瑞士

ōu zhōu:

英国 United Kingdom 爱尔兰 Ireland 比利时 Belgium 荷兰 Netherlands 法国 France 西班牙 Spain 葡萄牙 Portugal 意大利 Italy 希腊 Greece 奥地利 Austria 匈牙利 Hungary 德国 Germany 瑞士 Switzerland 罗马尼亚 Romania 俄罗斯 Russia 波兰 Poland 克罗地亚 Croatia (Hrvatska) 捷克 Czech 芬兰 Finland 瑞典 Sweden 挪威 Norway 冰岛 Iceland 土耳其 Turkey 丹麦 Denmark 阿尔巴尼亚 Albania 爱沙尼亚 Republic of Estonia 安道尔 Andorra 白俄罗斯 Belarus 保加利亚 The Republic of Bulgaria 波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 Bosnia and Herzegovina 梵蒂冈 Vatican City State (Holy See) 黑山 The Republic of Montenegro 拉脱维亚 Latvia 立陶宛 Republic of Lithuania 列支敦士登 Liechtenstein 卢森堡 Luxembourg 马耳他 Republic of Malta 马其顿 The Republic of Macedonia 摩尔多瓦 The Republic of Moldova 摩纳哥 Monaco 塞尔维亚 the Republic of Serbia 斯洛伐克 The Slovak Republic 斯洛文尼亚 the Republic of Slovenia 圣马力诺 San Marino 乌克兰 Ukraine

ruì shì Switzerland shǒudōu:bó 'ěr ní guógūdàimǎ: ch

cháozhèng

瑞士

　　zhōng wén : ruì shì lián bāng
　　 yīng wén :SwissConfederation
　　 dé wén： SCHWEIZERISCHEEIDGENOSSENSCHAFT
　　 fǎ wén： LACONFEDERATIONSUISSE
　　 yì dà lì wén： CONFEDERAZIONESVIZZERA
　　 lā dīng wén： ConfoedoratioHelvetica， jiǎn chēng CH
　　 miàn jī： 41,285 píng fāng gōng lǐ miàn jī shuǐ yù miàn jī bǎi fēn bǐ 3.7 ％， wèi yú dì 132 wèi。
　　 guó qí : chéng zhèng fāng xíng。 qí dì wéi hóng sè， zhèng zhōng yī gè bái sè shí zì。 ruì shì guó qí tú 'àn de lái lì zhòng shuō fēn yún， qí zhōng yòu dài biǎo xìng de shuō fǎ jiù yòu sì zhǒng。 zhì １８４８ nián， ruì shì zhì dìng liǎo xīn lián bāng xiàn fǎ， zhèng shì guī dìng hóng dì bái shí zì qí wéi ruì shì lián bāng guó qí。 bái sè xiàng zhēng hé píng、 gōng zhèng hé guāng míng， hóng sè xiàng zhēng zhe rén mín de shèng lì、 xìng fú hé rè qíng； guó qí de zhěng zǔ tú 'àn xiàng zhēng guó jiā de tǒng yī。 zhè miàn guó qí zài１８８９ céng zuò guò xiū gǎi， bǎ yuán lái de hóng dì bái shí zì héng cháng fāng xíng gǎi wéi zhèng fāng xíng， xiàng zhēng guó jiā zài wài jiāo shàng cǎi qǔ de gōng zhèng hé zhōng lì de zhèng cè。
　　 guó huī： wéi dùn huī。 tú 'àn yǔ yán sè yǔ guó qí xiāng tóng。
　　 guó huā： huǒ róng cǎo
　　 guó shí： shuǐ jīng
　　 huò bì： ruì shì huò bì míng chēng wéi ruì shì fǎ láng， shǔ guó jì yìng tōng huò。 1 ruì shì fǎ láng ＝ 100 shēng dīng。 ruì shì huò bì yòu 7 zhǒng miàn zhí de zhǐ bì： 10、 20、 50、 100、 200、 500、 1000 ruì shì fǎ láng（ CHF） jí 7 zhǒng miàn zhí de yìng bì： 5、 10、 20、 50 shēng dīng， 1、 2、 5 ruì shì fǎ láng。 měi yuán duì ruì shì fǎ láng duì huàn shuài 2000 nián wéi 1:1.69， 2001 nián wéi 1:1.69,2002 nián wéi 1:1.56。
　　 shí chā： ruì shì de shí jiān， bǐ zhōng guó màn 7 xiǎo shí， xià jì zé bǐ zhōng guó màn 6 xiǎo shí， yīn měi nián de 3 yuè zhì 9 yuè wěi jūn cǎi yòng xià lìng shí jiān。 ér huá xuě jì jié zé shì cóng 12 yuè zhōng xún zhì 5 yuè xià xún。
　　 yǔ zhōng guó guān xì： 1950 nián 9 yuè 14 rì， zhōng guó yǔ ruì shì jiàn jiāo。
　　 rén kǒu： 725.88 wàn（ 2001 nián）， qí zhōng ruì shì jiè rén kǒu zhàn 79.8%， wài jiè rén kǒu zhàn 20.2%； rén kǒu mì dù 176/km2 wèi yú dì 92 wèi；
　　 yǔ yán： ruì shì yìng yòng yǔ yán gòng sì zhǒng： dé yǔ Deutsch、 fǎ yǔ、 yì dà lì yǔ Italiano jí lā dīng luó màn yǔ。 qí zhōng jiǎng dé yǔ de rén kǒu zhàn 63.9%， zhù yào zài běi bù dì qū； jiǎng fǎ yǔ rén kǒu zhàn l9.5%， zài xī bù dì qū； jiǎng yì dà lì yǔ rén kǒu zhàn 6.6%， zài nán bù dì qū； jiǎng lā dīng luó màn yǔ rén kǒu zhàn 0.5%， zài dōng bù shǎo shù dì qū； jiǎng qí tā yǔ yán rén kǒu zhàn 9.5%。 qián 3 zhǒng yǔ yán xì guān fāng yǔ yán， wéi lián bāng de zhèng shì wén jiàn suǒ cǎi yòng。 yīng yǔ yì guǎng fàn yùn yòng。
　　 zōng jiào xìn yǎng： ruì shì jū mín zhù yào xìn yǎng tiān zhù jiào hé jī dū jiào， qí zhōng tiān zhù jiào tú yuē zhàn xìn jiào rén kǒu zǒng shù de 44.1%， jī dū jiào tú zhàn 36.6%。 lìng， yī sī lán jiào tú yuē zhàn 4.5%， qí tā 3.1%， wú zōng jiào zhě zhàn 11.7%。
　　 dì lǐ gài kuàng： ruì shì shì wèi yú 'ōu zhōu zhōng nán bù de duō shān nèi lù guó。 dōng jiè 'ào dì lì、 liè zhī dūn shì dēng， nán lín yì dà lì， xī jiē fǎ guó， běi lián dé guó。 qí lǐng tǔ dōng qǐ dōng jīng 10°29'26" gé láo bīn dēng zhōu de shā wǎ lā cí fēng， xī zhì dōng jīng 5°57'24" de rì nèi wǎ de shàng xī zhèn， zuì nán duān wèi yú běi wěi 45°49'8"， kào jìn tí qì nuò zhōu de jī yà suǒ， zuì běi miàn zài běi wěi 47°48'35"， xì shā fū háo sēn zhōu de bā 'ěr gēn。 nán běi cháng 220.1 gōng lǐ， dōng xī cháng 348.4 gōng lǐ。 quán jìng fēn zhōng nán bù de 'ā 'ěr bēi sī shān mài（ zhàn zǒng miàn jī de 60％）、 xī běi bù de rǔ lā shān mài（ zhàn 10％）、 zhōng bù gāo yuán（ zhàn 30％） sān gè zì rán dì xíng qū。 píng jūn hǎi bá yuē 1350 mǐ， zuì gāo diǎn shì jiē jìn yì dà lì de dù fù 'ěr fēng（ DUFOUR-PEAK, hǎi bá 4634 mǐ）， zuì dī diǎn shì wèi yú tí qì nuò zhōu de mǎ zǔ 'ěr hú（ LAKEMAGGIORE， hǎi bá 193 mǐ）。 ruì shì shì yī gè shān guó， shān qīng shuǐ xiù。 qí sēn lín miàn jī dá 12523 píng fāng gōng lǐ， zhàn quán guó miàn jī de 30.3％。 rú guǒ zài jiā shàng nóng yè、 lǜ dì miàn jī（ 10166 píng fāng gōng lǐ， zhàn quán guó miàn jī 24.6％）， zé quán guó yī bàn yǐ shàng de tǔ dì bèi lǜ dì suǒ fù gài。 ruì shì shì 'ōu zhōu dà lù sān dà hé liú fā yuán dì， yòu “ ōu zhōu shuǐ tǎ ” zhī chēng。 zhù yào hé liú yòu： lāi yīn hé ( zài ruì shì jìng nèi 375 gōng lǐ， shì ruì shì zuì dà de hé liú )、 ā 'ěr hé ( zài ruì shì jìng nèi 295 gōng lǐ， shì ruì shì zuì cháng de nèi lù hé )、 luó nà hé ( zài ruì shì jìng nèi 264 gōng lǐ， shì ruì shì dì 'èr dà nèi lù hé )。 húpō gòng yòu 1484 gè， qí zhōng zuì dà de shì lāi méng hú（ yòu míng rì nèi wǎ hú）， miàn jī 582 píng fāng gōng lǐ， zuì shēn chù 310 mǐ， qí tā yòu： kāng sī tǎn cí hú、 niǔ shā tài 'ěr hú、 mǎ qiáo léi hú、 sì zhōu hú、 sū lí shì hú děng。 ruì shì de hé hú miàn jī dá 1726 píng fāng gōng lǐ， zhàn ruì shì quán guó miàn jī de 4.2％。 ruì shì dì chù běi wēn dài， dì yù suī xiǎo， dàn gè dì qì hòu chā yì hěn dà。 ā 'ěr bēi sī shān yóu dōng xiàng xī shēn zhǎn， xíng chéng liǎo ruì shì qì hòu de fēn jiè xiàn。 ā 'ěr bēi sī shān yǐ běi shòu wēn hé cháo shī de xī 'ōu hǎi yáng xìng qì hòu hé dōng hán xià rè de dōng 'ōu dà lù xìng qì hòu de jiāo tì yǐng xiǎng， biàn huà jiào dà； ā 'ěr bēi sī shān yǐ nán zé shǔ dì zhōng hǎi qì hòu， quán nián qì hòu yí rén。 ruì shì nián jiàng yǔ liàng wéi 1500 háo mǐ , dàn gè dì fēn bù bù jūn。 nián píng jūn qì wēn wéi 8 ． 6 shè shì dù。 zài chéng shì zhōng， xià jì qì wēn kě dá huá shì 86 dù（ shè shì 30 dù）， kōng qì shī dù shì yí； dōng jì qì wēn jīng cháng dī yú huá shì 32 dù（ shè shì 0 dù）， shí yòu xià xuě jié bīng de xiàn xiàng。
　　
　　
　　
　　
　　 gè dà chéng shì jiè shào
　　
　　 shǒu dū : bó 'ěr ní， shì qū rén kǒu 12.25 wàn
　　 bó 'ěr ní shì： bó 'ěr ní shì wèi yú ruì shì guó tǔ zhōng jiān piān xī， 1848 nián lián bāng xiàn fǎ dìng wéi ruì shì shǒu dū， yòu chēng wéi“ lián bāng chéng” , tóng shí yě shì bó 'ěr ní zhōu de shǒu fǔ。 miàn jī ( bāo kuò jiāo qū )230 duō píng fāng gōng lǐ， shì qū rén kǒu 12.4 wàn , hǎi bá 550 mǐ， wèi yú lāi yīn hé zhī liú 'ā 'ěr hé de yī gè tiān rán wān qū chù， tuān jí de hé shuǐ cóng sān miàn huán rào bó 'ěr ní lǎo chéng 'ér guò， xíng chéng liǎo yī gè bàn dǎo。 chuán shuō wéi gěi chéng shì qǔ míng， dāng shí de tǒng zhì zhě zhā líng gēn gōng jué jué dìng wài chū dǎ liè， yǐ dǎ dào de dì yī zhǐ yě shòu zuò wéi chéng shì míng， jiēguǒ dǎ sǐ yī tóu xióng， yú shì yǐ“ xióng” zì wéi gāi chéng mìng míng。 bó 'ěr ní zhè yī míng chēng shì cóng dé wén“ xióng” zì yǎn yì 'ér lái， dé yǔ zhōng xióng yī cí de fā yīn shì“ bài 'ěr”， hòu jiàn biàn wéi“ bó 'ěr ní”。“ xióng” zì rán chéng liǎo bó 'ěr ní de chéng huī， jìn 'ér yòu biàn wéi bó 'ěr ní zhōu de biāo zhì。 bó 'ěr ní shì yòu xiē gǔ jiàn zhù shàng zhì jīn réng liú yòu xióng de diāo sù。 zài 'ā 'ěr hé dōng 'àn shān gǎng ní dé gé dà qiáo fù jìn， hái bì yòu xióng yuàn， wèi yǎng zhe yī xiē gōng yóu rén guān shǎng de xióng。
