ōu zhōu:   
lán Poland   shǒudōu:huá shā  guógūdàimǎ: pl   
  cháozhèng
波兰
波兰
   lán gòng guójiǎn chēng lán lán : RzeczpospolitaPolska) shì zhōng 'ōu guó jiā miàn guó jiē rǎngnán jié luò wéi lín lán bái 'é luó zài dōngdōng běi táo wǎn 'é luó jiē rǎngběi miàn bīn lín luó de hǎi
  TheRepublicofPoland lán gòng guó
   shǒu huá shā
   miàn : 312,683.00 píng fāng gōng
   tóng běi jīng shí chā: -7.00
   guó diàn huà : 48
   rén kǒu: 3864.3 wàn rén (1996 nián )
   yán lán
   huò : Zloty luó
   mín lán rén zhàn 97.6%, zhì rén zhàn 1.3%, lán rén 0.6%, bái 'é luó rén zhàn 0.5%。
   zōng jiàotiān zhù jiào zhàn 95%, dōng zhèng jiào jiào xīn jiào jiào pài zhàn 5%。
   guó huākāng nǎi xīnshí zhú
  
  
   shǐ
  
   zǎo zài 6 10 shì zhōng de yuán shǐ gōng shè jiù kāi shǐ zhú jiě fēng jiàn suǒ yòu zhì chǎn shēng。 10 shì zhōng niè nuò wéi zhōng xīn de lán luò zhú jiàn tǒng liǎo luò ( Piastów) jiā de méi shí shì( MieszkoI, yuē 960~ 992 zài wèijiàn liǎo zǎo fēng jiàn guó jiāgōng yuán 996 nián lán jiē shòu jiào。 1025 nián lāi shì( BoleslausI, 992~ 1025 zài wèijiā miǎn wéi lán guó wáng lán chéng wéi qiáng 'ér tǒng de guó jiā
  
   fēng jiàn guó jiā de jiàn tǒng shí ( 10 15 shì zhōng
  
  12 shì zhōng lāi sān shì( BoleslausI, 1102~ 1138 zài wèi hòuyóu wáng gōngguì jiào huì fēng jiàn suǒ yòu zhì de zhǎn chéng shì de xīng quán guó fēn liè wéi gōng guó lán jìn fēng jiàn shí 200 nián zhī jiǔ shì( LadislausI, 1314~ 1333 zài wèitǒng lánxiǎo lán wéi 1320 nián zài jiā miǎn wéi lán guó wáng sān shì( KazimierzIIIWielki, 1333~ 1370 zài wèiyòu tǒng liǎo zuǒ shèdàn shì ruì dōng ruì hái fēn bié wéi lán dēng bǎo tiáo dùn shì tuán zhàn lǐng bèi wáng shì zhàn lǐngwéi kàng tiáo dùn shì tuán de qīn lüè lán wáng guó táo wǎn gōng guó shí xíng liǎo wáng cháo lián ( 1385), táo wǎn gōng 'èr shì gài luò( Jagiellon) wéi lán guó wáng。 1410 nián lán táo wǎn lián jūn zài lún 'ěr zhàn zhōnggěi liǎo tiáo dùn shì tuán huǐ miè xìng 。 1466 niánshōu liǎo dōng ruì
  
   gòng guó shí ( 15 shì zhōng - 1795)
  
   dàn wéi zhōng xīn de dōng ruì de shōu liǎo lán liáng shí de chū kǒuguì zhuāng yuán fēn fēn jiàn láo zhì zhuāng yuáncóng shì shāng pǐn liáng shí de shēng chǎnchéng zhèn chū xiàn shǒu gōng gōng chǎng。 1505 nián huì tōng guò xiàn guī dìng wèi jīng huì tóng guó wáng quán bān cóng 'ér xuē ruò liǎo wáng quánzhāo zhì wài lái shì gān miàn duì duō duō rén de kuò zhāng shì tóu lán wáng guó táo wǎn gōng guó huì zài lín tōng guò liǎo chéng tǒng de lán gòng guó de jué shǒu cóng qiān dào huá shā lán gòng guó chéng wéi duō mín de nóng zhì guó jiāmiàn 31 wàn píng fāng gōng , 17 shì hòu bàn lán de nóng zhì jìn liǎo wēi jiē duàn, 1648 nián méi ( БогданМихайловичХмельницкий), lǐng dǎo de zài lán xíng mín tǒng zhì jiē nèi fēn bēng , 1652 nián guì shǐ huì tōng guò yóu fǒu jué quán, 1654 nián shā 'é duì lán xuān zhànjiān bìng liǎo niè dōng de lánběi fāng zhàn zhēng chū lán bèi zhuī suí 'é guó cān zhàn。 1655 nián lánruì diǎn zhàn zhēng bào lán diū shī fēn lǐng 。 1733~ 1735 nián 'éào dīng wéi zhēng duó lán jìn xíng liǎo zhàn zhēngyán zhòng huài liǎo lán zhù quán guó jiā jīng
  
   lán gòng guó de zhèng zhì zhì fēi cháng biézài dāng shí shì xiāng dāng xiān jìn dechēng wéi guì mín zhù zhì zhè zhǒng zhì yòu liǎng gēn zhī zhù jiào yóu xuǎn wáng zhìguó wáng yóu guì xuǎn fán shì guì jiù méi yòu mín zhù quán jiào yóu fǒu jué quánzhǐ yào yòu yuán fǎn duìzhè xiàng 'àn jiù néng tōng guòér zhēn zhèng de mín zhù shì shǎo shù cóng duō shù de chǔ zhī shàng desuǒ zhè zhǒng guì mín zhù zào chéng liǎo lán duān de mín zhù zhèng zhuàng tàizhè dǎo zhì liǎo zài yòu zhēng de shàng wǎng wǎng 'ér juécóng 'ér dǎo zhì guó jiā zhì dào xiànzhè shì lán zuì hòu shuāi wáng de zhòng yào yīn
  
  18 shì hòu bàn lán shēng chǎn guān zhōng chū xiàn liǎo běn zhù méng zài 'ōu méng yùn dòng yǐng xiǎng xiàzhōng xiǎo guì xīn xīng chǎn jiē 'ài guó xīn yùn dòngdàn shòu dào 'é guó huáng jié lín 'èr shì( ЕкатеринаIIАлексеевна) zhuāng gān shè。 1772 niáné guó shì 'ào duì lán jìn xíng liǎo guā fēn lán rén mín zài guó mìng de yǐng xiǎng xià xīn yùn dòng tuī xiàng gāo cháo。 1791 nián 5 yuè 3 lán nián huì tōng guò liǎo sān xiàn 》( Konstytucja3Maja), xiāo yóu fǒu jué quánzhè shì 'ōu zhōu zuì zǎo de xiàn jié lín 'èr shì zài duì lán jìn xíng zhuāng gān shè。 1793 niáné liǎng guó duì lán jìn xíng liǎo 'èr guā fēn。 1794 nián lán rén mín zài mín yīng xióng qiū shí lǐng dǎo xià xíng hòu bèi 'é guó zhèn xià 。 1795 niánéào sān guó duì lán jìn xíng liǎo sān guā fēn
  
   lán de sān bèi guā fēn
  
  1772 nián 5 yuèshā huáng 'é guó shìào sān guó zài bǎo huì tán 8 yuè 5 qiān shǔ guā fēn lán de tiáo yuē lán sàng shī liǎo yuē 35% de lǐng 33% de rén kǒu lán chéng wéi 'éào de bǎo guó。 1793 nián 1 yuè 23 é zài bǎo qiān dìng 'èr guā fēn lán de xié dìngjīng 'èr guā fēn lán chéng wéi jǐn shèng lǐng 20 wàn píng fāng gōng rén kǒu 400 wàn de xiǎo guóchéng wéi shā 'é de kuǐ léi guó lán guó wáng wèi jīng shā huáng wài guó xuān zhàn gòu 。 1795 nián 1 yuè 3 éào qiān dìng sān guā fēn lán de xié dìng, 10 yuè 24 zài xié dìng shàng qiān shǔgēn gāi xié dìng lán lǐng bèi quán guā fēn。“ é guó tūn bìng liǎo táo wǎn 'ěr lán bái 'é luó lún biān jiè tuī jìn dào niè màn héng xiàngòng 12 wàn píng fāng gōng rén kǒu 120 wànào zhàn lǐng liǎo bāo kuò lín zài nèi de quán xiǎo lán fēn zuǒ shè gòng 4.75 wàn píng fāng gōng rén kǒu 150 wàn shì duó de huá shā fēn de zuǒ shè gòng 5.5 wàn píng fāng gōng rén kǒu 100 wàn。” zhì cún zài liǎo 800 duō nián de lán guó jiā miè wáng liǎogài kuò zài sān guā fēn lán de guò chéng zhōngshā 'é duó zhàn de lǐng yuē zhàn yuán lán lǐng de 62%, gòng yuē 46 wàn duō píng fāng gōng shì duó zhàn yuē 20%, gòng yuē 14.11 wàn píng fāng gōng ào duó zhàn yuē 18%, gòng yuē 12.18 wàn píng fāng gōng jīng shǐ liǎo zhè sān guā fēn zhī hòu lán wáng guó lán jiù cóng 'ōu zhōu shàng xiāo shī cháng 123 duō nián
  
   wài tǒng zhì shí ( 1795~ 1918)
  
