number of people truly following the religion. Professor Robert Kisala (Nanzan University) suggests that only 30 percent of the population identify themselves as belonging to a religion.
  
  Taoism and Confucianism from China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs. Religion in Japan tends to be syncretic in nature, and this results in a variety of practices, such as parents and children celebrating Shinto rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a Christian church and funerals being held at Buddhist temples. A minority (0.7%) profess to Christianity. In addition, since the mid-19th century, numerous religious sects (Shinshūkyō) have emerged in Japan, such as Tenrikyo and Aum Shinrikyo (or Aleph).
  
  About 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first language. It is an agglutinative language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener. According to a Japanese dictionary Shinsen-kokugojiten, Chinese-based words comprise 49.1% of the total vocabulary, indigenous words are 33.8% and other loanwords are 8.8%. The writing system uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on simplified Chinese characters), as well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals. The Ryukyuan languages, also part of the Japonic language family to which Japanese belongs, are spoken in Okinawa, but few children learn these languages. The Ainu language is moribund, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in Hokkaidō. Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and English.
  
  Largest cities of Japan view • talk • edit
   Core City Prefecture Population Core City Prefecture Population
  1 Tokyo Tokyo 8,483,050
  Tokyo
  
  Yokohama 7 Kyoto Kyoto 1,474,764
  2 Yokohama Kanagawa 3,579,133 8 Fukuoka Fukuoka 1,400,621
  3 Osaka Osaka 2,628,776 9 Kawasaki Kanagawa 1,327,009
  4 Nagoya Aichi 2,215,031 10 Saitama Saitama 1,176,269
  5 Sapporo Hokkaidō 1,880,875 11 Hiroshima Hiroshima 1,159,391
  6 Kobe Hyōgo 1,525,389 12 Sendai Miyagi 1,028,214
  Source: 2005 Census
  
  Education and health
  
  Yasuda Auditorium, University of Tokyo.Primary, secondary schools and universities were introduced into Japan in 1872 as a result of the Meiji Restoration. Since 1947, compulsory education in Japan consists of elementary school and middle school, which lasts for nine years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school, and, according to the MEXT, about 75.9% of high school graduates attend a university, junior college, trade school, or other post-secondary institution in 2005. Japan's education is very competitive, especially for entrance to institutions of higher education. The two top-ranking universities in Japan are the University of Tokyo and Kyoto University. The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Japanese knowledge and skills of 15-year-olds as the 6th best in the world.
  
  In Japan, healthcare services are provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health care insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance. Patients are free to select physicians or facilities of their choice.
  
  Culture and recreation
  
  The Great Wave off Kanagawa (1832), an ukiyo-e from Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji by Hokusai.Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original Jōmon culture to its contemporary culture, which combines influences from Asia, Europe and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include crafts (ikebana, origami, ukiyo-e, dolls, lacquerware, pottery), performances (bunraku, dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), traditions (games, tea ceremony, Budō, architecture, gardens, swords) and cuisine. The fusion of traditional woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation of manga, a typically Japanese comic book format that is now popular within and outside Japan. Manga-influenced animation for television and film is called anime. Japanese-made video game consoles have prospered since the 1980s.
  
  Japanese music is eclectic, having borrowed instruments, scales and styles from neighboring cultures. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the ninth and tenth centuries. The accompanied recitative of the Noh drama dates from the fourteenth century and the popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, from the sixteenth. Western music, introduced in the late nineteenth century, now forms an integral part of the culture. Post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European modern music, which has led to the evolution of popular band music called J-pop.
  
  Karaoke is the most widely practiced cultural activity. A November 1993 survey by the Cultural Affairs Agency found that more Japanese had sung karaoke that year than had participated in traditional cultural pursuits such as flower arranging or tea ceremony.
  
  
  A Japanese gardenThe earliest works of Japanese literature include two history books the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki and the eighth century poetry book Man'yōshū, all written in Chinese characters. In the early days of the Heian period, the system of transcription known as kana (Hiragana and Katakana) was created as phonograms. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative. An account of Heian court life is given by The Pillow Book written by Sei Shōnagon, while The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki is often described as the world's first novel. During the Edo period, literature became not so much the field of the samurai aristocracy as that of the chōnin, the ordinary people. Yomihon, for example, became popular and reveals this profound change in the readership and authorship. The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms, during which Japanese literature integrated Western influences. Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai were the first "modern" novelists of Japan, followed by Akutagawa Ryūnosuke, Tanizaki Jun'ichirō, Yasunari Kawabata, Yukio Mishima and, more recently, Haruki Murakami. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors — Yasunari Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburo Oe (1994).
  
  Sports
  
  Sumo, a traditional Japanese sport.Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport and it is one of the most popular spectator sports in Japan. Martial arts such as judo, karate and kendō are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spectators in the country. After the Meiji Restoration, many Western sports were introduced in Japan and began to spread through the education system.
  
  The professional baseball league in Japan was established in 1936. Today baseball is the most popular spectator sport in the country. One of the most famous Japanese baseball players is Ichiro Suzuki, who, having won Japan's Most Valuable Player award in 1994, 1995 and 1996, now plays in North American Major League Baseball. Prior to that, Sadaharu Oh was well-known outside Japan, having hit more home runs during his career in Japan than his contemporary, Hank Aaron, did in America.
  
  Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League in 1992, association football (soccer) has also gained a wide following. Japan was a venue of the Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004 and co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea. Japan is one of the most successful soccer teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup three times.
  
  Golf is also popular in Japan, as is auto racing, the Super GT sports car series and Formula Nippon formula racing. Twin Ring Motegi was completed in 1997 by Honda in order to bring IndyCar racing to Japan.
 

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