　　 bó 'ěr ní chéng shǐ jiàn yú 12 shì jì， zhì 18 shì jì jiàn chéng xiàn zài guī mó， yǐ yòu 800 nián de lì shǐ。 bó 'ěr ní lǎo chéng yuán lái yī xiē mù zhì jié gòu de jiàn zhù bèi zhōng shì jì de duō cì dà huǒ shāo huǐ， hòu lái chóngjiàn shí gǎi wéi shí tóu jié gòu， xiàn réng bǎo chí wán hǎo： suì shí pū chéng de mǎ chē dào， jiē dào liǎng bàng shì bǐ cǐ xiāng lián de màn cháng gǒng kuò， hóng wǎ bái qiáng xiāng yìng shēng huī de gǔ lǎo fáng wū， gè yòu diǎn gù de jiē xīn pēn quán cǎi zhù， 16 shì jì de zhōng tǎ jí shǐ jiàn yú 1421 nián de wǎn qī gē tè shì dà jiào táng， shǐ bó 'ěr ní xiǎn dé gǔ sè gǔ xiāng， bǎo liú zhe zhōng shì jì shí de fēng mào。 xiàn zhù yào jiē dào yǐ bèi huá wéi bù xíng qū， huán jìng shí fēn yōu jìng。 bó 'ěr ní lǎo chéng yǐ bèi lián hé guó kē jiào wén zǔ zhì liè rù shì jiè wén huà míng chéng zhī liè。
　　 ruì shì guò qù zài hěn cháng shí jiān nèi méi yòu gù dìng de shǒu dū， 1848 nián 11 yuè 28 rì， bó 'ěr ní bèi dìng wéi ruì shì lián bāng shǒu dū， chéng wéi lián bāng zhèng fǔ suǒ zài dì hé quán guó zhèng zhì hé wài jiāo zhōng xīn。 lián bāng zhèng fǔ hé lián bāng yì huì shè zài 'ā 'ěr hé běi 'àn tóng lǜ sè de lián bāng dà shà zhōng， zhè shì yī zǔ yòng huā gǎng shí jiàn zào de gōng diàn shì de dà xíng jiàn zhù qún， jiàn yú 1852 nián － 1857 nián。 dà shà zuǒ yòu liǎng yì shì lián bāng gè bù de bàn gōng lóu， zhōng jiān yuán dǐng xià miàn shì lián bāng yì huì liǎng yuàn de huì yì tīng。 dà shà yú 1894－ 1902 nián jìn xíng kuò jiàn， 1993 nián zài cì jìn xíng xiū shàn， bìng tiān zhì liǎo diàn zǐ biǎo jué zhuāng zhì。
　　 yóu yú shì mín fǎn duì zào yīn hé dì shì děng yuán yīn， bó 'ěr ní wèi jiàn dà xíng jī chǎng， jǐn yòu yī xiǎo fēi jī chǎng， shè yòu tōng wǎng xī 'ōu zhù yào chéng shì de háng xiàn。 bó 'ěr ní yòu tōng wǎng quán guó gè dì de gāo sù gōng lù， yě shì quán guó tiě lù shū niǔ zhī yī。
　　 èr cì dà zhàn hòu , bó 'ěr ní de jī xiè、 yí biǎo、 diàn qì、 zhì yào、 fǎng zhì、 shí pǐn、 jiàn zhù hé yìn shuà gōng yè zhú nián fā zhǎn， dàn jūn xì yī xiē zhōng xiǎo qǐ yè， zài ruì shì jīng jì zhōng bù zhàn zhòng yào dì wèi。 bó 'ěr ní zhù yào shì xíng zhèng hé yínháng yè zhōng xīn， tóng shí yě shì yī gè wén huà hé lǚ yóu chéng shì。 shì nèi yòu gǔ lǎo xué fǔ zhī yī de bó 'ěr ní dà xué， jiàn yú 1834 nián， yǐ yán jiū yǔ zhòu shè xiàn zhù chēng。 cǐ wài， hái yòu lì shǐ、 zì rán shǐ、 yì shù、 bīng qì děng bù tóng lèi xíng de zhòng duō bó wù guǎn， bó 'ěr ní hái shì wàn guó yóu zhèng lián méng hé guó jì tiě lù yùn shū zǒng jú suǒ zài dì。
　　 lì shǐ shàng， xǔ duō gé mìng huó dòng jiādōu céng zài bó 'ěr ní jū zhù guò。 ēn gé sī 1848 nián qiū céng dào bó 'ěr ní zhǐ dǎo ruì shì de gōng rén yùn dòng。 liè níng cóng 1914 nián 9 yuè dào 1916 nián chū yě céng zài bó 'ěr ní fù jìn de qí měi wǎ 'ěr dé hé kūn tǎ 'ěr dòu liú guò， bìng xiě guò bù shǎo jiē lù dì 'èr guó jì jī huì zhù yì pàn tú de wén zhāng。 zhù míng wù lǐ xué jiā 'ài yīn sī tǎn zài bó 'ěr ní lián bāng zhuān lì jú gōng zuò qī jiān， yè yú zuānyán wù lǐ xué， fā biǎo liǎo tā de jīng shì zhī zuò“ xiāng duì lùn”， bó 'ěr ní jiāng cǐ yǐn wéi jiāo 'ào， zhì jīn hái bǎo liú zhe 'ài yīn sī tǎn de zhù suǒ（ yǐ bì wéi bó wù guǎn）。
　　 ruì shì qí tā zhù yào chéng shì
　　 sū lí shì shì： sū lí shì shì shì sū lí shì zhōu shǒu fǔ， zuò luò zài sū lí shì hú pàn běi 'àn。 1997 nián dǐ shì qū rén kǒu 33.8 wàn， qí zhōng wài guó rén zhàn 27.9％， shì ruì shì dì yī dà chéng shì， yǐ yòu liǎng qiān nián de lì shǐ， tā jì shì quán guó zuì dà de jīn róng hé shāng yè zhōng xīn， yòu shì ruì shì zhòng yào de wén huà chéng shì， jiāo tōng hé fú wù yè yě jū quán guó shǒu wèi。
　　 sū lí shì shì zhòng yào de guó jì jīn róng zhōng xīn hé huáng jīn shì chǎng zhī yī。 zhè lǐ jí zhōng liǎo 350 yú jiā yínháng jí yínháng fēn zhī jī gòu， qí zhōng wài guó yínháng jìn 70 jiā。 xiǎng yòu shèng míng de sū lí shì jiāo yì suǒ jiàn yú 1876 nián， qí chéng jiāo 'é zài xī 'ōu jiāo yì suǒ zhōng jū qián liè， zuì gāo fēng shí yòu 70％ de zhèng quàn jiāo yì zài cǐ jìn xíng。 ruì shì zhèng quàn jiāo yì suǒ shì shì jiè shàng mù qián wéi yī de jù yòu quán zì dòng jiāo yì hé qīng suàn xì tǒng de jiāo yì suǒ， qí xiān jìn de shè bèi、 gāo sù zhì de rén yuán wéi tóu zī zhě tí gōng liǎo yōu liáng de fú wù。 sū lí shì de huáng jīn shì chǎng gèng shì wén míng xiá 'ěr， jìn nián lái qí huáng jīn shì chǎng de dì wèi yòu suǒ xià jiàng， liù shí nián dài céng yuè wéi jǐn cì yú lún dūn de shì jiè dì 'èr dà huáng jīn shì chǎng。
　　 sū lí shì dì chù jiāo tōng yào dào， gāi shì jí qí zhōu wéi dì qū gōng shāng yè hěn zǎo jiù hěn xīng shèng， tè bié shì sī chóu yè fā zhǎn jiào kuài。 xiàn zhù yào yòu jī qì zhì zào、 jiàn zhù、 fǎng zhì、 huà gōng、 diàn zǐ、 yìn shuà hé shí pǐn jiā gōng。 shì zhōng xīn lì mǎ hé xī cè de huǒ chē zhàn dà jiē shì quán chéng zuì fán huá de shāng yè jiē， jí zhōng liǎo shàng bǎi jiā yínháng hé zhòng duō de gāo jí shāng diàn， zhū bǎo shǒu shì、 míng biǎo qiú pí、 gāo dàng fú zhuāng、 wén wù gǔ wán lín láng mǎn mù。
　　 sū lí shì shì ruì shì guó nèi yǔ guó jì jiāo tōng de shū niǔ， gāo sù gōng lù sì tōng bā dá， quán guó zuì dà de huǒ chē zhàn hé jī chǎng jūn shè zài zhè lǐ， měi tiān jìn chū huǒ chē 700 duō liè； jī chǎng nián kè yùn liàng shàng qiān wàn rén cì， ruì háng hé zhōng guó mín háng měi zhōu yòu shù cì háng bān wǎng fǎn yú sū lí shì hé běi jīng、 shàng hǎi zhī jiān。
　　 sū lí shì hái shì ruì shì wén huà、 jiào yù hé kē yán zhōng xīn zhī yī。 sū lí shì hú pàn de“ fù láo” jiào táng shǐ jiàn yú gōng yuán 853 nián， wéi diǎn xíng de luó mǎ shì jiàn zhù。 jiào táng bù yuǎn chù quán shì zuì měi de bā luó kè shì jiàn zhù shì xī rì de jiǔ yè gōng huì。 hé duì 'àn zhèng duì“ fù láo” jiào táng de jiàn zhù shì sū lí shì dà jiào táng， qí yī duì gāo sǒng de tǎ lóu jiàn yú 15 shì jì， tā shì sū lí shì chéng de zhòng yào biāo zhì。 shì zhèng tīng zé shì yī zuò huá lì de yì dà lì wén yì fù xīng fēng gé de jiàn zhù。 sū lí shì shì yòu gè lèi bó wù guǎn、 měi shù guǎn 50 duō chù。 sū lí shì lián bāng gāo gōng、 sū lí shì dà xué děng yuàn xiào jūn shì jǔ shì wén míng de gāo děng xué fǔ， wǒ liú ruì de jìn qiān míng xué shēng zhōng yuē yī bàn zài shàng shù liǎng xiào shēn zào。 ruì shì guó jiā bó wù guǎn hé tú shū guǎn yě shè zài zhè lǐ。 liè níng 1916-1917 nián zài gāi shì cóng shì yán jiū gōng zuò， wán chéng liǎo zhù míng de《 dì guó zhù yì shì zī běn zhù yì fā zhǎn de zuì gāo jiē duàn》 yī shū。
　　1982 nián sū lí shì shì yǔ wǒ kūn míng shì jié wéi yǒu hǎo chéng shì。 sū lí shì duì kūn míng shì nèi gōng jiāo、 wū shuǐ chǔlǐ děng gěi yú liǎo yuán zhù。
　　1988 nián wǒ guó zài sū lí shì shè lì liǎo zǒng lǐng guǎn。
　　 rì nèi wǎ shì： rì nèi wǎ shì shì rì nèi wǎ zhōu de shǒu fǔ， zuò luò zài fēng jǐng yí rén de lāi méng hú pàn。 běi、 xī、 nán sān miàn yǔ fǎ guó jiāo jiè， yǐ shān bàng shuǐ， jǐng sè xiù lì， xià wú kù shǔ， dōng wú yán hán。 zuì rè de qī yuè fèn píng jūn qì wēn wéi shè shì 19 dù， zuì lěng de yī yuè fèn píng jūn qì wēn wéi shè shì líng dù zuǒ yòu。 1997 nián dǐ， rì nèi wǎ shì qū rén kǒu wéi 17.3 wàn， qí zhōng wài jí rén zhàn 43.8％， wéi ruì shì dì 'èr dà chéng shì。
　　 rì nèi wǎ zǎo zài 12 shì jì qǐ yǐ shì 'ōu zhōu de yī gè zhòng yào shāng yè zhōng xīn , mù qián shì ruì shì dì 'èr dà jīn róng shì chǎng， yōng yòu 120 duō jiā yínháng。
　　 rì nèi wǎ yóu yǐ guó jì zǔ zhì suǒ zài dì hé guó jì huì yì chéng shì zhù chēng yú shì， yǔ niǔ yuē、 wéi yě nà bìng chēng wéi lián hé guó chéng。 jù tǒng jì， zhè lǐ de guó jì jī gòu gòng yòu 243 gè， dà zhì fēn sān lèi： dì yī， lián hé guó jī gòu， rú lián hé guó mào yì yǔ fā zhǎn huì yì、 lián hé guó kāi fā jìhuà shǔ、 shì jiè mào fā zǔ zhì、 shì jiè wèi shēng zǔ zhì děng； dì 'èr， zhèng fǔ jiān jī gòu， rú 'ōu zhōu hé zǐ yán jiū zhōng xīn、 ōu zhōu zì yóu mào yì lián méng děng； dì sān， fēi zhèng fǔ zǔ zhì， rú gè guó yì huì lián méng、 bǎo wèi 'ér tóng guó jì lián hé huì、 guó jì hóng shí zì huì děng。 zhù míng de wàn guó gōng yuán shì guó jì lián méng de suǒ zài dì， ér jīn shì lián hé guó zhù 'ōu zhōu zǒng bù， yǐ chéng wéi zhòng yào de duō biān wài jiāo huó dòng zhōng xīn zhī yī， yòu guān guó jì cái jūn、 mào yì、 láo gōng、 wèi shēng、 qì xiàng、 diàn xùn、 rén quán děng shè jí shì jiè hé píng、 jīng jì fā zhǎn hé shè huì jìn bù de xǔ duō zhòng dà guó jì huì yì dōuzài zhè lǐ jǔ xíng。 jìn 130 gè guó jiā zài cǐ shè yòu cháng zhù lián hé guó hé qí tā guó jì zǔ zhì dài biǎo。 wǒ guó yú 1954 nián shè lì zhù rì nèi wǎ zǒng lǐng guǎn， 1972 nián gǎi wéi cháng zhù lián hé guó rì nèi wǎ dài biǎo chù hé qí tā guó jì zǔ zhì dài biǎo tuán。