  1809 nián lún shì( NapoléonBonaparte) zài lán zhōng jiàn huá shā gōng guó( KsięstwoWarszawskie), lún shī bài hòuhuá shā gōng guó bèi zhī jiě chéng wéi nán gōng guó( WielkieKsięstwoPoznańskie), shòu shì guǎn xiázài chéng liǎo zhōng de gòng guó jiào yóu shì, RzeczpospolitaKrakowska, huò zhě WolneMiastoKraków); zài zhù yào chéng liǎo lán wáng guó( KrólestwoKongresowe), yóu 'é guó shā huáng jiān lǐng guó wáng。 1830 nián 11 yuè 29 guì qīng nián zài huá shā xíng jiēguǒ shī bài。 1846 nián zāo shī bài bèi bìng 'ào 。 1848 nián lán rén mín yòu xiān mìng shǐ 'ào dāng fèi chú nóng zhì 。 1863 nián 1 yuè de biàn lán wáng guó táo wǎn bái 'é luó 。 1864 nián 3 yuè 2 shā huáng zhèng bān jiě fàng nóng de lìng。 1864 nián hòu lán wáng guó de běn zhù yòu liǎo hěn zhǎn, 19 shì shí nián dàiwán chéng chǎn mìngcóng 80 nián dài xiān hòu chéng liǎo lán guó jiā mín zhù dǎng lán chǎn jiē dǎng lán shè huì dǎng lán wáng guó shè huì mín zhù dǎnghòu gǎi míng wéi lán wáng guó táo wǎn shè huì mín zhù dǎng)。 shì jiè zhàn jiānguó jiā mín zhù dǎng tóu kào 'é guóshè huì dǎng yòu pài tóu kào 'àozhǐ yòu shè huì mín zhù dǎng shè huì dǎng zuǒ pài jiān jué fǎn duì zhàn zhēng
  
   'èr gòng guó shí ( 1918- 1939)
  
   shì jiè zhàn jìn xíng dào 1917 niáné guó bào liǎo shí yuè mìng, 1918 nián 8 yuè 29 'é zhèng bān lìngxuān fèi chú shā 'é ào qiān dìng de guān guā fēn lán de qiē tiáo yuēchéng rèn lán rén mín xiǎng yòu tǒng de fǒu rèn de quán ”。 tóng shí, 1916 nián 11 yuè guó zhèng nuò jiàn de lán guó jiā”, 12 yuè ào chéng liǎo lán lín shí guó huì ”, bìng zài lán qīng nián zhōng zhēng bīngshè huì dǎng rén ( JózefKlemensPiłsudski, 1867 héng 1935) bèi rèn mìng wéi lín shí guó huì de jūn zhèng cháng。 1918 nián 10、 11 yuèào xiōng guó guó bēng jiěcóng 'ér wéi lán de guó xíng chéng liǎo yòu de guó tiáo jiàn。 10 yuè 28 ào zhàn de lán 'ài guó zhě zài chéng liǎo lán qīng suàn wěi yuán huì”。 11 yuè 7 shè huì mín zhù dǎng rén zài lín chéng liǎo lán gòng guó lín shí rén mín zhèng 。 10 yuè 23 huá shā chéng liǎo lán zhèng , 11 yuè 11 gāi zhèng yóu lǐng dǎo lín zhèng de qīng suàn wěi yuán huì xuān jiē shòu lǐng dǎo。 11 yuè 18 zài huá shā chéng lián zhèng chéng wéi lán gòng guó de guó jiā yuán shǒuzhè yàng 1795 nián lán bèi guā fēn miè wáng lái jīng 123 niánzhì 1918 nián 11 yuè huī chóngjiàn guó
  
  1919 nián 12 yuè 8 xié yuē guó zuì gāo wěi yuán huì zài huì shàng tōng guò jué tóng chóngjiàn lán guó jiāchéng rèn lán gòng guóbìng jiàn zài 'é zhī jiān huàyī lín shí fēn jiè xiàn yán zhe luó nuò liè bié shū dài 'ěrzhí dào 'ěr qiān shān xiànrán 'ér lán zhèng huī 1772 nián de 'é biān jiè xiànwèicǐxīn chéng de lán gòng guó jiù dòng liǎo duì shì xīn dàn shēng de shè huì zhù guó jiā wéi 'āi 'é guó de zhàn zhēngshǐ chēng zhàn zhēng。 1920 nián 4 yuè jūn jìn zhàn lán bái 'é luó guǎng 'é hóng jūn jìn xíng fǎn dàn zuì hòu bèi jūn bài lán jūn duì suī rán liǎo zuì hòu jūn shì shàng de shèng dàn shì shèng rèn de zhàn zhēng nòng mín qióng cái jìnzuì hòu shuāng fāng tóng gòu 。 7 yuè 12 yīng guó wài jiāo chén kòu sōng( GeorgeNathanielCurzon, 1859 héng 1925) dài biǎo xié yuē guó zhì diàn 'é jiàn tíng huǒtíng huǒ xiàn shì huì jué zhōng guī dìng de fēn jiè xiàn chēngkòu sōng xiàn”。 7 yuè 22 lán yào qiú tíng zhàn。 1921 nián 3 yuè 18 lán 'é zài jiā zhèng shì qiān dìng lán 'é luó lán píng tiáo yuē》, jiā tiáo yuē》。 zhù yào nèi róng shì yuē shuāng fāng chéng rèn lán bái 'é luó de huàdìng liǎo lán dōng biān jièjiāng lán bái 'é luó de huàguī lán), zhè shí 'é biān jiè xiàn yuē zài kòu sōng xiàn dōng 150 yīng chùgēn gāi tiáo yuē lán huò lán bái 'é luó táo wǎn de fēn 'é zài zhè chǎng zhàn zhēng zhōng sǔn shī liǎo piàn lǐng zhè wéi 'èr zhàn shí lián guó fēn lán mái xià liǎo yóu jiā tiáo yuēquè dìng de 'ébiān jiè zhí bǎo chí dào 1939 nián 9 yuè 17 lìng wàigēn 1919 nián huì jué lán huò liǎo dōng ruì nán dàn hòu lán gǎi wéi dàn bèi wèiguó yóu shì de fēn réng guī guó lán lǐng miàn gòng 38.8 wàn píng fāng gōng 。 1921 nián 3 yuè huì tōng guò xiàn lán chéng wéi huì zhì gòng guóshǐ chēng lán 'èr gòng guó
  
  1926 nián 5 yuè dòng jūn shì zhèng biàn bìng shàng tái rèn zǒng zài lán jìng nèi shí xíng cái tǒng zhìdài huì zhōng fǎn duì de rénxuān chuán zhù lìng wài cuì guó de yuán shǒu ( AdolfHitler) zuòqiān dìng liǎo qīn fàn tiáo yuē》。 1938 nián lán gòng chǎn dǎng bèi jiě sàndǎng de zhù yào lǐng dǎo rén bèi hài
  
   'èr shì jiè zhàn shí ( 1939- 1944)
  
   cóng 1938 nián 10 yuè xiàng lán chū lán zǒu láng de wèn bìng xiàng lán chū zhàn zhēng wēi xié。 1939 nián 8 yuè 23 qiān dìng liǎo qīn fàn tiáo yuē huàfēn shì fàn wéi de dìng shū lián zhí fǒu rèn gāi dìng shū de cún zài)。 1939 nián 9 yuè 1 guó shǎn diàn zhàn lánxùn qīn zhàn lán fēn lǐng lán jūn mín yīng yǒng kàng zhàn。 9 yuè 17 lán zhèng táo wáng guó wàixiān zài chéng liǎo 'ěr ( WładysławEugeniuszSikorski) jiāng jūn wéi shǒu de liú wáng zhèng guó zhàn bài hòu, 1940 niánliú wáng zhèng qiān wǎng yīng guó tóng shí, 9 yuè 17 lián lǐng dǎo rén lín( ИосифВиссарионовичСталин) wèile jiàn dōng fāng fáng xiànmìng lìng 60 wàn lián hóng jūn yuè guò biān jièjìn lán dōng zhàn lǐng liǎo lán bái 'é luó 。 9 yuè 18 jūn jūn zài liè héng tuō huì shī liǎng jūn héng lěi héng wéi héng sāng xiàn wéi jiè fēn liǎo lán。 9 yuè 28 jūn gōng xiàn huá shā lán zài lún wáng lán rén mín kāi shǐ liǎo fǎn mín jiě fàng zhàn zhēng
  
  1941 nián guó jìn gōng liánbìng quán zhàn lǐng liǎo lán lǐng ér hòu lián lán liú wáng zhèng jiàn wài jiāo guān 。 1942 niánliú wáng zhèng zài guó nèi jiàn liǎo guó mín jūntóng nián lián zhī chí de lán gòng chǎn dǎng rén jiàn liǎo lán gōng rén dǎng rén mín jūnzài xià tóng cuì zhàn lǐng jūn zhǎn kāi liǎo jiān zhuó jué de dǒu zhēngwèicǐ duō rén chū liǎo zhēn guì de shēng mìng。 1943 niányóu shēng liǎo tíng sēn lín shì jiànliú wáng zhèng zài lián duàn jiāo
  
   suí zhe zhàn zhēng xíng shì de zhǎn jūn de fǎn gōng jiāng zhàn xiàn zhú jiàn tuī jìn dào lán jìng nèi。 1944 nián yuán dànzài gōng rén dǎng de chàng xiàchéng liǎo quán guó rén mín dài biǎo huì yóu bèi ( BolesławBierut) rèn zhù 。 1944 nián 7 yuè 22 quán guó rén mín dài biǎo huì zài hǎi chéng liǎo lán mín jiě fàng wěi yuán huìbān liǎo yòu shǐ de yuè xuān yán》, xuān gào lán xīn guó jiā dàn shēng
  
  1944 nián 8 yuè lián hóng jūn tuī jìn dào liǎo huá shā de jìn jiāozài yīng guó de liú wáng zhèng wèile zài xīn shēng de lán guó jiā quán gòu zhōng huò gèng de jiù mìng lìng zài huá shā de xià guó mín jūn zhè jiù shì zhù míng de huá shā yóu lín rèn wéizhè zhǒng rèn de zuò yìng dào tóng qíngcóng 'ér jūn bìng méi yòu jǐyǔ huá shā chéng nèi jūn tài duō de zhī chízài cuì jūn de xuè xīng zhèn xià shī bàifēng kuáng de xià lìng jiāng huá shā wéi píng duō zhēn guì de wén zāo dào huǐ huài fēn huá shā rén bèi sòng wáng zhōng yíngshì hòu zhèng míng lián yìng wéi huá shā de shī bài yòu dìng dào shàng de rèn。 1945 nián 1 yuè 17 jūn duì jiě fàng liǎo chéng wéi fèi de huá shā。 4 yuè liǎng guó qiān dìng liǎo yǒu hǎo zhù jīng zuò tiáo yuē。 6 yuè lán mín jiě fàng wěi yuán huì gǎi wéi lín shí mín tǒng zhèng
  
   gēn 'ěr tǎn huì de jué dìngquè dìng liǎo lán dōng biān jièdōng kòu sōng xiàn wéi biān jiè biān jiè xiàng tuī zhì 'ào bìng shí qiē qīng shī wéi nuò wēi huá biān jiè de lán zhè yàng lán de bǎn zhěng liǎo 200 duō gōng miàn zhàn qián suō xiǎo liǎo yuē 7.6 wàn píng fāng gōng yuē shì sǔn shī liǎo 20% de lǐng
  
   zài 'èr zhàn zhōng lán rén mín wéi fǎn zhàn zhēng zuò chū liǎo de shēng yuē yòu 600 wàn lán jūn rén píng mín zài zhè chǎng zhàn zhēng zhōng sàng shēngzài lán jìng nèi xiàn liǎo duō cuì shā yóu tài rén píng mín de zhōng yíng zhōng zuì zhù míng de shì 'ào wéi xīn( Auschwitz) zhōng yíngzài suǒ yòu cān zhàn guó zhōngruò 'àn rén kǒu lái suàn de huà lán shì shāng zuì cǎn zhòng de guó jiā
  
   rén mín gòng guó shí ( 1944~ 1989)
  
  1947 nián lán xíng huì xuǎn lián zhī chí de bèi dāng xuǎn wéi zǒng tǒngshè huì dǎng rén lún kǎi wéi ( JózefCyrankiewicz) rèn zhèng zǒng lán zǒu shàng liǎo shè huì zhù de zhǎn dào fāng de liú wáng zhèng běn bèi pái chì zài quán zhōng xīn zhī wài。 1948 nián 12 yuè lán gōng rén dǎng lán shè huì dǎng bìngchéng liǎo lán tǒng gōng rén dǎng( PolskaZjednoczonaPartiaRobotnicza, PZPR)。 bèi rèn zǒng shū rén mín zhèng zhōng gōng jiāo tōng yùn shūyínháng shōu guī guó yòushí xíng liǎo gǎi dòng yuán rén mín wán chéng huī guó mín jīng de sān nián jìhuà( 1947~ 1949), guó jiā jīng zhuàng kuàng rén mín shēng huó yòu liǎo gǎi shàn, 1949 nián 10 yuè 7 lán tóng xīn shēng de zhōng huá rén mín gòng guó jiàn liǎo wài jiāo guān cóng 1950 nián lán kāi shǐ zhí xíng zhǎn guó mín jīng de liù nián jìhuà( 1950~ 1955)。
  
  1952 nián lán gǎi guó hào wéi lán rén mín gòng guó( PolskaRzeczpospolitaLudowa, PRL), bìng tōng guò lán rén mín gòng guó xiàn ( AleksanderZawadzki) dāng xuǎn guó wěi yuán huì zhù bèi bèi rèn mìng wéi cháng huì zhù 。 1956 nián 3 yuèbèi bìng shì ào ( EdwardOchab) rèn shū
  
   dàn lán de shè huì jié gòuzhèng zhì wén huà chuán tǒngzōng jiào xìn yǎng běn zhù jīng de zhǎndōushuō míng zài lán jiàn shè huì zhù yòu xiān tiān de quē xiàndàn bèi wéi shǒu de lán zhèng de jiào tiáo zhù zhě hái shì quán pán jiē shòu liǎo lián shì de shè huì zhù lián shì lán zhì dìng liǎo zhǎn zhòng gōng fàng zài shǒu wèiànzhòng héng qīng héng nóngde shùn jìn xíng gōng huà de jīng zhǎn zhàn lüèjiēguǒ shǐ guó mín jīng yán zhòng shī diàozhòng gōng piàn miàn zhǎnnóng cháng luò hòu jià fēi zhǎnghuò biǎn zhírén mín shēng huó shuǐ píng xià jiàng
  
   lián shì de yán zhòng quē xiàn jiā shàng lán rén nèi xīn shēn chù de fǎn 'é pàn xīn zōng jiào yóu zhù de chuán tǒng dǎng zhí zhèng de shī guān liáo bài xiàn xiàng shèng xíng děng děng zōng yīn shǐ shè huì zhù zài lán de zhí xíng xiǎn cháng jiān nándǎo zhì lán chéng wéi 'èr zhàn hòu dōng fāng shè huì zhù zhèn yíng zhōng zuì 'ān dìng de guó jiā
  
  1956 nián lián zuì gāo lǐng dǎo rén xiǎo ( НикитаСергеевичХрущев) defēi lín huà”, gěi zhěng shè huì zhù dōng fāng zhèn yíng dài lái liǎo de chōng lán jiù zài dāng shí shēng liǎo zhù míng de nán shì jiàndāng nián 6 yuè lán gōng chéng shì nán de lín chē chǎng de gōng rénzài yào qiú zēng jiā gōng jiǎn shǎo shuì shōu de jīng yào qiú bèi dāng jué hòu shì zài 1956 nián 6 yuè 28 nán shì bào liǎo shí wàn rén de shì wēi huó dònghòu lái yǎn biàn chéng jǐng chá gōng rén de qiāng zhàntǎn bǎo 'ān duì cān jiā liǎo duì gōng rén de zhèn tǒng jǐn tiān de chōng sāo luànjiù yòu 54 rén wáng, 2000 duō rén shòu shānglìng yòu 300 duō rén bèi wèile píng fēi cháng yán jùn de shìdāng cǎi liǎo tuǒ xié liǎo chǎng。 6 yuè 30 dāng cǎi xiē huǎn máo dùn de cuò shīyuán xiè gōng cháng bèi jiàng zhíxiàng lín chē chē liàng chǎng zhēng shōu de shuì kuǎn jiāng fēn hái gěi gāi chǎng gōng rénwéi shì jiàn zhōng de shòu nán zhě xíng 'ān zàng shì děngsāo dòng suì píng xià
  
  1956 nián 8 yuè 4 lán tǒng gōng rén dǎng jué dìng chè xiāo 1949 nián 11 yuè duì yuán gòng lǐng dǎo 'ěr ( WładysławGomułka) děng rén de pàn qiǎn bìng jiāng cóng jiān shì fàng chū láitóng nián 10 yuè 19 'ěr dāng xuǎn wéi zhōng yāng wěi yuánzài liǎng dǎng huì tán zhōng 'ěr fǎn duì lián duì lán nèi zhèng de gān shè jiān chí zǒu lán de dào ”。 10 yuè 21 dāng xuǎn wéi dǎng zhōng yāng shū tóng nián 10 yuè xíng de dǎng de 'èr jiè zhōng quán huì shàng 'ěr dāng xuǎn wéi shū , 1956~ 1960 nián de nián jìhuà zhǎn xiāo fèi pǐn shēng chǎn nóng gāo rén mín shēng huó shuǐ píng zuò wéi zhù yào rèn huì duì qián de fāng zhēn zhèng jìn xíng liǎo píng chū guān liáo zhù jiào tiáo zhù ”、“ jiā qiáng zhì zhèng zhì shēng huó mín zhù huà”, zhǎn jīng ,“ gèng kuài gǎi shàn rén mín shēng huóde xīn fāng zhēndàn yóu lián shì de yán zhòng quē xiàn gēn běn zài hòu de liǎng nián jìhuà( 1961~ 1970) jiānguó mín jīng rán yán zhòng shī diào
  
  1970 nián 12 yuè lán yòu miàn lín wēi dàn yuán dàn shìděng yán hǎi chéng shì de gōng rénxué shēngshì mín kàng zhèng gāo shí pǐn yòng pǐn de jià xíng gōngbìng dǎo zhì liǎo yīcháng yán zhòng de shè huì sāo dònghòu lái zhǎn chéng liúxiě chōng zài 12 yuè 20 xíng de jiè zhōng quán huì shàng jiě chú 'ěr shū zhí yóu gài lāi ( EdwardGierek) rèn dǎng de shū lún kǎi wéi gǎi rèn guó wěi yuán huì zhù yóu luó xiè wéi rèn cháng huì zhù
  
  70 nián dàishì lán zhàn hòu jīng zhǎn zuì kuài de shí gài lāi zhèng chóu chú mǎn zhì tuī xíng wén míng shìgāo gāo lěigāo xiāo fèide suǒ wèisān gāo zhèng ”, liàng yǐn jìn wài shàng jiàn shè xiàng gāo rén mín shēng huó shuǐ píng lán pài xīn xīn xiàng róngrán 'ér zài biǎo miàn fán róng de bèi hòu, 70 nián dài zhèng zhǒng tiē dào cái zhèng suàn de 40%, wài zhài gāo 260 měi yuánjìn 80 nián dàizhèng cǎi dòng jié gōng fēn shāng pǐn jià de cuò shī miǎn wēi cháng guàn jìhuà jià de lán rén háo xīn zhǔn bèidāng zhèng zài 1980 nián 7 yuè xuān jià shāng diànròu lèi jià gāo 40-60% de shí hòuqún zhòng de mǎn yǐn liǎo quán guó xìng de gōng
  
   tóng nián 9 yuè lán tǒng gōng rén dǎng de jiè liù zhōng quán huì jiě chú gài lāi shū de zhí yóu ( StanislawKania) rèn。 10 yuè zài dāng shí shēng míng xiǎn de gōng huì zhì shì dōng 'ōu de gōng huì zhì héng héng tuán jié gōng huì( Solidarność) chū xiàn liǎo wén ( LechWałęsa) dāng xuǎn wéi dāng shí tuán jié gōng huì de lǐng dǎo réntuán jié gōng huì lǐng dǎo de gōng yùn dòng zuì chū cǎi píng fāng shìbìng chéng rèn shè huì zhù shì lán de zhèng zhì chǔchéng rèn tǒng gōng rén dǎng de lǐng dǎo zuò yòng lián jié méng。 1981 nián zài dàn hángdì quán guó dài biǎo huìjué dìng chéng quán guó wěi yuán huì dài quán guó xié shāng wěi yuán huìtōng guò xīn de zhèng zhì gāng lǐngyào qiú zài lán shí xíng duō yuán huàjiàn zhì gòng guó”。 chēng tuán jié gōng huì shì lán gǎi de zhù gōng huì gāng lǐng zhōng wèi dào shè huì zhù tǒng gōng rén dǎng de lǐng dǎo zuò yòngzài gōng yùn dòng zhōnggōng huì chū yào yòu de bào kānyòu yóu chū bǎn quányào xià 'ér shàng duó quán”。 gōng huì zhèng fēn tíng kàng
  