　　1954 nián， zhōu 'ēn lái zǒng lǐ céng shuài dài biǎo tuán cān jiā liǎo guān yú yuè nán wèn tí de rì nèi wǎ huì yì； 1961 nián， chén yì fù zǒng lǐ shuài dài biǎo tuán cān jiā guān yú lǎo wō wèn tí de rì nèi wǎ huì yì。
　　 rì nèi wǎ shì ruì shì yòu míng de yóu lǎn shèng dì， yòu xǔ duō míng shèng gǔ jì。 fǎ guó qǐ méng sī xiǎng jiā lú suō jiù dàn shēng zài lǎo chéng yī zuò gǔ lǎo de zhù zhái lǐ。 yīng guó shī rén bài lún 1816 nián céng zhù zài kē luò ní qū yī dòng míng wéi dí 'ào dà dí de bié shù lǐ。 zài zhè bié shù bù yuǎn chù， shì yīng guó làng màn shī rén xuě lāi de jiù jū。
　　 rì nèi wǎ shì nèi zhí dé yī yóu de yòu： zhù míng de zōng jiào gǎi gé guó jì jì niàn bēi、 shèng－ pí 'āi 'ěr dà jiào táng、 dà jù yuàn、 yì shù yǔ lì shǐ bó wù guǎn、 rì nèi wǎ dà xué děng， zài qíng lǎng de rì zǐ lǐ fàn zhōu lāi méng hú， gèng shì bié yòu yī fān qíng qù。
　　 bā sài 'ěr shì： bā sài 'ěr shì wèi yú ruì shì、 fǎ guó hé dé guó de sān guó jiāo jiè chù， miàn jī 37 píng fāng gōng lǐ， shì qū rén kǒu 17.l wàn， xì quán guó dì sān dà chéng shì。 yīn lāi yīn hé zhī gù， zhōng shì jì de bā sài 'ěr céng duì 'ōu zhōu mào yì qǐ guò zhòng yào zuò yòng， 1833 nián yīn chéng xiāng zhàn zhēng 'ér fēn liè wéi běi bù de bā sài 'ěr ( shì ) hé nán bù de bā sài 'ěr ( xiāng ) liǎng gè bàn zhōu。
　　 zì 19 shì jì chū qǐ， bā sài 'ěr zhú jiàn fā zhǎn chéng wéi yī gè gōng yè chéng shì。 xiàn zài de gōng yè zhù yào yòu huà gōng yī yào、 jī xiè、 shuǐ ní、 fǎng zhì、 shí pǐn、 zhōng biǎo、 yě jīn děng。 shì jiè zhù míng de nuò huá、 luó shì děng huà gōng jí tuán dū shè zài bā sài 'ěr， shǐ tā chéng wéi ruì shì huà xué gōng yè zhōng xīn。 zài zhè liǎng jiā jí tuán jiù yè de zhí gōng jīhū zhàn quán shì jiù yè rén kǒu de yī bàn。
　　 bā sài 'ěr： yě shì ruì shì zhòng yào de jīn róng shì chǎng zhī yī， shì guó jì qīng suàn yínháng hé guó jì chóngjiàn yǔ fā zhǎn yínháng de suǒ zài dì， yě shì bì shǔ de hǎo dì fāng。
　　 bā sài 'ěr jì shì ruì shì de tiě lù shū niǔ， yě shì ruì shì wéi yī tōng xiàng hǎi yáng de hé yùn gǎng kǒu， nián huò wù tūn tù liàng zhàn ruì shì quán bù wài mào huò yùn liàng de yī bàn。
　　 bā sài 'ěr dà xué shì ruì shì zuì gǔ lǎo de dà xué， yǐ yòu 500 duō nián de lì shǐ。 gē tè shì de bā sài 'ěr dà jiào táng jiàn yú 14 shì jì， hóng wěi tǐng bá， bié jù yī gé。 shèng mǎ dīng jiào táng zé shì 11 shì jì zhì 14 shì jì de jiàn zhù。 bā sài 'ěr shì zhèng tīng jiàn yú 16 shì jì， zhě hóng sè de gāo dà mén qiáng shàng， yòu ruì shì gǔ dài zhù míng huà jiā huì zhì de jīng měi cǎi huà。 shì nèi de jīn xīng fàn diàn shì ruì shì quán guó zuì gǔ lǎo de fàn diàn， jiàn yú 1412 nián， huì yòu wǎn qī gē tè shì de cǎi sè tú 'àn。 bā sài 'ěr měi shù bó wù guǎn zài 'ōu zhōu pō fù shèng míng， guǎn nèi chén liè yòu ruì shì zhōng shì jì zhù míng huà jiā hé diāo sù jiā de zuò pǐn hé dà pī xiàn dài huà。 dì chù shì zhōng xīn de bā sài 'ěr bó lǎn huì gòng yòu 4 gè dà xíng zhǎn lǎn guǎn， shì nèi zhǎn qū miàn jī wéi 14 wàn píng fāng mǐ， lù tiān zhǎn qū miàn jī wéi 1 wàn píng mǐ。 měi nián chūn jì dōuyào jǔ bàn guó jì bó lǎn huì。 1984 nián jiàn chéng de bā sài 'ěr guǎng bō diàn shì tǎ gāo dá 250 mǐ， shì ruì shì mù qián zuì gāo de jiàn zhù wù。
　　 luò sāng shì： luò sāng shì wò zhōu de shǒu fǔ， wèi yú lāi méng hú pàn。 shì qū rén kǒu 12 wàn， zhù yào jiǎng fǎ yǔ， shì ruì shì dì wǔ dà chéng shì。
　　 luò sāng， yī zhǒng jiě shì wéi“ shuǐ liú”， lìng yī jiě shì yì wéi“ shí tóu”。 zhōng shì jì shí luò sāng yǐ chéng wéi zhè gè dì qū de zhèng zhì、 jīng jì hé zōng jiào zhōng xīn。 1803 nián yóu wò zhōu yì huì jué dìng chéng wéi wò zhōu de shǒu fǔ。
　　19 shì jì mò， tiě lù de chū xiàn shǐ luò sāng chéng wéi ruì shì fǎ yǔ qū zuì zhòng yào de jiāo tōng shū niǔ。 luò sāng shì wò zhōu gōng yè de jí zhōng dì， zhù yào gōng yè yòu jīng mì jī xiè、 huà gōng、 shí pǐn、 yìn shuà děng。
　　 luò sāng chú yòu liǎng suǒ dà xué ( luò sāng lián bāng gāo gōng hé luò sāng dà xué ) wài， hái yòu gāo děng mào yì xué xiào、 yīnyuè xué yuàn、 shī fàn xué xiào děng。 luò sāng jiǔ diàn guǎn lǐ xué xiào zài shì jiè shàng pō yòu míng qì。
　　 luò sāng qì hòu wēn hé， yǐ shān bàng shuǐ， fēng jǐng yí rén， shì ruì shì de yóu lǎn shèng dì zhī yī， lǚ yóu yè shì gāi dì shōu rù de zhòng yào lái yuán。 zhù yào yóu lǎn dì yòu 12 shì jì de gē tè shì dà jiào táng ? ツ gāng hái ?3 shì jì de shèng－ fú láng suǒ wǎ jiào táng、 shì zhèng tīng、 14 shì jì de shèng－ méi 'ěr chéng bǎo、 zì rán liáo yǎng zhàn， 19 shì jì xiū jiàn de lǚ mì nà 'ěr gōng nèi cháng nián zhǎn chū dà liàng shōu cáng pǐn。 gāi shì xī bù wéi dí qū de luó mǎ bó wù guǎn shōu cáng zhe yòu guān gǔ luó mǎ gǎng kǒu lú zuǒ nà de wén wù。 cǐ wài hái yòu gǔ chéng bó wù guǎn、 wò zhōu lì shǐ bó wù guǎn、 měi shù bó wù guǎn、 zì rán lì shǐ bó wù guǎn děng。
　　 zì 1874 nián ruì shì lián bāng xiàn fǎ guī dìng luò sāng wéi lián bāng zuì gāo sī fǎ jī gòu suǒ zài dì yǐ lái， lián bāng fǎ yuàn jiù yī zhí shè zài cǐ dì。
　　 luò sāng céng shì wài guó liú wáng zhě jù jí de chéng shì。 rú fǎ guó de mǎ lì lù yì sī huáng hòu、 ná pò lún de sān gè xiōng dì、 yì dà lì shāo tàn dǎng rén、 hái yòu 'é guó de gé mìng zhě hé hòu lái de bái 'é děng。 xǔ duō lì shǐ wén huà míng rén yě céng zài cǐ dòu liú， rú mì zhī kǎi wéi cí、 xuě lāi、 bài lún、 dí gèng sī、 dà zhòng mǎ、 yǔ guǒ děng。
　　 luò sāng shì guó jì 'ào lín pǐ kè wěi yuán huì zǒng bù（ IOC） de suǒ zài dì， bìng jiàn yòu 'ào lín pǐ kè bó wù guǎn。
　　 lú sài 'ēn shì： lú sài 'ēn shì shì lú sài 'ēn zhōu de shǒu fǔ， wèi yú ruì shì zhōng bù gāo yuán， zài lú sài 'ēn hú de xī běi、 sū lí shì xī nán duān， luó yī sī hé chuān chéng 'ér guò。 rén kǒu yuē 7 wàn， zhù yào jiǎng dé yǔ。 lú sài 'ēn yuán shì yī gè yú cūn， 8 shì jì jiàn chéng， l178 nián jiàn shì， 1230 nián shèng gē dá suì dào kāi tōng hòu， chéng wéi lián jiē zhōng 'ōu hé nán 'ōu de zhòng yào jiāo tōng shū niǔ hé lāi yīn hé yǔ lún bā dì zhī jiān de zhòng yào mào yì zhōng xīn， yòu mù cái jiā gōng、 huà xué、 jī xiè hé fǎng zhì děng gōng yè。
　　 lú sài 'ēn zì rán jǐng sè yōu měi， lǚ yóu yè xiāng dāng fā dá， shì ruì shì de liáo yǎng、 lǚ yóu shèng dì。 hé yòu 'àn lǎo chéng yǔ hé zuǒ 'àn xīn chéng zhī jiān yòu 7 zuò qiáo liáng xiāng lián， qí zhōng liǎng zuò gǔ dài mù qiáo xíng shì jīng měi。 zuì dà de mù qiáo hé yǔ qí xiāng lián de shuǐ tǎ jiàn yú 1300 nián， shì 'ōu zhōu zuì gǔ lǎo de mù qiáo， yǐ qí lì shǐ hé měi xué jià zhí chéng wéi gāi shì de xiàng zhēng hé ruì shì rén de jiāo 'ào， kě xī zhè zuò mù qiáo yú 1993 nián yī yè zhī jiān bèi dà huǒ fén huài， cì nián chóngxīn xiū fù。 lǎo chéng nèi yòu 14 shì jì de chéng qiáng hé wén yì fù xīng shí qī de jiàn zhù、 lǎo shì zhèng tīng (1602 héng 1606)、 lì shǐ bó wù guǎn、 jiāo tōng bó wù guǎn děng。 shì nèi de bīng chuān gōng yuán lǐ yòu liǎng wàn nián qián bīng chuān de yí jì hé guān yú bīng chuān shí qī de zhǎn lǎn。 zài xī 'ěr sī guǎng chǎng kě yǐ xún mì dào dé guó shī rén gē dé de gù jū。
　　 ruì shì zhù yào míng shèng hé jǐng diǎn
　　 wàn guó gōng：
　　 wàn guó gōng guò qù shì guó jì lián méng de suǒ zài dì， ér jīn shì lián hé guó zhù rì nèi wǎ bàn shì chù de zǒng bù。 tā shì rì nèi wǎ zuò wéi yī gè guó jì chéng shì de xiàng zhēng， yě shì shì jiè jìn dài shǐ de yī gè suō yǐng。