  1981 nián tǒng gōng rén dǎng de jiǔ jiè zhōng quán huì shàng zhí 'ěr ( WojciechJaruzelski) dāng xuǎn wéi dǎng zhōng yāng shū 。 1981 nián 12 yuè 13 lán xuān jìn zhàn shí zhuàng tàituán jié gōng huì bèi wén děng gōng huì lǐng dǎo rén bèi jìn fēn gōng huì gǔgàn zhuǎn xià huó dònggōng huì nèi fēn chéng liǎng pài wén wéi shǒu de huǎn pài zhù zhāng miǎn tóng zhèng shēng zhèng miàn chōng chàng xié shāng duì huà jìn pài zhù zhāng tōng guò bào tuī fān zhèng suí zhī shè huì shàng shēng zhòng fēn huàyuán zhī chí tuán jié gōng huì de rén zhuànxiàng zhī chí zhèng 。 1982 nián 2 yuè huì tōng guò xīn de gōng huì yào qiú chóngjiàn xīn de gōng huì。 1982 nián 2 yuè huì tōng guò xīn de gōng huì yào qiú chóngjiàn xīn de gōng huì, 1983 nián 7 yuè zhàn shí zhuàng tài jié shù。 1984 nián lán xuān shèér wén děng rén wéi shǐ tuán jié gōng huì huà 'ér dǒu zhēng lán shì jìn liǎo duǎn zàn de wěn dìng
  
   sān gòng guó shí ( 1989 zhì jīn
  
   cóng 1986 nián kāi shǐyóu lián de 'ěr qiáo ( МихаилСергеевичГорбачёв) de nèi wài zhèng kāi shǐ cǎi yòng xiàng yòu zhuǎn dexīn wéi”, bìng gěi dōng 'ōu guó jiā sōng bǎng lián dōng 'ōu de shì kāi shǐ dòng dàng。 1988 nián lán zhèng de jià gǎi yǐn qún zhòng mǎn。 1989 nián 2 zhì 4 yuè lán tǒng gōng rén dǎng tuán jié gōng huì děng fǎn duì pài xíng yuán zhuō huì ( RozmowyOkrągłegoStołu), jīng tǎo lùntǒng gōng rén dǎng tóng tuán jié gōng huì 。 6 yuè lán xíng quán guó xuǎntuán jié gōng huì huò 99% de cān yuàn wèi。 9 yuè 12 tuán jié gōng huì de zuǒ wéi ( TadeuszMazowiecki) chéng tuán jié gōng huì wéi zhù dǎobāo kuò tǒng nóng mín dǎng mín zhù dǎng de lián zhèng yuán tǒng gōng rén dǎng lǐng dǎo rén 'ěr chū rèn shǒu rèn zǒng tǒngrèn 6 niántóng nián 12 yuè 29 huì tōng guò xiàn xiū zhèng 'ànjué dìng gǎi guó míng wéi lán gòng guóhóng dài wáng guān de bái yīng huī wéi lán de guó huīshǐ chēng lán sān gòng guó lán zhèng shì zǒu shàng liǎo zhèng zhì shàng fèng xíng fāng shì de huì mín zhùjīng shàng shí xíng yòu huà wéi chǔ de shì chǎng jīng de zhǎn dào
  
   jiǔ 'ěr lán tǒng gōng rén dǎng zǒng shū zhí wén zhī chí zhě xuān chēng yuán zhuō huì xié jīng guò shíyào qiú zǒng tǒng zhí xíng xīn zǒng tǒng huì xuǎn。 1990 nián 1 yuè 27 lán de tǒng gōng rén dǎng zhào kāi shí xuān dǎng tíng zhǐ huó dòng zhí zhèng 45 niáncéng yōng yòu jìn 300 wàn dǎng yuán de dǎng jiù zhè yàng jiě sàn liǎo。 1990 nián wén chū jìng xuǎn zǒng tǒngzāo zuǒ wéi de zhèng pài fǎn duìtuán jié gōng huì nèi fēn liè wéi zhī chí wén de zhōng jiān pài xié huì zhī chí zuǒ wéi de gōng mín yùn dòng mín zhù xíng dòng huì
  
  1990 nián 11 yuè xíng xuǎn wén zài 'èr lún tóu piào zhōng dāng xuǎn zǒng tǒng chūjiàn shè yóumín zhù de xīn gòng guó”, jīng shàng zhǎn yòu zhì wéi chǔ de shì chǎng jīng xiāo duì yóu mǎi mài de xiàn zhì duì wài zhèng qiáng diào xiàng zhěng 'ōu zhōu shì jiè kāi fàng děng
  
   cóng lán shí xiàn liǎo zhèng quán de gēngdié zhèng zhì zhì de gǎi biànbìng kāi shǐ xiàng fāng kào lǒng。 1995 nián wén zài zǒng tǒng jìng xuǎn shí shū gěi niè zài jīng shàng lán de zhuǎn guǐ dài lái liǎo zhèn tòngdàn lán rán chéng wéi dōng 'ōu guó jiā zhōng jīng zhuǎn guǐ zuì chéng gōng de guó jiā zhī shí xiàn liǎo jīng de wěn zēngzhǎng。 1999 nián lán jiā běi yáng gōng yuē zhì, 2004 nián lán 10 'ōu zhōu guó jiā dào jiā liǎo 'ōu zhōu lián méng
  
  
  
   rán
  
  
   lán miàn wéi wàn duō píng fāng gōng wèi zhōng 'ōu dōng běi běi bīn luó de hǎi lín guónán jiè jié luò dōng běi dōng nán bái 'é luó lán táo wǎn xiāng liánhǎi 'àn xiàn cháng gōng quán jìng jué fēn wéi lüè yòu de píng yuánpíng jūn hǎi 173 ), běi nán gāoběi duō bīng nán yòu qiū língkào jìn jié biān jìng wéi tái shān bèi shān shì běi nán gāozhōng xià 'āohǎi xià de píng yuán yuē zhàn quán guó miàn de zhù yào shān mài yòu 'ěr qiān shān mài tái shān màijiào liú yòu wéi cháng10 gōng 'ào lán jìng nèi cháng742 gōng )。 quán guó 99.7% shǔ luó de hǎi liú zhōng wéi liú zhàn 'èr fēn zhī ào liú zhàn sān fēn zhī zuì de húpō shì 'ěr wéi miàn 10 píng fāng gōng quán jìng shǔ yóu hǎi yáng xìng xiàng xìng hòu guò de wēn dài kuò lín hòu 'ér dōng běi 'ér nánhǎi yáng xìng jiàn jiǎn xìng zēngnián jiàng shuǐ liàng 450-800 háo nán shān chāo guò 1, 000 háo sēn lín zhàn guó 28%。
  
  
  
   rén kǒu
  
  38 3.2 wàn(2001 nián ), zhù yào mín shì lán rén(98%), wéi lánbái 'é luó táo wǎné luó zhì yóu tài děng shǎo shù mín quán guó yuē90% shàng de mín xìn fèng luó tiān zhù jiàoguān fāng yán wéi lán
  
  
  
   shǒu
  
   huá shā( Warsaw), rén kǒu161 .5 wàn(2001 nián), nián píng jūn wēn9 .6
  
  
  
   xíng zhèng huá
  
  1998 niányuè lán zhòng yuàn tōng guò xiàng jué jiāng quán guó49 shěng gǎi wéi16 shěngtóng shí chóngxīn shè xiàn zhìyóu qián de shěngxiāng liǎng gǎi wéi shěngxiànxiāng sān gòng shè16 shěng,308 xiàn,2489 xiāng。10 yuèquán guó xíng liǎo sān fāng zhì gòu xuǎn xīn zhì 1999 niányuè dòng
  
  
  
   zhèng zhì
  
  
  1997 niányuèquán mín gōng jué tōng guò xīn xiàn ,10 yuè17 xīn xiàn shēng xiào dài liǎo1952 nián de xiàn xīn xiàn què liǎo sān quán fēn de zhèng zhì zhì shè huì shì chǎng jīng wéi zhù de jīng zhìguī dìngzhòng yuàn cān yuàn yōng yòu quánzǒng tǒng zhèng yōng yòu zhí quán yuàn tíng xíng shǐ quán jīng zhì de chǔ wéi jīng yóu huà yòu zhì děng yuán zhuāng liàng zài guó jiā zhèng zhì shì zhōng bǎo chí zhōng xīn xiàn bǎo zhèng gōng mín quán jīng yóu quánjiā qiáng liǎo zhōng yāng yínháng de xìngxuē ruò liǎo zǒng tǒng de quán huì dào xià yuànde piào shù jiù néng tuī fān zǒng tǒng de fǒu jué xiàn yuàn qiáng yòu de quán huì zài yòu quán fǒu jué xiàn yuàn de cái juézǒng tǒng xuǎn guī dìng mǒu hòu xuǎn rén zài lún xuǎn zhōng de piào shuài chāo guò yòu xiào xuǎn piào de50%, dāng xuǎn rén dào50%, yóu huò xuǎn piào zuì duō de qián liǎng míng jìn 'èr lún jìng xuǎn piào jiào duō zhě dāng xuǎnzǒng tǒng rèn nián lián rèn jièzǒng tǒng héng héng bèi 'ěr wéi gōng
  
  
  
   jīng
  
   gōng cǎi kuàng méi méi zuì zhòng yàoméi tàn chǔ liàng 'ōu zhōu qián lièzhù yào kuàng chǎn yòu méiliú huángtóngxīnqiānyín děng。2000 nián yìng méi chǔ liàng wéi453 .62 dūn méi139 .84 dūnliú huáng5 .04 dūntóng24 .85 dūn chǔ liàng fēng jià zhí yuē jìn qiān měi yuánshì shì jiè shēng chǎn guóyòu bǎi nián kāi cǎi de shǐgōng cǎi méi zhì zàozào chuán chē gāng tiě wéi zhù。2001 nián yòu nóng yòng 1839 wàn gōng qǐnggēng zhàn guó miàn 50% zuǒ yòuzhù yào zuò wéi zhǒng mài lèi líng shǔtián cài děngshēng chù zhù yào yǎng niúzhū yáng。2001 nián nóng cūn rén kǒu zhàn quán guó rén kǒu de38 .3%。 nóng jiù rén shù zhàn jiù zǒng shù de28 .3%。 chū kǒu gōng kuàng chǎn pǐnméi méijiāo tànchuán chē liàng děngwéi zōngjìn kǒu shí yóu zhì pǐntiě kuàng shímián huā liáng shí wéi zhù lán shì shì jiè shí yóu guó zhī hòu rén de luó de hǎi gǎng wānfēng jǐng de 'ěr qiān shān qiǎo duó tiān gōng de wéi yán kuàng měi nián yǐn shù yóu míng qián láizhè de rén dǒng sēn lín shì bǎo shēng tài huán jìng de zhùjuéyīn men 'ài lín mìng lán de sēn lín miàn wéi889 wàn duō gōng qǐngsēn lín gài shuài jìn30%。 chū dào lán de réncháng cháng huì bèi zhè shī qíng huà bān de shì jiè suǒ táo zuì yóu chéng wéi lán wài huì shōu de zhù yào lái yuánzhù yào chéng shì yòu luó nán shí qiē qīng dàn děng
  
  
  
   wén huà
  
   lánrén men rán huì xiǎng dào xiào bāng rénxiào bāng shì lán rén yǐn wéi jiāo 'ào de wěi zuòqǔ jiā gāng qín jiāhuá shā bàn de nián de xiào bāng guó gāng qín sài yǐn zhe quán shì jiè hǎo shǒu juézhúchéng wéi guó yīnyuè jiè de dǐng shèng shìchū shēng huá shā de rén shì shì jiè shàng liǎng huò nuò bèi 'ěr jiǎng de xué jiā wéi rén lèi jiē kāi yuán de 'ào zuò chū liǎo gòng xiàn
  
  
  
   xīn wén chū bǎn
  
  
   lán bào kān shí xíng yòu huà láibào kān hángqíng kuàng biàn huà dìng。2001 nián quán guó chū bǎn xíng de bào kān zhì5837 zhǒng zhōng zhù yào bào kān yòu:《 xuǎn bào》, shì lán xíng liàng zuì de bào;《 gòng guó bào》。 wàihái yòulùn tán bào》、《 zhèng zhìzhōu kān、《 zhí yánzhōu kān、《 NEWSWEEK》 děngguó jiā zhù yào tōng xùn shè yòu lán tōng xùn shè lán guó xīn wén shèguó jiā zhù yào diàn tái diàn shì tái shì lán guǎng diàn tái lán diàn shì tái。1990 nián10 yuè lán zhòng yuàn tōng guò guān yǔn kāi bàn yíng diàn tái diàn shì tái de lìng qián lán yòu jìn180 jiā yíng guǎng diàn tái 26 jiā yíng diàn shì tái
  
  
  
   zhōng huá rén mín gòng guó guān
  
  
  1949 nián10 yuèzhōng guó lán jiàn shǐ wài jiāo guān zhōng liǎng guó yòu zhe chuán tǒng de yǒu hǎo guān zǎo zài1950 nián liǎng guó jiù qiān shǔ liǎo zhèng jiān mào xié dìngjìn nián láizhōng guān zài xiāng zūn zhòngpíng děng gān shè nèi zhèng de yuán chǔ shàng wěn zhǎnzhōng jīng mào guān yòu liǎo cháng de jìn zhǎn,2003 nián liǎng guó de mào 'é 19.8 měi yuán shì shì jiè shàng zuì guài de chāo fǎn huá de guó jiā。 1919 huì : lán rén tǐng fǎn huá guò wéi jūn huí 》, duì lán zhèng de shì jiā: 1919 nián huì běn xiǎng zhàn zhōng chèn huǒ jié gǎo dào de shān dōng quán huà wéi jūn zài huì shàng kāng kǎi 'áng zhēng zhōng xiǎo guó jiā zài gōng kāi huò xià chǎng duì zhōng guó biǎo shì tóng qíngyīng měi guó shí yòu suǒ zhǐ yòu guó jiā de dài biǎo gōng rán tiào chū lái biǎo yǎn jiǎngzhī chí běn duì shān dōng de yào qiúfǎn duì zhōng guó-- lán。 2008 nián 3 yuè lán zǒng xuān jiāng cān jiā běi jīng 'ào yùn huì kāi shì 'ér dài zhī huì jiàn làizhōng guó gēn lán jiù yuān chóu zhī zěn me gǎo de lùn shì běi yáng zhèng shí dài hái shì zhōng huá mín guó hái shì xiàn zài lán zǒng huān gēn zhōng guó guò shǐ shàng lán cóng lái zài zhōng guó de fǎn miàn lán zhè guó jiā zuò shí me de yào jǐn shì zhè guó jiā duì zhōng guó xiàng chóu shì héng héng guǎn guó mín dǎng zhèng hái shì zhōng gòng shí zhè yàng chóu shì zhōng guó de guó jiā。1997 nián11 yuè niè zǒng tǒng duì zhōng guó jìn xíng guó shì fǎng wènzhè shì jìn40 nián lái lán guó jiā yuán shǒu shǒu duì zhōng guó jìn xíng guó shì fǎng wèn。2004 niányuè jǐn tāo zhù duì lán jìn xíng guó shì fǎng wènshuāng fāng qiān shǔ liǎo lián shēng míng
   zhōng guó guān  
     chuān mén chuān zhèn shēng hòu huá rén huá qiáozài zhōng gòu liú xué shēng shí qiān guà zhe zāi tóng bāo de 'ān wēifēn fēn yǒng yuè xiàng zāi juān kuǎn biǎo duì zhèn yùnàn tóng bāo de 'āi duì shòu zāi rén yuán de chéng zhì wèi wènwéi guó de kàng zhèn jiù zāi gòng xiàn de mián zhī 。   jié zhì 5 yuè 21 zhù lán shǐ guǎn shōu dào juān kuǎn zhé rén mín 99.3642 wàn qián juān kuǎn huó dòng réng zài
   chuān mén chuān zhèn shēng hòu huá rén huá qiáozài zhōng gòu liú xué shēng shí qiān guà zhe zāi tóng bāo de 'ān wēifēn fēn yǒng yuè xiàng zāi juān kuǎn biǎo duì zhèn yùnàn tóng bāo de 'āi duì shòu zāi rén yuán de chéng zhì wèi wènwéi guó de kàng zhèn jiù zāi gòng xiàn de mián zhī


  Poland (Polish: Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska), is a country in Central Europe. Poland is bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is 312,679 km² (120,728 sq mi), making it the 69th largest country in the world and 9th in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38.5 million people, which makes it the 33rd most populous country in the world.
  
  The establishment of a Polish state is often identified with the adoption of Christianity by its ruler Mieszko I in 966 (see Baptism of Poland), when the state covered territory similar to that of present-day Poland. Poland became a kingdom in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a long association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by uniting to form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth collapsed in 1795, and its territory was partitioned among Prussia, Russia, and Austria. Poland regained its independence in 1918 after World War I but lost it again in World War II, occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Poland lost over six million citizens in World War II, and emerged several years later as a socialist republic within the Eastern Bloc under strong Soviet influence. In 1989 communist rule was overthrown and Poland became what is constitutionally known as the "Third Polish Republic". Poland is a unitary state made up of sixteen voivodeships (Polish: województwo). Poland is also a member of the European Union, NATO and OECD.
  
  Poland’s territory extends across several geographical regions. In the northwest is the Baltic seacoast, which extends from the Bay of Pomerania to the Gulf of Gdansk. This coast is marked by several spits, coastal lakes (former bays that have been cut off from the sea), and dunes. The largely straight coastline is indented by the Szczecin Lagoon, the Bay of Puck, and the Vistula Lagoon. The center and parts of the north lie within the Northern European Lowlands. Rising gently above these lowlands is a geographical region comprising the four hilly districts of moraines and moraine-dammed lakes formed during and after the Pleistocene ice age. These lake districts are the Pomeranian Lake District, the Greater Polish Lake District, the Kashubian Lake District, and the Masurian Lake District. The Masurian Lake District is the largest of the four and covers much of northeastern Poland. The lake districts form part of the Baltic Ridge, a series of moraine belts along the southern shore of the Baltic Sea. South of the Northern European Lowlands lie the regions of Silesia and Masovia, which are marked by broad ice-age river valleys. Farther south lies the Polish mountain region, including the Sudetes, the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland, the Świętokrzyskie Mountains, and the Carpathian Mountains, including the Beskids. The highest part of the Carpathians is the Tatra Mountains, along Poland’s southern border.
  
  Rivers
  The longest rivers are the Vistula (Polish: Wisła), 1,047 km (678 miles) long; the Oder (Polish: Odra) – which forms part of Poland’s western border – 854 km (531 miles) long; its tributary, the Warta, 808 km (502 miles) long; and the Bug – a tributary of the Vistula – 772 km (480 miles) long. The Vistula and the Oder flow into the Baltic Sea, as do numerous smaller rivers in Pomerania. The Łyna and the Angrapa flow by way of the Pregolya to the Baltic, and the Czarna Hańcza flows into the Baltic through the Neman. While the great majority of Poland’s rivers drain into the Baltic Sea, Poland’s Beskids are the source of some of the upper tributaries of the Orava, which flows via the Váh and the Danube to the Black Sea. The eastern Beskids are also the source of some streams that drain through the Dniester to the Black Sea.
  