　　 wàn guó gōng zuò luò zài 'ā lì yà nà gōng yuán nèi， ā lì yà nà gōng yuán dì chù lāi méng hú yòu 'àn de qiū líng dì dài shàng， zhàn dì miàn jī 25 gōng qǐng ( yuē hé 375 mǔ )。 zhàn zài yuán nèi gāo chù kě yǐ fǔ kàn lāi méng hú， yáo wàng 'ōu zhōu zuì gāo de shān fēng bó lǎng fēng。 zhè zuò gōng yuán yuán wéi lè wéi lì 'ào jiā zú de sī chǎn， jū sī tǎ fū？ lè wéi lì 'ào shì zhè yī jiā zú de zuì hòu yī dài， tā shì yī wèi zuò jiā， yě shì yì shù pǐn shōu cáng jiā， tā de mǔ qīn jiào 'ā lì yà nà。 dāng tā mǔ qīn wáng gù yǐ hòu， tā bǎ yuán zǐ qǔ míng wéi 'ā lì yà nà， yǐ biǎo shì duì mǔ qīn de huái niàn。 yuán zhōng hái yòu yī gè 'ā lì yà nà bó wù guǎn， shì lè wéi lì 'ào wéi cún fàng tā suǒ shōu cáng de zhōng guó hé rì běn de dà liàng cí qì 'ér jiàn zào de。 1890 nián， jū sī tǎ fū？ lè wéi lì 'ào zài lín sǐ qián jiāng 'ā lì yà nà gōng yuán hé 'ā lì yà nà bó wù guǎn yí zèng gěi rì nèi wǎ shì。 zài qí yí zhǔ zhōng yòu sān gè guī dìng： yī、 tā sǐ hòu， líng mù yào xiū jiàn zài zhè gè yuán nèi， rì nèi wǎ shì zhèng fǔ bì xū yǒng yuǎn fù zé bǎo hù hé wéi xiū， bù dé huǐ huài； èr、 ā lì yà nà gōng yuán bù néng wéi sī rén suǒ yòu， bì xū xiàng gōng zhòng kāi fàng； sān、 àn zhào lè wéi lì 'ào jiā zú de chuán tǒng， zài yuán nèi yào jì xù sì yǎng kǒng què。 rì nèi wǎ shì zhèng fǔ tóng yì bìng zūn shǒu zhè sān tiáo guī dìng。 dāng nián xiǎng yòu duì 'ā lì yà nà gōng yuán de shǐ yòng quán de“ guó lián” hé xiàn zài de lián hé guó zhù rì nèi wǎ bàn shì chù yě tóng yì kè shǒu zhè sān tiáo guī dìng。
　　 wàn guó gōng yú 1929 nián yóu“ guó lián” zhuóshǒu xīng jiàn， dāng shí céng yòu 360 míng shè jì shī cānyù shè jì。“ guó lián” tiǎo xuǎn liǎo wǔ míng zuì jiā jiàn zhù shī， qí zhōng zuì zhù yào de shì yì dà lì rén kǎ luò bù？ luó qí hé fǎ guó rén yǎ kè？ kǎ lǚ。 lì shí qī nián， dà shà yú 1936 nián luò chéng。
　　 jiàn chéng hòu de“ guó lián” dà shà héng héng wàn guó gōng， zhàn dì miàn jī 18600 píng fāng mǐ， zhěng gè jiàn zhù miàn jī bǐ zhù míng de fán 'ěr sài gōng hái yào dà。
　　 lián hé guó chéng lì yǐ hòu， jiāng qí zhù rì nèi wǎ bàn shì chù shè zài wàn guó gōng。 1969 nián， lián hé guó jué dìng kuò jiàn wàn guó gōng， yóu mì shū cháng wú dān diàn jī， zài wàn guó gōng běi cè dòng gōng xīng jiàn xīn yì。 wèile shǐ xīn yì néng yǔ lǎo lóu de jiàn zhù fēng gé hé 'ā lǐ yà nà gōng yuán de zì rán huán jìng xiāng xié diào， tóng shí yòu néng fú hé shí jì de xū yào， yóu yīng、 fǎ、 yì sān guó de jiàn zhù shī zǔ chéng de shè jì wěi yuán huì zǎi xì xuǎn zé liǎo shè jì fāng 'àn， bìng cǎi yòng xiàn dài huà de jiàn zhù cái liào hé jì shù， lì shí wǔ nián fāng shǐ jiàn chéng。 1973 nián， lián hé guó mì shū cháng wǎ 'ěr dé hǎi mǔ zhù chí luò chéng diǎn lǐ。 xīn jiàn de lóu yì shè jì xīn yíng， zào xíng yōu měi， yǔ yuán lái de guó lián dà shà shí fēn hé xié dì róng hé zài yī qǐ， xīn jiàn de lóu yì tōng guò yī tiáo kōng zhōng zǒu láng jí“ tiān qiáo” yǔ lǎo lóu xiāng xián jiē。 wú lùn cóng tā de xiàn tiáo、 gāo dù huò shì zhěng gè wài xíng lái kàn， tā tóng wàn guó guān de lǎo lóu dū xiāng pèi dé tǐ， kě yǐ shuō shì zhū lián bì hé， xiāng dé yì zhāng。
　　 kuò jiàn hòu de wàn guó guān gòng yòu 50 gè mén， zǒng cháng dù wéi 575 mǐ， zhàn dì miàn jī wéi 32600 píng fāng mǐ， gòng yòu bàn gōng shì 1600 gè hé dà xiǎo huì yì shì 34 gè， zǒng de kōng jiān róng liàng shì 820， 000 lì fāng mǐ， lóu miàn miàn jī shì 32， 000 píng fāng mǐ。
　　 yuán wàn guó gōng chéng shuāng mǎ tí xíng， yī gè duì zhe lāi méng hú， yī gè duì zhe rǔ lā shān。 cháo xiàng hú miàn zhè yī cè mǎ tí xíng de sān yì jiàn zhù jié gòu zhù yào bāo kuò：
　　 yī、 zuǒ yì tú shū guǎn， zhè gè tú shū guǎn shì“ guó lián” zài jiàn zào wàn guó gōng shí yòng měi guó rén yuē hàn？ D？ luò kè fěi qín juān zèng de 'èr bǎi wàn měi yuán jiàn lì qǐ lái de。 mù qián gòng cáng shū yī bǎi wàn cè， lìng yòu gè guó chū bǎn de gè zhǒng qī kān yī wàn zhǒng， shì shì jiè shàng zuì dà de guó jì xìng tú shū guǎn。 guǎn nèi yòu kuān chǎng de yuè lǎn shì， hái yòu yī gè guó jì lián méng zhǎn lǎn guǎn， zhǎn chū“ guó lián” de lì shǐ wén xiàn、 tú piàn hé shí wù。 cǐ wài， tú shū guǎn hái shōu cáng yòu shì jiè gè guó de zhèng jiè yào rén yǔ lián hé guó zhī jiān wǎng lái de qīn bǐ xìn hé gè zhǒng shǒu gǎo。 zhè xiē zhòng yào de wén xiàn dū jí zhōng zài 'èr lóu yī gè zhuān mén de chén liè shì nèi。 shì shí shàng， wàn guó gōng zhī suǒ yǐ zuò luò zài zhè 'ér， zhèng shì yóu yú zhè tú shū guǎn de yuán gù。 yuán lái jìhuà jiāng wàn guó gōng jiàn zài“ guó lián” suǒ yōng yòu de yī kuài dì miàn shàng， jí xiàn zài de lín hú“ xiū qì gōng yuán”， dāng chū yě méi yòu jiàn zào zhè yàng yī zuò dà xíng tú shū guǎn de jìhuà。
　　 èr、 yòu yì lǐ shì lóu， lǐ shì tīng shì wàn guó guān lǐ zuì piào liàng de yī gè dà tīng， yòu míng xī bān yá tīng， yīn wéi tīng nèi de dà xíng bì huà shì xī bān yá míng huà jiā yuē sè？ mǎ lì yà？ sài 'ěr tè de zuò pǐn。 19341936 nián jiān， sài 'ěr tè zài tā bā lí de huà shì lǐ yòng liǎo zhěng zhěng liǎng nián de shí jiān， cái wán chéng zhè yī zǔ bù xiǔ de míng zuò。 huà miàn chéng jīn sè yǔ shēn hè sè， huà de zhù tí shì： zhèng yì、 lì liàng、 hé píng、 fǎ lǜ yǔ zhì huì。
　　 lǐ shì huì yì tīng bù jǐn shì wàn guó guān lǐ zuì piào liàng de yī gè tīng， ér qiě yě shì yī gè zhòng yào de huì yì tīng。 àn zhào lián hé guó bù chéng wén de guī dìng， fán shè jí dào guó jì 'ān quán wèn tí de huì yì， huò zhě bǐ jiào jǐn jí de huì yì， jūn zài lǐ shì huì yì tīng zhào kāi。 1954 nián， zhōu zǒng lǐ qīn zì cān jiā de yìn zhī huì yì jiù shì zài zhè gè dà tīng jǔ xíng de。 lǐ shì tīng néng róng nà 500 rén， tā de tè sè zhī yī shì néng gòu 'àn zhào měi cì huì yì de xū yào tiáozhěng huì yì zhuō de wèi zhì。
　　 sān、 zhōng jiān bù fēn shì dà huì táng， dà huì táng qián miàn de dà guò dào shí jì shàng shì yī jiān xiū xī tīng， shí fēn kuān chǎng gāo dà， shì“ guó lián” yòng gè chéng yuán guó zèng sòng de cái liào jiàn zào de。 qiáng shàng qiǎn lǜ sè de dà lǐ shí shì ruì diǎn de， shēn lǜ sè de shì yì dà lì de， zhū hóng sè de dì bǎn dà lǐ shí shì fēn lán de， dì bǎn shàng de hēi bái dà lǐ shí zhuāng shì shì bǐ lì shí de。 guò tīng de qiáng shàng xuán guà zhe liǎng fú dà xíng bì huà， shì wàn guó gōng de zhù yào shè jì zhě zhī yī yǎ kè？ kǎ lǚ de fū rén huì zhì de。 nèi róng qǔ zì《 shèng jīng》 shàng de gù shì， yī fú xiàng zhēng zhe zhàn zhēng， yī fú xiàng zhēng zhe hé píng。
　　 dà huì táng yǔ bā lí gē jù yuàn yī yàng dà， nèi yòu liǎng qiān gè xí wèi， lìng yòu tóng shēng chuán yì xí、 jì zhě xí hé guān zhòng xí。 1962 nián lián hé guó céng jìn xíng kuò jiàn hé zhuāng xiū。 lì shǐ shàng zhè lǐ céng jǔ xíng guò xǔ duō zhòng yào huì yì。 xiàn zài， lián hé guó de yī xiē dà xíng huì yì rú cái jūn、 hǎi yáng fǎ huì yì děng jūn zài cǐ jǔ xíng； shì jiè wèi shēng zǔ zhì hé guó jì láo gōng zǔ zhì de nián huì， yědōu zài dà huì yì tīng lǐ zhào kāi。
　　 dà huì táng de liǎng cè lìng yòu 'èr shí 'èr gè huì yì tīng， dà xiǎo bù děng。 zuì xiǎo de yòu wǔ shí gè xí wèi， zuì dà de yòu sān bǎi gè xí wèi。 ruò liú xīn guān chá yī xià zhè xiē huì yì tīng， biàn huì fā xiàn tā men de nèi bù zhuāng shì fēng gé jiǒng rán bù tóng。 yuán lái， zhè 'èr shí 'èr gè huì yì tīng yóu“ guó lián” de bù fēn chuàng shǐ guó fù zé zhuāng shì， měi gè guó jiā fù zé yī gè， suǒ yǐ cái xíng chéng liǎo zài fēng gé shàng de qiān chā wàn bié。
　　 xīn jiàn de lóu yì zài jiàn zhù shàng kě fēn liǎng bù fēn：
　　 yī shì xī cè de qī céng mì shū dà lóu， nèi yòu liù gè xiǎo huì yì tīng hé qī bǎi gè bàn gōng shì， lián hé guó liù zhǒng gōng zuò yǔ yán ( yīng wén、 fǎ wén、 zhōng wén、 ā lā bó wén、 xī bān yá wén hé 'é wén ) de fān yì kē jiù shè zài nà lǐ。 èr shì dōng cè de liǎng gè jù dà de yuán zhù tǐ jiàn zhù， měi gè yuán zhù tǐ nèi yòu shàng、 xià liǎng gè huì yì tīng， gòng sì gè。 shàng céng de huì yì tīng yòu jiǔ bǎi duō gè xí wèi， xià céng de yòu liù bǎi duō gè。 qí zhōng zuì dà de yī gè huì yì tīng jiào ruì shì tīng， shì zuò wéi duì ruì shì zhèng fǔ wéi jiàn zào xīn lóu 'ér juān zèng de sì bǎi wàn ruì shì fǎ láng de biǎo zhāng hé jì niàn。
　　 xīn lóu dōng cè kuān chǎng de guò dào shàng， shè yòu kā fēi jiān hé xǔ duō zuò yǐ， gōng dài biǎo men xiǎo qì zhī yòng。 dōng biān shì yī dǔ jù dà de bō lí qiáng， zhè dǔ bō lí qiáng cháng 80 mǐ、 gāo 14 mǐ。 měi yī kuài bō lí gāo 13 mǐ、 kuān 2.25 mǐ， zhòng 1.2 dūn， xiāng bō lí de zǒng miàn jī wéi 9,250 píng fāng mǐ。 cóng shì nèi jiù kàn dào lāi méng hú de měi lì fēng guāng，“ róng yù yuàn” yě jìn shōu yǎn dǐ。
　　 róng yù yuàn shì wàn guó gōng zhù lóu zhèng miàn de dà yuàn zǐ， shì 'ā lì yà nà gōng yuán de zhù yào zǔ chéng bù fēn。 zhè lǐ dì shì kāi kuò， lǜ cǎo rú yīn， huán jìng hěn měi。 shù kē bǎi nián yǐ shàng de gāo dà gǔ sōng， shēng jī yǐ rán shí fēn wàng shèng。 yuàn zhōng yāng yòu yī gè xiǎo xiǎo de shuǐ chí， nà shì lián hé guó nànmín shì wù gāo jí zhuān yuán gōng shǔ de mù juān chí， lǐ biān cháng yòu bù shǎo yóu rén tóu xià de yìng bì。 chí zǐ zhōng jiān yòu yī gè jù xíng hún tiān yí， shàng biān yòu dài biǎo tiān tǐ shí 'èr gōng de diāo kè， shì měi guó wéi jì niàn wēi 'ěr xùn zǒng tǒng 'ér zèng gěi lián hé guó de。
　　 róng yù yuàn de zuǒ biān， yòu yī gè bù tài xiǎn yǎn de shí guān huán rào zài yī juàn cāng sōng cuì bǎi zhōng jiān， zhè jiù shì 'ā lì yà nà gōng yuán de qián zhù rén jū sī tǎ fū？ lè wéi lì 'ào de líng mù， zhè shì sǐ zhě shēng qián zì jǐ shè jì de。 líng mù dōng biān yòu sū lián zèng sòng de yī zuò zhēng fú yǔ zhòu jì niàn bēi hé yī zuò diāo xiàng。 jì niàn bēi gāo 28 mǐ， wài miàn xiāng yòu tài jīn shǔ zhì chéng de báobǎn， tài shì háng tiān fēi jī yòng de yī zhǒng jí nài gāo wēn de cái liào。 líng mù běi cè， yòu yī gè tí wéi“ jiā” de diāo sù zuò pǐn， tā shì qiū jí 'ěr sūn nǚ sāng dí sī fū rén wèiguó jì 'ér tóng jié (1979 nián ) ér tè bié zhì zuò zèng sòng gěi 'ér tóng jī jīn huì de。
　　 lián hé guó zhù rì nèi wǎ bàn shì chù zǒng bù jiù shè zài wàn guó gōng nèi， tā yóu yī wèi lián hé guó fù mì shū cháng jiān bàn shì chù zhù rèn lái lǐng dǎo。 jù tǒng jì， mù qián yǐ yòu 140 gè guó jiā zài rì nèi wǎ shè yòu zhù lián hé guó rì nèi wǎ bàn shì chù cháng shè dài biǎo tuán， qí zhōng yòu 61 gè guó jiā yòu cháng shè cái jūn dài biǎo tuán， lìng yòu 8 gè guó jiā hé dì qū jí tuán yòu cháng shè guān chá yuán。 wàn guó gōng lǐ yòu sān qiān duō míng gōng zuò rén yuán， wéi huì yì tí gōng gè fāng miàn de fú wù gōng zuò。 1980 nián， céng zài wàn guó gōng jǔ xíng liǎo 7,500 duō cì huì yì， qí zhōng 4,000 cì huì yì yòng tóng shēng chuán yì。 lián hé guó měi nián yù suàn de 30％ bō gěi lián hé guó zhù rì nèi wǎ bàn shì chù， lìng wài zhù rì nèi wǎ bàn shì chù hái yòu zì jǐ de jǐng chá、 yóu zhèng hé tōng xùn xì tǒng。 zhù míng de lián hé guó jí yóu bó wù guǎn jiù zài wàn guó gōng nèi， tā cháng nián zhǎn chū cóng dì 'èr cì shì jiè dà zhàn zhì jìn qī de yóu piào hé wén jiàn。
　　 zài bàn shì chù nèi， zhǐ yòu shì xiān dé dào lián hé guó zhù rì nèi wǎ bàn shì chù zhù rèn de shòu quán， cái kě yǐ shí shī ruì shì de xíng fǎ hé mín shì fǎ lǜ。 zài rì nèi wǎ shì nèi， zhè lǐ yǎn rán chéng liǎo guó zhōng zhī guó。
　　 ào lín pǐ kè bó wù guǎn：
　　 ào lín pǐ kè bó wù guǎn wèi yú luò sāng lāi méng hú pàn， 1993 nián jiàn chéng。 bó wù guǎn mén kǒu pái fàng zhe xī là yì shù lì zhù， rán shāo zhe 'ào yùn zhī huǒ。 zhǎn tīng yuē 3400 píng fāng mǐ， cáng yòu yǔ 'ào yùn huì yòu guān de gè lèi yì shù pǐn、 jì niàn pǐn， qí zhōng bāo kuò yóu piào、 huǒ jù、 ào yùn huì zhāng tiē huà、 jì niàn bì、 jiǎng zhāng hé huì huà děng。 guǎn nèi diàn yǐng tīng fàng yìng jiè shào 'ào lín pǐ kè bǎi nián fā zhǎn shǐ、 lì jiè xià jì hé dōng jì 'ào yùn huì shèng kuàng de diàn yǐngpiān， shēn shòu lǚ yóu zhě huān yíng。 gāi guǎn hái yòu yī gè shì jiè yī liú de yán jiū zhōng xīn， shè yòu tú shū guǎn、 lù xiàng bù、 tú piàn shì hé zī liào zhōng xīn， yōng yòu zuì xiān jìn de shēng、 guāng、 diàn hé duō méi tǐ shì tīng shè bèi， jīng cháng jǔ bàn gè zhǒng zhǎn lǎn、 bào gào huì、 tǎo lùn huì。
　　 jù tǒng jì， cān guān zhě 60％ yǐ shàng lái zì guó wài。 gāi guǎn měi nián cái zhèng yù suàn 1000 wàn ruì láng。 1995 nián， suǒ chǎn shēng de zhí jiē jīng jì xiào yì dá 1 yì ruì láng。
　　 xī yōng gǔ bǎo :
　　 xī yōng gǔ bǎo shì ruì shì zuì fù shèng míng de gǔ jì zhī yī， wèi yú rì nèi wǎ hú de dōng duān， tū chū yú rì nèi wǎ hú shàng de yóu jù shí zǔ chéng de xiǎo bàn dǎo shàng。 zài qīng tóng qì shí dài jiù yòu rén jū wǎng， hòu lái luó mǎ rén zài cǐ 'ān yíng zhā zhài， xiū zhù fáng yù gōng shì。 xī yōng bàn dǎo zài jǐ yì zhù rén zhī hòu， yú shí yī shì jì zhì shí sān shì jì zhī jiān， zài SAVOYEN jiā zú shǒu lǐ jīng guò dà guī mó kuò jiàn， jī běn xíng chéng xiàn zài rén men kàn dào de jí jūn shì fáng yù、 cāng chǔ、 láo yù、 jiào táng hé guì zú gōng tíng děng gōng néng yú yī tǐ de fēng bì shì de fēng jiàn gǔ bǎo。 zì 1536 nián qǐ， gǔ bǎo bèi bó 'ěr ní rén suǒ zhàn yòu， 1798 nián wò zhōu qǐ yì hòu， gǔ bǎo zhuǎn rù wò zhōu zhèng fǔ míng xià。 gǔ bǎo suǒ chù wèi zhì zhèng hǎo yī biān yǐ shān， yī biān lín shuǐ， shì lì shǐ shàng ruì shì gè dì tōng wǎng yì dà lì de yī tiáo zǒu láng， lì dài tǒng zhì zhě biàn zài cǐ fēn bīng bǎ shǒu， rú tóng 'ě zhù yān hóu， yǐ kòng zhì nán lái běi wǎng， zhēng shōu juān shuì。 jiè zhù yú bǎo cún wán hǎo de shí 'èr shì jì de jiàn zhù tú zhǐ， shí jiǔ shì jì mò jìn xíng de zuì hòu yī cì xiū shàn gōng zuò dé yǐ shùn lì jìn xíng。
　　 zōng jiào gǎi gé guó jì jì niàn bēi：
　　 zài rì nèi wǎ dà xué de hòu biān， yán gǔ chéng qiáng de yí zhǐ yòu yī dǔ jù dà de qiáng， míng yuē zōng jiào gǎi gé guó jì jì niàn bēi， yòu chēng zōng jiào gǎi gé zhě qiáng。
　　 gāi jì niàn bēi gāo 7 mǐ， cháng 1OO duō mǐ， shì 19O9 nián wéi jì niàn zōng jiào gǎi gé yùn dòng de xiān qū rén wù jiā 'ěr wén dàn chén sì bǎi zhōu nián 'ér xiū jiàn de。 wèile jiàn zào jì niàn bēi， dāng shí céng zhuān mén chéng lì liǎo zōng jiào gǎi gé guó jì jì niàn bēi wěi yuán huì， bìng zài quán shì jiè fàn guó nèi jǔ bàn shè jì jìng sài。 wěi yuán huì jīng guò fǎn fù píng xuǎn， zuì hòu xuǎn dìng liǎo ruì shì luò sāng shì sì míng jiàn zhù shī de lián hé shè jì fāng 'àn， lì shí bā nián， yú 1917 nián shǐ gào jiàn chéng。
　　 zōng jiào gǎi gé guó jì jì niàn bēi guī mó hóng dà， jìzǎi de nèi róng shí fēn fēng fù。 qiáng de shàng fāng， cóng zuǒ dào yòu yòu yīháng lā dīng wén dà zì：“ hēi 'àn guò qù shì guāng míng”。 qiáng de zhèng zhōng yāng， yòu sì gè gāo dà de rén wù diāo xiàng bìng pái 'ér lì， cóng zuǒ qǐ yǐ cì shì fǎ hǎi 'ěr、 jiā 'ěr wén、 bài cí hé nuò kè sī。 liǎng biān lìng yòu liù gè shāo xiǎo yī diǎn de rén wù diāo xiàng， dōushì shí liù shì jì zài 'ōu zhōu gè dì jī jí gǔ chuī bìng zhì lì yú zōng jiào gǎi gé de zhù míng rén wù。 chú liǎo dà xíng de fú diāo xiàng wài， qiáng de xià bù lìng yòu bā fú xiǎo xíng fú diāo tú 'àn hé wén zì shuō míng。 zhè dǔ zōng jiào gǎi gé guó jì jì niàn bēi， zài xiàn liǎo shí liù shì jì 'ōu zhōu zōng jiào gǎi gé yùn dòng de chǎng miàn， yě jì shù liǎo rì nèi wǎ zhī suǒ yǐ chéng wéi“ xīn jiào de luó mǎ” de yóu lái yǔ shǐ mò。
　　 lāi méng hú：
　　 zài ruì shì 1498 gè húpō zhōng， lāi méng hú shì zuì dà de yī gè。 tā yě shì xī 'ōu zuì dà de húpō， miàn jī 582 píng fāng gōng lǐ， xù shuǐ liàng dá 890 yì lì fāng mǐ， qí zhōng xīn xiàn de cháng dù wéi 72.3 gōng lǐ， zhōu cháng 167 gōng lǐ； zài ruì shì yī cè de běi 'àn（ sú chēng yòu 'àn） cháng 95 gōng lǐ， zài fǎ guó yī cè de nán 'àn（ sú chēng zuǒ 'àn） cháng 72 gōng lǐ。 hú de zuì kuān chù wéi 14,000 mǐ， zuì shēn chù wéi 310 mǐ。
　　 lāi méng hú shì yī gè bīng qì hú。 jù shuō zài dì sì jì bīng qī， fā yuán yú 'ā 'ěr bēi sī shān de luó nà hé zài 'āi kè lǚ zé dì qū bèi bīng qì wù zhì suǒ zǔ duàn， yīn cǐ huì shuǐ chéng hú。 dāng shí， hú miàn yī zhí shàng shēng dào hǎi bá 425 mǐ。 hòu lái， luó nà hé dé dào liǎo xīn de chū kǒu， hú shuǐ cái zhú jiàn xià jiàng。 mù qián， lāi méng hú de hǎi bá wéi 372 mǐ。
　　 xiàn zài， gòng yòu 41 tiáo hé、 299 gè bīng chuān de róng shuǐ zhù rù lāi méng hú， qí zhōng zuì dà de hé shì luó nà hé， tā yǐ měi miǎo 180 lì fāng mǐ de liú liàng cóng hú de zuì dōng bù liú rù， yòu zài rì nèi wǎ cóng hú zhōng liú chū。 yóu yú luó nà hé fā yuán yú 'ā 'ěr bēi sī shān， shuǐ cóng shān zhōng liú chū， liú shì tuān jí， jiā dài yòu bù shǎo ní shā， jù gū jì， tā měi nián dài rù lāi méng hú de ní shā yuē yòu 400 wàn dūn。 yīn cǐ yòu rén shuō， luó nà hé cù chéng liǎo lāi méng hú， dàn què yòu zài bù duàn dì tiánsāi tā。