  Poland’s rivers have been used since early times for navigation. The Vikings, for example, traveled up the Vistula and the Oder in their longships. In the Middle Ages and in early modern times, when Poland-Lithuania was the breadbasket of Europe, the shipment of grain and other agricultural products down the Vistula toward Gdańsk and onward to eastern Europe took on great importance. For an overview of Polish rivers, see Category:Rivers of Poland.
  
  Geology
  
  Granite crags of the High TatrasThe geological structure of Poland has been shaped by the continental collision of Europe and Africa over the past 60 million years, on the one hand, and the Quaternary glaciations of northern Europe, on the other. Both processes shaped the Sudetes and the Carpathians. The moraine landscape of northern Poland contains soils made up mostly of sand or loam, while the ice-age river valleys of the south often contain loess. The Cracow-Częstochowa Upland, the Pieniny, and the Western Tatras consist of limestone, while the High Tatras, the Beskids, and the Karkonosze are made up mainly of granite and basalts. The Kraków-Częstochowa Upland is one of the oldest mountain ranges on earth.
  
  Mountains and topography
  
  The Pieniny in the CarpathiansPoland has 21 mountains over 2,000 metres (6,561 ft) in elevation, all in the High Tatras. The Polish Tatras, which consist of the High Tatras and the Western Tatras, is the highest mountain group of Poland and of the entire Carpathian range. In the High Tatras lies Poland’s highest point, the northwestern peak of Rysy, 2,499 metres (8,199 ft) in elevation. At its foot lies the mountain lake, the Morskie Oko. The second-highest mountain group in Poland is the Beskids, whose highest peak is Babia Góra, at 1,725 metres (5,659 ft). The next highest mountain group is the Karkonosze, whose highest point is Śnieżka, at 1,602 metres (5,256 ft). Among the most beautiful mountains of Poland are the Bieszczady Mountains in the far southeast of Poland, whose highest point in Poland is Tarnica, with an elevation of 1,346 metres (4,416 ft). Tourists also frequent the Gorce Mountains in Gorce National Park, with elevations around 1,300 metres (4,300 ft), and the Pieniny in Pieniny National Park, with elevations around 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The lowest point in Poland—at 2 metres (7 ft) below sea level—is at Raczki Elbląskie, near Elbląg in the Vistula Delta. For a list of the most important mountain ranges of Poland, see the Category:Mountain ranges of Poland.
  
  Lakes
  
  Rożnowskie Lake, near Rożnów in southeastern PolandWith almost ten thousand closed bodies of water covering more than one hectare (2.47 acres) each, Poland has one of the highest numbers of lakes in the world. In Europe, only Finland has a greater density of lakes. The largest lakes, covering more than 100 square kilometers (38.6 square miles), are Lake Śniardwy and Lake Mamry in Masuria, as well as Lake Łebsko and Lake Drawsko in Pomerania. In addition to the lake districts in the north (in Masuria, Pomerania, Kashubia, Lubuskie, and Greater Poland), there is also a large number of mountain lakes in the Tatras, of which the Morskie Oko is the largest in area. The lake with the greatest depth—of more than 100 metres (328 ft) —is Lake Hańcza in the Wigry Lake District, east of Masuria in Podlaskie Voivodship.
  
  Among the first lakes whose shores were settled are those in the Greater Polish Lake District. The stilt house settlement of Biskupin, occupied by more than one thousand residents, was founded before the seventh century BC by people of the Lusatian culture. The ancestors of today’s Poles, the Polanie, built their first fortresses on islands in these lakes. The legendary Prince Popiel is supposed to have ruled from Kruszwica on Lake Gopło. The first historically documented ruler of Poland, Duke Mieszko I, had his palace on an island in the Warta River in Poznań.
  
  For the most important lakes of Poland, see the Category:Lakes of Poland.
  
  The coast
  
  Dunes in Słowiński National ParkThe Polish Baltic coast is approximately 528 kilometres (328 miles) long and extends from Świnoujście on the islands of Usedom and Wolin in the west to Krynica Morska on the Vistula Spit in the east. For the most part, Poland has a smooth coastline, which has been shaped by the continual movement of sand by currents and winds from west to east. This continual erosion and deposition has formed cliffs, dunes, and spits, many of which have migrated landwards to close off former lagoons, such as Łebsko Lake in Słowiński National Park. The largest spits are Hel Peninsula and the Vistula Spit. The largest Polish Baltic island is Wolin. The largest port cities are Gdynia, Gdańsk, Szczecin, and Świnoujście. The main coastal resorts are Sopot, Międzyzdroje, Kołobrzeg, Łeba, Władysławowo, and the Hel Peninsula.
  
  The Desert
  
  Błędów Desert, the only desert in PolandBłędów Desert is a desert located in Southern Poland in the Silesian Voivodeship and stretches over the Zagłębie Dąbrowskie region. It has a total area of 32 km². It is the only desert located in Poland. It is one of only five natural deserts in Europe. It is the warmest desert that appears at this latitude. It was created thousands of years ago by a melting glacier. The specific geological structure has been of big importance - the average thickness of the sand layer is about 40 meters (maximum 70 m), which made the fast and deep drainage very easy. In recent years the desert has started to shrink. The phenomenon of mirages has been known to exist there.
  
  Land use
  
  The patchwork landscape of MasuriaForests cover 28% of Poland’s land area. More than half of the land is devoted to agriculture. While the total area under cultivation is declining, the remaining farmland is more intensively cultivated.
  
  More than 1% of Poland’s territory — 3,145 square kilometres (1,214 square miles) — is protected within 23 national parks. In this respect, Poland ranks first in Europe. Three more national parks are projected for Masuria, the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland, and the eastern Beskids. Most Polish national parks are located in the southern part of the country. In addition, wetlands along lakes and rivers in central Poland are legally protected, as are coastal areas in the north. There are also over 120 areas designated as landscape parks, and numerous nature reserves and other protected areas.
  
  Flora and fauna
  
  A wisent in the Białowieża ForestPhytogeographically, Poland belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Poland can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Baltic mixed forests, Central European mixed forests and Carpathian montane conifer forests.
  
  Many animals that have since died out in other parts of Europe still survive in Poland, such as the wisent in the ancient woodland of the Białowieża Forest and in Podlachia. Other such species include the brown bear in Białowieża, in the Tatras, and in the Beskids, the gray wolf and the Eurasian lynx in various forests, the moose in northern Poland, and the beaver in Masuria, Pomerania, and Podlachia. In the forests, one also encounters game animals, such as red deer, roe deer, and boars. In eastern Poland there are a number of ancient woodlands, like Białowieża, that have never been cleared by people. There are also large forested areas in the mountains, Masuria, Pomerania, and Lower Silesia.
  
  
  Family of White stork, a national bird in PolandPoland is the most important breeding ground for European migratory birds. Out of all of the migratory birds who come to Europe for the summer, one quarter breed in Poland, particularly in the lake districts and the wetlands along the Biebrza, the Narew, and the Warta, which are part of nature reserves or national parks. In Masuria, there are villages in which storks outnumber people.
  
  Climate
  The climate is mostly temperate throughout the country. The climate is oceanic in the north and west and becomes gradually warmer and continental as one moves south and east. Summers are generally warm, with average temperatures between 20 °C (68 °F) and 27 °C (80,6 °F). Winters are cold, with average temperatures around 3 °C (37,4 °F) in the northwest and –8 °C (17,6 °F) in the northeast. Precipitation falls throughout the year, although, especially in the east; winter is drier than summer. The warmest region in Poland is Lesser Poland located in Southern Poland where temperatures in the summer average between 23 °C (73,4 °F) and 30 °C (86 °F) but can go as high as 32 °C (89,6 °F) to 38 °C (100,4 °F) on some days in the warmest month of the year July. The warmest city in Poland is Tarnów. The city is located in Lesser Poland; it is the hottest place in Poland all year round. The average temperatures being 30 °C (86 °F) in the summer and 4 °C (39,2 °F) in the winter. Tarnów also has the longest summer in Poland spreading from mid May to mid September. Also it has the shortest winter in Poland which often lasts from January to March, less than the regular three-month winter. The coldest region of Poland is in the Northeast in the Podlachian Voivodeship near the border of Belarus. The climate is efficient due to cold fronts which come from Scandinavia and Siberia. The average temperature in the winter in Podlachian ranges from -15 °C (5 °F) to -4 °C ( 24,8 °F).
  
  Demographics
  
  Three generations in West Pomerania after World War II: Pomnik Czynu Polaków, SzczecinPoland, with 38.5 million inhabitants, has the eighth-largest population in Europe and the sixth-largest in the European Union. It has a population density of 122 inhabitants per square kilometer (328 per square mile).
  
  Poland historically contained many languages, cultures and religions on its soil. The country had a particularly large Jewish population prior to the Second World War, when the Nazi Holocaust caused Poland's Jewish population, estimated at 3 million before the war, to drop to just 300,000. The outcome of the war, particularly the westward shift of Poland's borders to the area between the Curzon line and the Oder-Neisse line, coupled with post-war expulsion of minorities, gave Poland an appearance of homogeneity.
  
  As of 2002, 36,983,700 people, or 96.74% of the population consider themselves Polish (Census 2002), while 471,500 (1.23%) declared another nationality. 774,900 people (2.03%) did not declare any nationality. The largest nationalities and ethnic groups in Poland are Silesians, Germans (most in the former Opole Voivodeship), Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Russians, Jews and Belarusians. The Polish language, a member of the West Slavic branch of the Slavic languages, functions as the official language of Poland. English and German are the most common second languages studied and spoken.
  
  In recent years, Poland's population has decreased because of an increase in emigration and a sharp drop in the birth rate. In 2006, the census office estimated the total population of Poland at 38,536,869, a slight rise on the 2002 figure of 38,230,080. Since Poland's accession to the European Union, a significant number of Poles have emigrated to Western European countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany and Ireland in search of work. Some organizations have stated that Polish emigration is primarily due to Poland's high unemployment rate (10.5%), with Poles searching for better work opportunities abroad. In April 2007, the Polish population of the United Kingdom had risen to approximately 300,000 and estimates place the Polish population in Ireland at 65,000.
  