　　 lāi méng hú zhōng， zuì yǐn rén zhù mùdì shì yī gè jù dà de rén gōng pēn quán。 nà chōng tiān 'ér qǐ de gāo dà shuǐ zhù， cóng hú miàn zhí shè tiān jì， wèi wéi zhuàng guān。 zhè gè rén gōng pēn quán zuì chū shì 1891 nián jiàn chéng， dāng shí suǒ pēn shè de gāo dù zhǐ yòu 90 mǐ。 1958 nián gǎi jiàn hòu zhì jīn。 tā de dòng lì shì liǎng zǔ 'ān zhuāng zài shuǐ xià de shuǐ bèng， zǒng zhòng wéi 16 dūn， yóu měi fēn zhōng dá 1,500 zhuǎn de 500 qiān wǎ 2,400 fú de fā dòng jī dài dòng。 měi gè shuǐ bèng de gōng shuài wéi 1,360 pǐ mǎ lì， pēn quán de liú liàng wéi měi miǎo 500 gōng shēng， pēn kǒu chù de shuǐ sù dá měi xiǎo shí 200 gōng lǐ， jìn rù pēn shuǐ guǎn zhōng de shuǐ de yā lì wéi 16 gè dà qì yā， shuǐ zhù de gāo dù zài wú fēng shí kě dá 140 mǐ， tíng liú zài kōng zhōng de shuǐ liàng dá 7 dūn zhī duō。 shuǐ cóng pēn zuǐ pēn chū dá dào dǐng fēng zài huí dào shuǐ miàn， měi gè huí hé wéi 16 miǎo。
　　 lāi méng hú shì měi lì de。 zì gǔ yǐ lái， xǔ duō míng zuò jiā、 dà shī réndōu zàn měi、 ōu gē guò tā。 hēng lì？ zhān mǔ sī chēng tā shì“ chū qí de lán sè de hú”； bài lún zé bǎ tā bǐ yù chéng yī miàn jīng yíng de jìng zǐ，“ yòu zhe chén sī suǒ xū yào de yǎng liào hé kōng qì”； bā 'ěr zhā kè zé bǎ tā shuō chéng shì“ ài qíng de tóng yì cí”。 jīn rì， zài gǎng wān liǎng biān lǜ shù yǎn yìng zhī jiān jiàn qǐ de yī dòng dòng piào liàng de bié shù hé háo zhái， yòu gěi lāi méng hú zēng tiān liǎo jǐ fēn xiù sè。
　　 lāi yīn pù bù：
　　 lāi yīn pù bù (Rheinfall) wèi yú ruì shì shā fū háo sēn zhōu hé sū lí shì zhōu jiāo jiè chù de lāi yīn hé shàng。 pù bù zuì kuān chù 150 mǐ， zuì dà luò chā 21 mǐ， shuǐ shēn 13 mǐ。 xià jì píng jūn liú liàng měi miǎo 700 lì fāng mǐ。 lāi yīn pù bù shì 'ōu zhōu zuì dà de pù bù。
　　 lāi yīn pù bù yǐ yòu l wàn duō nián lì shǐ。 2 wàn nián qián shàng wú pù bù， hòu yīn bīng chuān huó dòng hé lāi yīn hé gǎi dào， xíng chéng liǎo xiàn zài de jǐng xiàng。
　　 xiǎo chéng yīng tè lā gēn：
　　 yīng tè lā gēn（ INTERLAKEN， jí“ hú jiān” zhī yì） shǔ bó 'ěr ní zhōu， jù lí bó 'ěr ní shì yuē 50 gōng lǐ， dì chù tú 'ēn hú hé bù lǐ yīn cí hú zhī jiān， hǎi bá zhǐ yòu 56470 mǐ， shì ruì shì zhù míng de fēng jǐng qū zhī yī。 zhè lǐ qún shān huán bào， lǜ sè cǎo chǎng guǎng kuò kāi chǎng， ruì shì zhù míng de shàonǚ fēng zhōng nián bái xuě guān dǐng， dàoyìng lǜ sè hú zhōng， yuǎn shān jìn shuǐ， hú guāng liàn yàn， zhì shēn cǐ dì， rú zài huà zhōng。
　　 yīng tè lā gēn zhǐ yòu gù dìng jū mín 13,000 rén， dàn měi dào xià jì， biàn yóu kè yún jí， cān tīng mǎn zuò， tíng chē chǎng yědōu shí fēn jǐn zhāng， bì xū jié zú xiān bù， cái néng bì miǎn xiàng yú。 chéng nèi zuì fán huá de dà jiē míng jiào huò hè jiē， wéi duō lì yà fēng gé de fàn diàn、 cān guǎn、 shāng diàn děngdōu yún jí zhè lǐ。 huò hè jiē lǜ yìn jiā dào， zǒu xiàng bǐ zhí， cháng 1 gōng lǐ bàn， yě shì yī gè sàn bù de lǐ xiǎng chǎng suǒ。 jiē shàng hái yòu mǎ lā chē liàng kě gōng yóu rén dōu fēng， zuò zài chē lǐ yáo wàng shàonǚ fēng de róng zī， zhēn lìng rén liú lián wàng fǎn。
　　 tú 'ēn hú：
　　 yīng tè lā gēn shì xī miàn shì tú 'ēn hú， dōng miàn shì bù lǐ 'ēn cí hú。 liǎng hú dū wéi xiá cháng xíng， lüè xiàng běi qiáo， jiā zài yī qǐ xiàng yī wān zhōng jiān duàn kāi de xīn yuè。 qí zhōng tú 'ēn hú miàn jī jiào dà， dàn hú shuǐ bù shēn， yóu rén kě chéng chuán chàng yóu， yě kě qū chē huò dā huǒ chē yán hú guān guāng。 líng lóng de cūn zhuāng huò gāo qī pō gǎng， huò yǐ lì shuǐ biān， zhuāng diǎn zhe dà zì rán de yāo mèi。
　　
　　 hú de běi 'àn yòu yī tiáo gōng lù wēi yí xiàng qián， yòu shí jīng guò shān jiǎo， yòu shí yòu yán shēn zài hú biān。 liǎng cè shì rú huà de cūn zhuāng、 níng jìng de shù lín。 ào bó léi fēn cūn zhōng yòu yī suǒ zhōng shì jì de chéng bǎo chù lì hú pàn， yǐ 'àn dāng nián fēng gé zhòng jiā xiū qì。 cóng běi 'àn hái kě gé zhe lín lín hú bō nán wàng 'ā 'ěr bēi sī shān， bié yòu yī fān qíng qù。
　　
　　 yǔ hú tóng míng de tú 'ēn shì shì yī gè jǐng wù yí rén de gǔ chéng， zài tú 'ēn hú de xī běi duān。 shì nèi yòu gè 12 shì jì mò de gǔ bǎo， nà shì zhā líng gēn jiā zú yī gè gōng jué dǎ bài tú sī dāng dì guì zú hòu jiàn zào de。 tú 'ēn chéng zài 'ā 'ěr hé liú chū tú 'ēn hú bù yuǎn chù， hé zài xià yóu sān sì shí gōng lǐ biàn shì ruì shì shǒu dū bó 'ěr ní。 chéng de zǒng tǐ shè jì shí fēn bié zhì。 lǎo chéng zhōng xīn shì hé zhōng yī gè xiá cháng de dǎo yǔ， shì gè yōu měi de sàn bù chǎng suǒ。 hé běi 'àn shì chéng shì de zhù tǐ， zuì fán huá、 yě zuì yòu qù de jiē dào jiào hǎo tè gā sài ( yì wéi“ dà mǎ lù” )。 jiē fēn shàng xià liǎng céng， bàng biān dōuyòu shāng diàn； rén zài bǎi zhe xiān huā de shàng céng xíng zǒu， jiǎo cǎi de shí jì shì xià céng shāng diàn de wū dǐng。 jiē shàng hái yòu yī gè dài dǐng de tī dào， tōng wǎng pō shàng de gǔ bǎo hé jiào táng。 zhè tī dào cáng zài dà mǎ lù shàng céng 55 hào hé 57 hào fáng wū zhī jiān， hěn bù xiǎn yǎn， róng yì bèi yóu rén cuò guò。
　　
　　 tú 'ēn gǔ bǎo shì yī gè diāo bǎo jiàn zhù qún， zhù tǐ jiàn zhù chéng yī zuò fāng xíng tǎ， sì jiǎo gè yòu yī gè jiǎo tǎ。 zhù tǎ nèi yòu sān céng guī lì shǐ bó wù guǎn (1888 nián jiàn ) shǐ yòng， zhǎn pǐn shì gǔ bīng qì、 gǔ guà tǎn， hái yòu ruì shì jūn fú jí wǔ qì de lì dài yǎn biàn。
　　
　　 shī pí cí fēng jǐng qū：
　　
　　 shī pí cí zhèn wèi yú bó 'ěr ní dōng nán sān shí duō gōng lǐ chù、 tú 'ēn hú nán 'àn yī shuǐ wān biān shàng， hǎi bá 628 mǐ， shǔ bó 'ěr ní gāo yuán。 zhè lǐ bì shuǐ rú jìng， xuě fēng huán bào， kōng qì qīng xīn， shì ruì shì zhù míng de xiū yǎng hé shuǐ shàng yùn dòng shèng dì。
　　
　　 shī pí cí gǔ bǎo shǐ jiàn yú 1200 nián； wài bù jiàn zhù fēng gé wéi zhōng shì jì bó 'ěr ní shì， nèi bù zhuāng shì zé róng hé liǎo gē tè、 wén yì fù xīng hé bā luó kè děng yì shù xíng shì， zhì pǔ diǎn yǎ， shì ruì shì bù duō de gǔ jì zhī yī。 gǔ bǎo céng shì bó 'ěr ní zhí zhèng guān de xià gōng， gù bù tóng yú 'ōu zhōu qí tā gǔ chéng chí， bìng wú hù chéng yù dí zhī shè shī， ér zhù yào shì jū zhù gōng néng。 gǔ bǎo dì xià yě yǐ pú táo jiǔ jiào dài tì liǎo guān yā fú lǔ de láo yù。 tíng yuàn nán duān shì yī zuò jiàn yú gōng yuán 762 nián de xiǎo jiào táng， jiān jù zǎo qī luó mǎ bó 'ěr ní xiāng cūn fēng gé。 gāi gǔ bǎo zì 1929 nián yǐ hòu shǔ gōng gòng suǒ yòu， yóu yī zhuān mén jī jīn huì fù zé guǎn lǐ， bìng jiàn chéng bó wù guǎn duì wài kāi fàng， guǎn nèi zhǎn pǐn wéi chéng bǎo lì jiè zhù rén de yí wù jí gǔ dài jiā jù。 měi nián xià jì zhè lǐ hái jǔ xíng gǔ diǎn yīnyuè huì， xī yǐn sì fāng bīn kè。
　　
　　 shī pí cí shì yóu tǐng 'àihào zhě de yī gè jī dì， yòu shì tōng wǎng nán miàn mǒu xiē dù jiǎ cūn zhuāng bì jīng zhī dì。 gōng lù pá shàng 'ā 'ěr bēi sī běi lù， dàn jiàn xī hè yōu suì， shān cūn diǎn diǎn， mù jié gòu de cūn shè chèn tuō zhe cù cù xiān huā。 yòu yī tiáo qū jìng cóng shī pí cí tōng wǎng bó 'ěr ní zhōu xī nán jiǎo de gé shí tǎ dé。 tā shì sì gè shān gǔ jiāo huì zhī chù， suǒ yǐ yě shì gè lǐ xiǎng de huá xuě zhōng xīn。
　　
　　 sū lí shì zhèng quàn jiāo yì suǒ： sū lí shì zhèng quàn jiāo yì suǒ chéng lì yú 1873 nián， dào dì 'èr cì shì jiè dà zhàn hòu zhú bù fā zhǎn chéng wéi shì jiè zuì dà de zhèng quàn shì chǎng zhī yī。 1976 nián， jiāo yì suǒ yíng yè 'é shǒu cì tū pò 1000 yì ruì láng。 dào 1991 nián， jiāo yì suǒ yíng yè 'é yǐ dá 5000 duō yì ruì láng， shàng shì zhèng quàn dá 3000 zhǒng。 ruì shì hé wài guó 'èr shí sì jiā yínháng shì sū lí shì zhèng quàn jiāo yì suǒ xié huì chéng yuán。 cǐ wài， ruì zài jiāo yì suǒ wài miàn， gòng yòu 234 jiā jīng jì rén ( yínháng ) cóng shì zhèng quàn jiāo yì huó dòng。
　　
　　 sū lí shì zhèng quàn jiāo yì suǒ shì ruì shì guó mín jīng jì tǐ xì hé yínháng yè de yī gè zǔ chéng bù fēn， tā zài sū lí shì zhōu zhèng fǔ de jiān dū xià kāi zhǎn yè wù。 jìn xíng jiāo yì xū jīng zhōu zhèng fǔ pī zhǔn， qiě shòu yī xì liè fǎ guī de zhì yuē hé tiáojié。
　　
　　 sū lí shì zhèng quàn jiāo yì suǒ yě shì ruì shì zuì dà de zhèng quàn jiāo yì shì chǎng， qí yè wù liàng zhàn quán guó zhèng quàn jiāo yì zǒng 'é de 65％。 měi nián yuē yòu 40,000 duō rén chū rù yú jiāo yì suǒ， mǎi mài shuāng fāng hái kě tōng guò diàn huà huò diàn shì píng mù jìn xíng jiāo yì。 gāi jiāo yì suǒ shì shì jiè shàng mù qián wéi yī de jù yòu quán zì dòng jiāo yì hé qīng suàn xì tǒng de jiāo yì suǒ。 qí xiān jìn de shè bèi、 gāo sù zhì de rén yuán wéi tóu zī zhě tí gōng liǎo yōu liáng de fú wù。 jiāo yì suǒ zài sū lí shì zhōu zhèng fǔ jiāo yì suǒ wěi yuán huì lǐng dǎo xià， shè yòu jiāo yì suǒ lǐng dǎo wěi yuán huì、 zhòng cái fǎ tíng、 péi xùn wěi yuán huì děng zǔ zhì， yóu ruì shì gè dà yín xíng hé qǐ yè yòu guān rén yuán zǔ chéng。
　　
　　 gāi jiāo yì suǒ xíng zhèng guǎn lǐ rén yuán gòng 16 rén， yóu jīng lǐ、 liǎng míng fù jīng lǐ hé yī míng jīng lǐ zhù lǐ zhù chí rì cháng guǎn lǐ gōng zuò。
　　
　　
　　
　　
　　
　　 ruì shì lì shǐ
　　
　　
　　 yào liǎo jiě ruì shì de lì shǐ， bì xū xiān liǎo jiě qí lǐ wèi zhì： ruì shì de dì lǐ wèi zhì zuǒ yòu zhe lì shǐ de fā zhǎn， yǐng xiǎng jù dà。
　　
　　 wǒ men suǒ zhī de ruì shì zuì zhōng xíng chéng yú 1848 nián。 zài zhè zhī qián， zhēn zhèng de“ ruì shì lì shǐ” bìng bù cún zài。 zhǔn què dì shuō， zhǐ cún zài gè gè dú lì dì qū de lì shǐ， ér zhè xiē dú lì dì qū zhú jiàn xíng chéng liǎo jīn rì de ruì shì。
　　
　　
　　
　　 shǐ qián ruì shì
　　
　　 xiàn zài ruì shì guó tǔ fàn wéi zài shǐ qián shì kǎi 'ěr tè rén de huó dòng qū yù， kǎi 'ěr tè rén céng jīng shì 'ōu zhōng zhōng bù de tǔ zhù jū mín， tā men de bù luò zài gōng yuán qián 2 shì jì céng jīng kuò zhǎn dào jīn tiān de fǎ guó、 bǐ lì shí、 yì dà lì běi bù、 xī bān yá yǐ jí lāi yīn hé liú yù de guǎng dà fàn wéi， zài tā men de quán shèng shí qī hái céng jīng chéng gōng dì gōng zhàn liǎo luó mǎ chéng。 jù jū zài jīn tiān ruì shì guó tǔ nèi de shì kǎi 'ěr tè rén de hǎi 'ěr wéi de bù luò。
　　
　　 luó mǎ dì guó shí qī de ruì shì
　　
　　 gōng yuán qián hòu fēn bù yú 'ōu zhōu běi bù de rì 'ěr màn rén bù duàn xiàng kǎi 'ěr tè rén jū zhù qū yù kuò zhāng， gōng yuán qián 70 nián， gǎn shòu dào rì 'ěr màn rén yā lì de hǎi 'ěr wéi de bù luò jué dìng xiàng xī chè lí dào gāo lú xī nán de dà xī yáng yán 'àn， yīn 'ér xiàng kǎi sǎ tǒng zhì de luó mǎ dì guó jiè dào； kǎo lǜ dào rì 'ěr màn rén duì luó mǎ dì guó de qián zài wēi xié， kǎi sǎ jué dìng zài ruì shì jiàn lì yī gè shòu luó mǎ kòng zhì de hǎi 'ěr wéi de rén guó jiā。 luó mǎ jūn duì bù jǐn méi yòu tóng yì kǎi 'ér tè rén jiè dào tōng xíng de qǐng qiú， fǎn 'ér xiàng tā men fā qǐ gōng jī， pò shǐ hòu zhě chéng wéi luó mǎ dì guó de tóng méng zhě， huò dé luó mǎ dì guó zhī chí de kǎi 'ěr tè rén zhàn bài nán qīn de rì 'ěr màn rén。
　　
　　 kǎi sǎ sǐ hòu jì rèn zhě 'ào gǔ sī dū jiāng hǎi 'ěr wéi de rén bù luò bìng rù dì guó xíng shěng， jīn tiān ruì shì de fàn wéi zhèng shì nà rù luó mǎ dì guó， dāng dì de kǎi 'ěr tè rén kāi shǐ liǎo luó mǎ huà shí dài。
　　
　　 luó mǎ ruì shì shí qī dāng dì jiàn lì liǎo luó mǎ shì de xíng zhèng xì tǒng， xīng qǐ liǎo yī xì liè chéng shì， xiū jiàn liǎo tōng xiàng luó mǎ chéng de dì guó dà dào。 luó mǎ rén hái wéi ruì shì yǐn rù liǎo dì zhōng hǎi yán 'àn de nóng zuò wù hé yà píng níng bàn dǎo de shēng huó fāng shì， suí zhī 'ér lái de hái yòu jī dū jiào。
　　
　　100 nián－ 250 nián shì luó mǎ ruì shì de huáng jīn shí dài， zhè gè shí dài jié shù yú rì 'ěr màn rén duì dì guó de rù qīn。
　　
　　 rì 'ěr màn rén rù qīn
　　
　　259 nián yī zhī rì 'ěr màn rén de bù luò lián méng dù guò lāi yīn hé， gōng kè de dì guó ruì shì de běi bù biān sài， cóng cǐ luó mǎ ruì shì jìn rù liǎo zhàn luàn de nián dài， zhí dào gōng yuán 401 nián dì guó jūn duì chè chū liǎo 'ā 'ěr bēi sī shān yǐ běi dì qū。 cóng cǐ rì 'ěr màn rén tǒng zhì ruì shì de shí dài kāi shǐ liǎo。
　　
　　 rì 'ěr màn rén tǒng zhì de ruì shì dà tǐ kě yǐ fēn wéi dōng xī liǎng gè bù fēn， xī bù yóu bó gèn dì bù luò lián méng tǒng zhì， tā men rén kǒu shù liàng shǎo， wén huà luò hòu zài zhàn lǐng ruì shì zhī hòu jiē shòu liǎo dāng dì de luó mǎ－ kǎi 'ěr tè rén yǔ yán hé wén huà chuán tǒng； zhōng bù hé dōng bù yóu 'ā lè màn ní bù luò lián méng tǒng zhì， tā men suǒ zhàn lǐng de shì ruì shì de shān qū hé luó mǎ huà chéng dù jiào dī de qū yù， zài nà lǐ rì 'ěr màn yǔ yán qǔ dé liǎo shèng lì， zhè zhǒng dōng xī fēn zhì yě shì rú jīn ruì shì fǎ yǔ qū hé dé yǔ qū de chú xíng
　　
　　 rì 'ěr màn rén zhì xià de ruì shì dì qū xiān hòu chǎn shēng liǎo hěn duō xiǎo de wáng guó， zhè xiē wáng guó xiāng hù zhēng fá， zuì zhōng yú 536 nián tóng yī yú fǎ lán kè wáng guó， gōng yuán 843 nián， gēn jù guā fēn chá lǐ dà dì de fǎ lán kè wáng guó de fán 'ěr dēng tiáo yuē， ruì shì zài dù fēn liè， fēn shǔ zhōng fǎ lán kè wáng guó hé dōng fǎ lán kè wáng guó。
　　
　　1033 nián， fēn liè de ruì shì zài dù guī yú tóng yī de shén shèng luó mǎ dì guó zhì xià， yóu yú shén shèng luó mǎ dì guó huáng dì hé luó mǎ jiào huáng zhī jiān de quán lì dǒu zhēng， dé yì zhì wáng quán shuāi luò， gè dì fāng zhū hóu shì lì shàng shēng， gè lù zhū hóu wèile kuò zhǎn zì jǐ de shì lì， jiàn lì liǎo dà pī chéng shì， zài jīn tiān ruì shì de qū yù， cè lín gēn jiā zú tuī dòng jiàn lì liǎo zhòng duō de chéng shì， xíng chéng liǎo ruì shì tè yòu de chéng zhèn zì zhì tǐ zhì。 wéi rì hòu ruì shì bāng lián de jiàn lì mái xià liǎo fú bǐ。
　　
　　 ruì shì bāng lián
　　
　　
　　 hā bù sī bǎo jiā zú de xīng qǐ hé ruì shì bāng lián
　　
　　
　　 hā bù sī bǎo jiā zú yuán qǐ yú ruì shì zhōng bù， zhú jiàn qiáng shèng de hā bù sī bǎo jiā zú kòng zhì liǎo ruì shì zhōng bù 'ā 'ěr sà sī、 ā 'ěr gāo hé ruì shì zhōng yāng qū， chéng wéi shén shèng luó mǎ dì guó zuì yòu yǐng xiǎng lì de zhū hóu zhī yī， 1273 nián hā bù sī bǎo jiā zú de lǔ dào fū yī shì bèi xuǎn jǔ chéng wéi shén shèng luó mǎ dì guó huáng dì， jié shù liǎo cóng 1254 nián kāi shǐ de dà kōng wèi shí dài， jì wèi hòu de lǔ dào fū yī shì zhì lì yú kuò dà wáng quán hé jiā zú shì lì， ruì shì gè gè zì yóu lǐng de zì zhù xìng shòu dào yán zhòng de wēi xié， zài hā bù sī bǎo wáng cháo de qiáng dà yā lì xià， 1291 nián 8 yuè， ruì shì de sān gè gǔ dì gòng tóng tǐ： wū lǐ、 shī wéi cí hé wēng tè wǎ 'ěr dēng qiān dìng liǎo sān zhōu tóng méng xié dìng。 tóng méng tiáo yuē guī dìng liǎo sān zhě xū xiāng hù bāng zhù duì kàng yī qiē nèi wài dí rén； tōng guò gòng tóng de fǎ lǜ lái bǎo zhèng dì fāng 'ān dìng； tóng méng zhī jiān de fēn qí xū yǐ xié shāng fāng shì hé píng jiě jué； bìng guī dìng tóng méng de dì yuē fāng jūn bù dé jiē shòu fēi běn dì de huò zhě wèile tān tú qián cái 'ér bèi rèn mìng de zhí fǎ guān yuán。 zhè fèn tóng méng xié yì shì ruì shì lì shǐ shàng yòu 'àn kě chá de zuì zǎo de xié yì， yīn 'ér jīn tiān de ruì shì rén bǎ 1291 nián 8 yuè shì wéi ruì shì lián bāng de dàn shēng rì， měi nián de 8 yuè 1 rì bèi dìng wéi ruì shì guó qìng rì。 dàn shì yòu xué zhě rèn wéi， 1291 nián de tóng méng xié yì， cóng wén běn shàng kàn shì gèng zǎo qián lìng yī gè xié yì de chóngshēn hé jiā qiáng， zài cǐ zhī qián yīnggāi hái yòu qí tā lèi sì xié yì， nà me ruì shì lián bāng de lì shǐ yīngdāng bǐ xiàn zài suǒ zhī dào de gèng jiā jiǔ yuǎn， dàn zhì jīn bìng wèi zhǎo dào gèng zǎo de tóng méng xié yì wén běn。
　　
　　
　　
　　
　　
　　 ruì shì zhèng zhì
　　
　　 xiàn fǎ zhì dù
　　
　　 ruì shì xiàn fǎ zài ruì shì fǎ lǜ biān hào zhōng wèi yú SR101， wèiguó jiā zuì dà fǎ lǜ。
　　
　　 xiàn xíng ruì shì xiàn fǎ yóu gōng mín yú 1999 nián tóu piào tōng guò， yú 2000 nián 1 yuè 1 rì zhèng shì shī xíng。 xiàn fǎ nèi róng bāo kuò ruì shì lián bāng zhī zǔ chéng， gōng mín quán lì yǔ yì wù， lián bāng tǐ zhì yǔ zhōu jí zhì dù， guó cè děng。
　　
　　 tè diǎn：
　　
　　 ruì shì xiàn fǎ jìn zhǐ zài ruì shì shí xíng sǐ xíng。
　　
　　 ruì shì xiàn fǎ tǐ yàn liǎo lián bāng guó jiā de zhì dù， xǔ duō quán lì yí gěi gè zhōu dìng zhī。
　　
　　[ biān ji ] fǎ lǜ zhì dù
　　
　　 ruì shì gōng mín shǔ yú hěn yán gé zūn shǒu fǎ lǜ guī dìng de gōng mín。 yī qiē chù fǎ de xíng wéi dōukě yǐ bèi jǔ bào。
　　
　　 guó tǐ
　　