  However lately it has been reported that large numbers of Polish citizens who had previously emigrated to other parts of the EU for better prospects are in fact returning due to the dramatic increase in standards of living for Poles in their own country as well as sharp increases in wages. The Central Statistical Office of the Polish government recently published figures which gave evidence that there is now a net inflow of people into the country.
  
  Polish minorities are still present in the neighboring countries of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, as well as in other countries (see Poles for population numbers). Altogether, the number of ethnic Poles living abroad is estimated to be around 20 million. The largest number of Poles outside of Poland can be found in the United States.
  
  Urban Areas
  The largest metropolitan areas in Poland are the Upper Silesian Coal Basin centred on Katowice (3.5 million inhabitants); the capital, Warsaw (3 million);Kraków (1.3 million) Łódź (1.3 million); the Tricity of Gdańsk-Sopot-Gdynia in the Vistula delta (1.1 million); Poznań (0.9 million); Wrocław (0.9 million); and Szczecin (0.7 million). For an overview of Polish cities, see List of cities in Poland.
  
  Ethnicity and religion
  
  In terms of ethnicity, Poland has been a homogeneous state since the end of World War II. This is a major departure from much of Polish history. Due to the Holocaust and the flight and expulsion of German and Ukrainian populations, Poland has become almost uniformly Catholic. About 88% of the population belongs to the Roman Catholic Church, with 58% as practising Catholics according to 2005 survey by the Centre for Public Opinion Research. Though rates of religious observance are currently lower than they have been in the past, Poland remains one of the most devoutly religious countries in Europe. Religious minorities include Polish Orthodox (1.3% or about 506,000), Jehovah’s Witnesses (0.6% or about 220,000), various Protestants (0.4% or about 159,000), Eastern Catholics (0.2%), and smaller minorities of Mariavites, Polish Catholics, Jews, Muslims (including the Tatars of Białystok). Protestant churches include about 0.2% or 76,000 in the largest Evangelical-Augsburg Church, plus about as many in smaller Pentecostal and Evangelical churches. Resulting from the socio-political emancipation of the county, freedom of religion has become guaranteed by the 1989 statute of the Polish constitution, allowing for the emergence of additional denominations. However, due to pressure from the Polish Episcopate, exposition of doctrine has entered public education system as well, drawing criticism from the popular media, as unconstitutional. According to 2007 survey, 72% of respondents were not against the fostering of catechism in public schools; nevertheless, the alternative courses in ethics have become available only in one percent of the entire public educational system.
  
  Poles (including Silesians and Kashubians) make up an overwhelming 99.3% majority of the Polish population. According to the 2002 census, the remainder of the population is made up of small minorities of Germans (152,897), Belarusians (c. 49,000), and Ukrainians (c. 30,000), as well as Tatars, Lithuanians, Roma, Lemkos, Russians, Karaites, Slovaks, and Czechs. Among foreign citizens, the Vietnamese are the largest ethnic group, followed by Greeks, and Armenians.
  
  History
  
  History of Poland
  Chronology
  Until 966
  966–1385
  1385–1569
  1569–1795
  1795–1918
  1918–1939
  1939–1945
  1945–1989
  1989–present
  
  Prehistory
  
  Historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now known as Poland. The exact ethnicity and linguistic affiliation of these groups has been hotly debated; in particular the time and route of the original settlement of Slavic peoples in these regions has been the subject of much controversy.
  
  The most famous archeological find from Poland's prehistory is the Biskupin fortified settlement (now reconstructed as a museum), dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, around 700 BC.
  
  Piast dynasty
  
  Poland around 1020Poland began to form into a recognizable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the tenth century under the Piast dynasty. Poland's first historically documented ruler, Mieszko I, was baptized in 966, adopting Catholic Christianity as the nation's new official religion, to which the bulk of the population converted in the course of the next centuries. In the twelfth century, Poland fragmented into several smaller states. In 1320, Władysław I became the King of a reunified Poland. His son, Kazimierz III, is remembered as one of the greatest Polish kings.
  
  Poland was also a centre of migration of peoples and the Jewish community began to settle and flourish in Poland during this era (see History of the Jews in Poland). The Black Death which affected most parts of Europe from 1347 to 1351 did not reach Poland.
  
  Jagiellon dynasty
  
  Under the Jagiellon dynasty Poland forged an alliance with its neighbour, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1410, a Polish-Lithuanian army inflicted a decisive defeat on the Teutonic Knights, both countries' main adversary, in the battle of Grunwald. After the Thirteen Years War, the Knight's state became a Polish vassal. Polish culture and economy flourished under the Jagiellons, and the country produced such figures as astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus and poet Jan Kochanowski. Compared to other European nations, Poland was exceptional in its tolerance of religious dissent, allowing the country to avoid the religious turmoil that spread over Western Europe in that time.
  
  Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
  
  The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at its greatest extentA golden age ensued during the sixteenth century after the Union of Lublin which gave birth to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The szlachta (nobility) of Poland, far more numerous than in Western European countries, took pride in their freedoms and parliamentary system. During the Golden Age period, Poland expanded its borders to become the largest country in Europe.
  
  In the mid-seventeenth century, a Swedish invasion ("The Deluge") and Cossack's Chmielnicki Uprising which ravaged the country marked the end of the golden age. Numerous wars against Russia coupled with government inefficiency caused by the Liberum Veto, a right which had allowed any member of the parliament to dissolve it and to veto any legislation it had passed, marked the steady deterioration of the Commonwealth from a European power into a near-anarchy controlled by its neighbours. The reforms, particularly those of the Great Sejm, which passed the Constitution of May 3, 1791, the world's second modern constitution, were thwarted with the three partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, and 1795) which ended with Poland's being erased from the map and its territories being divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
  
  Partitions of Poland
  
  Poles would resent their fate and would several times rebel against the partitioners, particularly in the nineteenth century. In 1807 Napoleon recreated a Polish state, the Duchy of Warsaw, but after the Napoleonic wars, Poland was again divided in 1815 by the victorious Allies at the Congress of Vienna. The eastern portion was ruled by the Russian Czar as a Congress Kingdom, and possessed a liberal constitution. However, the Czars soon reduced Polish freedoms and Russia eventually de facto annexed the country. Later in the nineteenth century, Austrian-ruled Galicia, particularly the Free City of Kraków, became a centre of Polish cultural life.
  
  Reconstitution of Poland
  
  Poland between 1922 and 1938During World War I, all the Allies agreed on the reconstitution of Poland that United States President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed in Point 13 of his Fourteen Points. Shortly after the surrender of Germany in November 1918, Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic (II Rzeczpospolita Polska). It reaffirmed its independence after a series of military conflicts, the most notable being the Polish-Soviet War (1919–1921) when Poland inflicted a crushing defeat on the Red Army.
  
  The 1926 May Coup of Józef Piłsudski turned the reins of the Second Polish Republic over to the Sanacja movement.
  
  World War II
  
  The Sanacja movement controlled Poland until the start of World War II in 1939, when Nazi Germany invaded on September 1 and the Soviet Union followed on September 17. Warsaw capitulated on September 28, 1939. As agreed in the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact, Poland was split into two zones, one occupied by Germany while the eastern provinces fell under the control of the Soviet Union.
  
  Of all the countries involved in the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: over six million perished, half of them Polish Jews. Poland made the fourth-largest troop contribution to the Allied war effort, after the Soviets, the British and the Americans. The Polish expeditionary corps played an important role in the Italian Campaign, particularly at the Battle of Monte Cassino. At the war's conclusion, Poland's borders were shifted westwards, pushing the eastern border to the Curzon line. Meanwhile, the western border was moved to the Oder-Neisse line. The new Poland emerged 20% smaller by 77,500 square kilometres (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced the migration of millions of people, most of whom were Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews. The main German Nazi death camps were in Poland. Of a pre-war population of 3,300,000 Polish Jews, 3,000,000 were killed during the Holocaust.
  
  Postwar Communist Poland
  
  At the end of World War II, the gray territories were transferred from Poland to the Soviet Union, and the pink territories from Germany to PolandThe Soviet Union instituted a new Communist government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact throughout the Cold War was also part of this change. The People's Republic of Poland (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa) was officially proclaimed in 1952. In 1956, the régime of Władysław Gomułka became temporarily more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms. Similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s under Edward Gierek, but most of the time persecution of communist opposition persisted.
  
  Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union "Solidarity" ("Solidarność"), which over time became a political force. Despite persecution and imposition of martial law in 1981, it eroded the dominance of the Communist Party and by 1989 had triumphed in parliamentary elections. Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, eventually won the presidency in 1990. The Solidarity movement heralded the collapse of communism across Eastern Europe.
  
  Democratic Poland
  
  A shock therapy programme of Leszek Balcerowicz during the early 1990s enabled the country to transform its economy into a market economy. As with all other post-communist countries, Poland suffered temporary slumps in social and economic standards, but became the first post-communist country to reach its pre-1989 GDP levels. Most visibly, there were numerous improvements in other human rights, such as free speech. In 1991, Poland became a member of the Visegrad Group and joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance in 1999 along with the Czech Republic and Hungary. Poles then voted to join the European Union in a referendum in June 2003, with Poland becoming a full member on May 1, 2004.
  
  Politics
  
  Poland is a democracy, with a President as a Head of State, whose current constitution dates from 1997. The government structure centres on the Council of Ministers, led by a prime minister. The president appoints the cabinet according to the proposals of the prime minister, typically from the majority coalition in the Sejm. The president is elected by popular vote every five years. The current president is Lech Kaczyński, the current prime minister is Donald Tusk.
  
  Polish voters elect a bicameral parliament consisting of a 460-member lower house (Sejm) and a 100-member Senate (Senat). The Sejm is elected under proportional representation according to the d'Hondt method, a method similar to that used in many parliamentary political systems. The Senate, on the other hand, is elected under a rare plurality bloc voting method where several candidates with the highest support are elected from each constituency. With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates of political parties receiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the Sejm. When sitting in joint session, members of the Sejm and Senate form the National Assembly (the Zgromadzenie Narodowe). The National Assembly is formed on three occasions: when a new President takes the oath of office; when an indictment against the President of the Republic is brought to the State Tribunal (Trybunał Stanu); and when a President's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health is declared. To date, only the first instance has occurred.
  
  The judicial branch plays an important role in decision-making. Its major institutions include the Supreme Court of Poland (Sąd Najwyższy); the Supreme Administrative Court of Poland (Naczelny Sąd Administracyjny); the Constitutional Tribunal of Poland (Trybunał Konstytucyjny); and the State Tribunal of Poland (Trybunał Stanu). On the approval of the Senate, the Sejm also appoints the Ombudsman or the Commissioner for Civil Rights Protection (Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich) for a five-year term. The Ombudsman has the duty of guarding the observance and implementation of the rights and liberties of Polish citizens and residents, of the law and of principles of community life and social justice.
  
  Administrative divisions
  
  Poland's current voivodeships (provinces) are largely based on the country's historic regions, whereas those of the past two decades (to 1998) had been centred on and named for individual cities. The new units range in area from less than 10,000 km² (Opole Voivodeship) to more than 35,000 km² (Masovian Voivodeship). Administrative authority at voivodeship level is shared between a government-appointed voivode (governor), an elected regional assembly (sejmik) and an executive elected by that assembly.
  
  The voivodeships are subdivided into powiats (often referred to in English as counties), and these are further divided into gminas (also known as communes or municipalities). Major cities normally have the status of both gmina and powiat. Poland currently has 16 voivodeships, 379 powiats (including 65 cities with powiat status), and 2,478 gminas.
  
  Division of Poland
  Greater Poland Wielkopolskie Poznań
  Kuyavian-Pomeranian Kujawsko-Pomorskie Bydgoszcz / Toruń
  Lesser Poland Małopolskie Kraków
  Łódź Łódzkie Łódź
  Lower Silesian Dolnośląskie Wrocław
  Lublin Lubelskie Lublin
  Lubusz Lubuskie Gorzów Wielkopolski / Zielona Góra
  Masovian Mazowieckie Warsaw
  Opole Opolskie Opole
  Podlachian Podlaskie Białystok
  Pomeranian Pomorskie Gdańsk
  Silesian Śląskie Katowice
  Subcarpathian Podkarpackie Rzeszów
  Świętokrzyskie Świętokrzyskie Kielce
  Warmian-Masurian Warmińsko-Mazurskie Olsztyn
  West Pomeranian Zachodniopomorskie Szczecin
  
  Economy
  
  Financial centre of Warsaw, Poland's capital and largest cityPoland is considered to have one of the healthiest economies of the post-communist countries, with GDP growing by 6.1% in 2006. Since the fall of communism, Poland has steadfastly pursued a policy of liberalising the economy and today stands out as a successful example of the transition from a state-directed economy to a primarily privately owned market economy.
  
  The privatisation of small and medium state-owned companies and a liberal law on establishing new firms have allowed the development of an aggressive private sector. As a consequence, consumer rights organizations have also appeared. Restructuring and privatisation of "sensitive sectors" such as coal, steel, railways, and energy has been continuing since 1990. Between 2007 and 2010, the government plans to float twenty public companies on the Polish stock market, including parts of the coal industry. To date (2007), the biggest privatisations have been the sale of the national telecoms firm Telekomunikacja Polska to France Telecom in 2000, and an issue of 30% of the shares in Poland's largest bank, PKO Bank Polski, on the Polish stockmarket in 2004.
  
  Poland has a large number of private farms in its agricultural sector, with the potential to become a leading producer of food in the European Union. Structural reforms in health care, education, the pension system, and state administration have resulted in larger-than-expected fiscal pressures. Warsaw leads Central Europe in foreign investment. GDP growth had been strong and steady from 1993 to 2000 with only a short slowdown from 2001 to 2002.
  
  Leopard sport-style car designed and produced in PolandThe prospect of closer integration with the European Union has put the economy back on track, with growth of 3.7% annually in 2003, a rise from 1.4% annually in 2002. In 2004, GDP growth equaled 5.4%, in 2005 3.3% and in 2006 6.2%. For 2007, the government has set a target for GDP growth at 6.5 to 7.0%.
  
  Although the Polish economy is currently undergoing economic development, there are many challenges ahead. The most notable task on the horizon is the preparation of the economy (through continuing deep structural reforms) to allow Poland to meet the strict economic criteria for entry into the European Single Currency (Euro). According to the minister of finance Jacek Rostowski Poland is likely to join ERM in 2009 and adopt Euro in 2012 or 2013.. Some businesses may accept the euro as payment.
  
  Average salaries in enterprise sector in April 2008 were 3137PLN (equals to 925 euro or 1434 US dollars) and growing sharply. Salaries varies between the regions: median wage in the capital city Warsaw was 4600 PLN (1200 euro or 2000 US dollars) while in Bialystok only 2400 (670 euro or 1000 US dollars).
  
  Since joining the European Union, many workers have left to work in other EU countries (particularly Ireland and the UK) because of high unemployment, which was the second-highest in the EU (14.2% in May 2006). However, with the rapid growth of the salaries, booming economy, strong value of Polish currency, and quickly decreasing unemployment (8% in March 2008) exodus of Polish workers seems to be over. In 2008 people who came back outnumbered thoses leaving the country.
  
  Commodities produced in Poland include: electronics, cars (including the luxurious Leopard car), buses (Autosan, Jelcz SA, Solaris, Solbus), helicopters (PZL Świdnik), transport equipment, locomotives, planes (PZL Mielec), ships, military engineering (including tanks, SPAAG systems), medicines (Polpharma, Polfa), food, clothes, glass, pottery (Bolesławiec), chemical products and others.
  
  Science, technology and education
  
  Education
  The education of Polish society was a goal of rulers as early as the 12th century, and Poland soon became one of the most educated European countries. The library catalogue of the Cathedral Chapter of Kraków dating back to 1110 shows that already in the early 12th century Polish intellectuals had access to the European literature. In 1364, in Kraków, the Jagiellonian University, founded by King Casimir III, became one of Europe's great early universities. In 1773 King Stanisław August Poniatowski established his Commission on National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), the world's first state ministry of education.
  
  Current situation
  Today Poland has more than a hundred tertiary education institutions; traditional universities to be found in its major cities of Białystok, Bydgoszcz, Gdańsk, Katowice, Kraków, Lublin, Łódź, Olsztyn, Opole, Poznań, Rzeszów, Szczecin, Toruń, Warsaw, Wrocław and Zielona Góra as well as technical, medical, economic institutions elsewhere, employing around 61,000 workers. There are also around 300 research and development institutes, with about 10,000 more researchers. In total, there are around 91,000 scientists in Poland today.
  
  According to Frost & Sullivan's Country Industry Forecast the country is becoming an interesting location for research and development investments. Multinational companies such as: ABB, Delphi, GlaxoSmithKline, Google, Hewlett–Packard, IBM, Intel, LG Electronics and Microsoft have set up R&D centres in Poland. Motorola in Kraków, Siemens in Wrocław and Samsung in Warszawa are one of the largest owned by those companies. Over 40 R&D centers, and 4,500 researchers make Poland the biggest R&D hub in Central and Eastern Europe. Companies chose Poland because of the availability of highly qualified labor force, presence of universities, support of authorities, and the largest market in Central Europe.
  
  According to KPMG report 80% of Poland's current investors are contented with their choice and willing to reinvest. In 2006 Intel decided to double the number of employees in its R&D centre.
  
  The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Poland's education as the 23rd best in the world, being neither significantly higher nor lower than the OECD average.
  
  Telecommunication and IT
  For a more detailed treatment of this topic, see the subarticles Communications in Poland and Software development in Poland.
  The share of the telecom sector in the GDP is 4.4% (end of 2000 figure), compared to 2.5% in 1996. Nevertheless, despite high expenditures for telecom infrastructure (the coverage increased from 78 users per 1000 inhabitants in 1989 to 282 in 2000).
  
  The value of the telecommunication market is zl 38.2bn (2006), and it grew by 12.4% in 2007 PMR
  
  the coverage mobile cellular is over 1000 users per 1000 people (2007)
  
  Telephones—mobile cellular: 38.7 million (Onet.pl & GUS Report, 2007)
  Telephones—main lines in use: 12.5 million (Telecom Team Report, 2005)
  
  Culture
  
  Polish architecture: Main Market Square in Kraków. St Mary's Basilica (left), Sukiennice (centre), Town Hall Tower (right)Polish culture has been influenced by both Eastern and Western influences. Today, these influences are evident in Polish architecture, folklore, and art. Poland is the birthplace of some world famous individuals, including Pope John Paul II, Marie Skłodowska Curie, Kazimierz Pułaski, Nicolaus Copernicus and Frederic Chopin.
  
  The character of Polish art always reflected world trends. The famous Polish painter, Jan Matejko included many significant historical events in his paintings. Also a famous person in history of Polish art was Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz. He was an example of a Polish Renaissance Man. Polish literature dates back to 1100s and includes many famous poets and writers such as Jan Kochanowski, Adam Mickiewicz, Bolesław Prus, Juliusz Słowacki, Witold Gombrowicz, Stanisław Lem and, Ryszard Kapuściński. Writers Henryk Sienkiewicz, Władysław Reymont, Czesław Miłosz, Wisława Szymborska have each won the Nobel Prize for Literature.
  
  Many world renowned Polish movie directors include Academy Awards winners Roman Polański, Andrzej Wajda, Zbigniew Rybczyński, Janusz Kamiński and, Krzysztof Kieślowski. The traditional Polish music composers include world-renowned pianist Frederic Chopin as well as famous composers such as Krzysztof Penderecki, Henryk Mikołaj Górecki, Karol Szymanowski, and others.
  
  Notable foods in Polish cuisine include Polish sausage, red beet soup, Polish dumplings, flaczki (tripe soup), cabbage rolls, Oscypek, Polish pork chops, Polish traditional stew, various potato dishes, a fast food sandwich zapiekanka, and many more. Traditional Polish desserts include Polish doughnuts, Polish gingerbread and others.
 

pínglún (0)