　　 ruì shì wéi wěi yuán zhì guó jiā， zuì gāo guó jiā yuán shǒu wéi lián bāng zhù xí， yì chēng zǒng tǒng (Bundespräpresident)， dàn zhǐ wéi xíng shì shàng lǐng dǎo rén。 zhēn zhèng de quán lì yuán zì qī xí lián bāng wěi yuán huì， yóu guó jiā qī gè jī guān de bù cháng（ bāo kuò xiàn rèn lián bāng zhù xí） zǔ zhì zhī。
　　
　　 ruì shì wéi lián bāng guó jiā， yǔn xǔ gōng mín jù yòu shuāng guó jí huò zhě duō guó jí， guó jiā yóu 'èr shí sān gè zhōu（ bāo kuò liù gè bàn zhōu， zǒng gòng 'èr shí liù zhōu） zǔ zhì zhī， zuì xīn jiā méng zhōu wéi Jura zhōu， yú 1979 nián jīng gōng mín tóu piào cóng bó 'ěr ní zhōu fēn gē 'ér chéng lì。 xiàn fǎ shàng liú gěi lián bāng， jí zhōng yāng zhèng fǔ de quán lì bù duō， xǔ duō quán lì yǔ zhèng cè zé yí gěi gè zhōu lì fǎ bìng zhí xíng zhī。
　　
　　 ruì shì chú liǎo guó jiā yōng yòu yī bù xiàn fǎ， yě yǔn xǔ gè zhōu zhì dìng zhōu xiàn fǎ。
　　
　　 zhì dù
　　
　　 ruì shì shí xíng mín zhù zhì dù， gōng mín de mín zhù quán lì hěn dà。 gōng mín duì zhòng dà guó shì yǔ dì fāng shì yí yōng yòu biǎo jué、 chuàng zhì yǔ fù jué quán， kě yǐ chéng lì qǐng yuàn， yě kě yǐ yǐ tóu piào dǐ zhì zhèng fǔ de yī xiē zhèng cè。 shí wàn míng ruì shì guó jí zhě kě yǐ xiū gǎi xiàn fǎ， yě kě yǐ xiū gǎi guó jiā wài jiāo zhèng cè。
　　
　　 xíng zhèng qū yù
　　
　　 ruì shì mù qián fēn 26 gè zhōu
　　
　　 ā 'ěr gāo zhōu
　　
　　 nèi 'ā péng cè 'ěr zhōu
　　
　　 wài 'ā péng cè 'ěr zhōu
　　
　　 bā sài 'ěr chéng shì bàn zhōu
　　
　　 bā sài 'ěr xiāng cūn bàn zhōu
　　
　　 bó 'ěr ní zhōu
　　
　　 fú lǐ bǎo zhōu
　　
　　 rì nèi wǎ zhōu
　　
　　 gé lā lǔ sī zhōu
　　
　　 gé láo bīn dēng zhōu
　　
　　 rǔ lā zhōu
　　
　　 lú sài 'ēn zhōu
　　
　　 nà shā tài 'ěr zhōu
　　
　　 xià wǎ 'ěr dēng zhōu
　　
　　 shàng wǎ 'ěr dēng zhōu
　　
　　 shā fū háo sēn zhōu
　　
　　 shī wéi cí zhōu
　　
　　 suǒ luò tú 'ēn zhōu
　　
　　 shèng jiā lún zhōu
　　
　　 tú 'ěr gāo zhōu
　　
　　 tí qì nuò zhōu
　　
　　 wū lǐ zhōu
　　
　　 wǎ lāi zhōu
　　
　　 wò zhōu
　　
　　 chǔ gé zhōu
　　
　　 sū lí shì zhōu
　　
　　 ruì shì rén zì jǐ shuō：“ ruì shì zhī suǒ yǐ chéng wéi ruì shì， shì yīn wéi yòu xiē dé yì zhì rén bù yuàn zuò dé guó rén； yòu xiē fǎ lán xī rén bù yuàn zuò fǎ guó rén； yòu xiē yì dà lì rén bù yuàn zuò yì dà lì rén。” yú shì zhè xiē rén yī qǐ chéng liǎo ruì shì rén。
　　
　　 zhè yě jiù xíng chéng liǎo ruì shì de guó jiā zhèng zhì zhì dù héng héng lián bāng zhì。 dàn shì yóu yú zhǒng zú、 zōng jiào、 yǔ yán yǐ jí jīng jì fā zhǎn de bù tóng， zǔ chéng lián bāng de gè zhōu zhī jiān de guān xì yī zhí shí fēn wēi miào。 yóu yú lì shǐ shàng cún zài de bù píng děng de chuānghén， gè zhōu zhī jiān bǐ cǐ xīn cún jiè dì， hù xiāng fáng fàn。 ér qiě yuán běn yī zhōu de dì qū， yě nào chū bù shǎo fēn liè shì jiàn。 rú 'ā péng cè 'ěr zhōu yīn jiào pài bù tóng， yú 1597 nián fēn wéi 'ā péng cè 'ěr nèi luó dēng hé 'ā péng cè 'ěr wài luó dēng； bā sài 'ěr zhōu zé yīn chéng xiāng máo dùn， yú 1833 nián fēn wéi bā sài 'ěr chéng zhōu hé bā sài 'ěr xiāng zhōu。 zhè yàng， yī gè zhōu biàn chéng liǎo liǎng gè“ bàn zhōu”。 zhè shì ruì shì guó tǐ zhōng de yī gè yòu qù xiàn xiàng。 gè zhōu duì zì jǐ de zhù quán shí fēn zhòng shì， yóu qí shì fǎ yǔ qū。 yòu de zhōu de míng chēng shì“ gòng hé guó”， zhōu zhèng fǔ jiào zuò“ guó wù yuàn”， zhōu zhèng fǔ guān yuán shì“ bù cháng”。 dàn jí biàn rú cǐ， zhì jīn hái méi yòu yī gè zhōu tí chū tuō lí lián bāng。 gè zhōu xiǎng yòu hěn dà de zì zhù quán， rú dì fāng fǎ yuàn、 xué xiào、 jiào huì shì wù、 shè huì fú lì děngdōu shǔ gè zhōu guǎn lǐ。 gè zhōu hái yòu zì jǐ de jǐng chá bù mén， ér qiě jǐng fú bù tóng。 rú qū chē chuān yuè ruì shì， kě yǐ zài gōng lù shàng kàn dào bù tóng yán sè hé yàng shì de jǐng fú。
　　
　　 lián bāng zhèng fǔ tǒng yī guǎn lǐ quán guó xìng de shì yè， rú wài jiāo、 guó fáng、 hǎi guān、 huò bì fā xíng、 yóu diàn、 tiě lù、 dù liàng héng děng děng， lián bāng jǐng chá zhù yào chǔlǐ wài guó rén shì wù。
　　
　　 jìn guǎn zài wài jiāo shàng yī zhí fèng xíng zhe zhōng lì zhèng cè， dàn ruì shì hái shì zài 2002 nián jiā rù liǎo lián hé guó zhè yī mù qián shì jiè shàng zuì dà de zhèng zhì zǔ zhì。
　　
　　
　　 ruì shì qì hòu
　　 ruì shì xià jì bù rè， dōng tiān hěn lěng。 dàn shì dì lǐ wèi zhì yǔ duō biàn de dì xíng yòu zào chéng dāng dì qì hòu de duō yàng xìng。 ā 'ěr bēi sī shān qū nán bù shǔ dì zhōng hǎi qì hòu， xià jì gān hàn、 dōng jì wēn nuǎn shī rùn。 ā 'ěr bēi sī shān yǐ běi dì qū qì hòu jù yòu míng xiǎn de guò dù xìng， zì xī xiàng dōng， yóu wēn hé shī rùn de wēn dài hǎi yáng xìng qì hòu xiàng dōng hán xià rè de wēn dài dà lù xìng qì hòu guò dù。
　　 quán guó nián píng jūn qì wēn wéi８ . ６ ℃。 zhōng bù dì qū１ yuè fèn píng jūn qì wēn ０℃ zuǒ yòu， shān qū yǐ wài de dì qū ７ yuè píng jūn qì wēn zài ２０℃ zuǒ yòu。 shān qū qì wēn suí hǎi bá zēng gāo 'ér dì jiǎn， hǎi bá２５００ mǐ de sēn dì sī７ yuè píng jūn qì wēn jǐn yòu５℃。 dàn zài shān gǔ dì dài dōng jì yì xíng chéng nì wēn xiàn xiàng。 fāng wèi duì jú bù dì qū de qì wēn yě qǐ yī dìng zuò yòng， cháo nán de shān pō bǐ gǔ dì hé cháo běi de shān pō wēn dù yào gāo。
　　 quán suǒ jiàng shuǐ liàng zài１０００￣２０００ háo mǐ zhī jiān，３／４ dì qū píng jūn nián jiàng shuǐ liàng chāo guò１０００ háo mǐ。 jiàng shuǐ yě shēn shòu dì xíng de yǐng xiǎng， gāo shān jùn lǐng chù jiàng shuǐ liàng yuǎn yuǎn chāo guò zhōng bù gāo yuán yī xiē dì qū jí hé gǔ dì dài。
　　 cǐ wài， xī fēng dài shān gǔ lǐ de gān lěng dōng běi fēng hé běi 'ā 'ěr bēi sī dà héng gǔ zhōng de gān rè fén fēng děng yě zào chéng liǎo jú bù de qì hòu chā yì。 gān lěng de dōng běi fēng lái zì 'ōu zhōu dà lù de nèi lù， gěi rǔ lā shān qū hé zhōng bù gāo yuán dì qū dài lái qíng lǎng tiān qì， yě shǐ shān gǔ lǐ de qì hòu bǐ wú fēng shí gèng jiā hán lěng。 fén fēng chuī qǐ shí， ā 'ěr bēi sī shān běi lù de yī xiē shān gǔ hé qiū líng huì wēn dù zhòu zēng， yòu shí zǎo chūn３ yuè huò wǎn qiū１１ yuè de tiān qì huì xiàng shèng xià yī yàng yán rè。
　　 fén fēng huì jiāng xuě róng huà， yòu lì yú zuò wù de shēngzhǎng， dàn yě cháng cháng zào chéng shān bēng、 xuě bēng、 hóng shuǐ huò huǒ zāi， shǐ shēng mìng cái chǎn zāo shòu sǔn shī。 rú guǒ zhè zhǒng fēng lái dé guò zǎo， jiù kě néng jiāng xuě guā zǒu， cóng 'ér pò huài gè zhǒng dōng jì yùn dòng， shǐ lǚ yóu yè shòu sǔn。
　　
　　
　　
　　
　　
　　
　　
　　 ruì shì jiāo tōng
　　
　　 ruì shì jiāo tōng xì tǒng (SwissTraveSystem) yǐ tí gōng lǚ kè fāng biàn shū shì de lǚ xíng wéi zōng zhǐ。 ruì shì jiāo tōng xì tǒng yóu huǒ chē， qì chē， lún chuán hé gāo shān lǎn chē xiāng chéng， zhè xiē lǚ xíng gōng jù huán huán xiāng kòu， xíng chéng fù gài zhěng gè ruì shì de jiāo tōng wǎng， jiāng yī gè yǐn rén rù shèng de ruì shì dài dào lǚ kè de miàn qián。
　　
　　 ruì shì tōng xíng piào quàn (SwissPass) shì yī zhǒng gè rén lián xiàn piào， yòu 4 tiān、 8 tiān、 15 tiān、 1 gè yuè wéi qī de chē piào， chí yòu zhě zài qī xiàn nèi dā chéng lǐ shǔbù jì， kě chéng zuò huǒ chē、 yóu zhèng liè chē、 chuán， bìng kě zài 24 gè chéng shì nèi chéng zuò gōng gòng qì chē hé diàn chē。
　　
　　 zài ruì shì lǚ xíng， zuì hǎo suí shēn xié dài ruì shì gōng dìng de《 jiāo tōng shí kè biǎo》 (OffizielleSchweizerKursbuch)， yǐ biàn chá xún suǒ yòu huǒ chē、 dù chuán、 shān qū liè chē de bān cì jí shí kè。 cǐ biǎo zài gè lǚ xíng shè jūn néng tí gōng。
　　
　　
　　
　　
　　
　　 ruì shì tōng dào
　　
　　
　　 lì yòng“ ruì shì tōng dào”， jī běn yòng lái zài gòu mǎi jiāo tōng yùn shū piào shí dǎ zhé kòu yòng， chí kǎ zhě zhǐ xū fù bàn jià。 yóu kè bù jǐn kě yǐ xuǎn zé ruì shì liù tiáo jù yòu chuán qí sè cǎi de lǚ xíng xiàn lù ( ruì shì lián bāng tiě lù、 dà duō shù sī yíng tiě lù、 hú miàn yóu chuán、 cháng tú dà jiào chē、 shì nèi jiāo tōng yùn shū xì tǒng， yǐ jí dào shān dǐng de lǎn chē yóu lǎn ) zhōng de rèn hé yī tiáo xiàn lù yóu lǎn ruì shì， ér qiě kě yǐ miǎn fèi zī xún rú hé dào dá ruì shì jìng nèi de huǒ chē zhàn、 qì chē zhàn hé lún chuán zhàn； zài 30 duō gè ruì shì chéng shì zhōng， hái kě yǐ lì yòng“ ruì shì tōng dào” liǎo jiě ruì shì shì nèi jiāo tōng gè xiàng qíng kuàng。
　　
　　“ ruì shì tōng dào” de jiāo tōng gōng jù fēn wéi yī děng hé 'èr děng。 kě yǐ lián xù lǚ xíng 4 tiān zhì 1 gè yuè， nín yě kě yǐ gòu mǎi“ ruì shì fú lì kè xī tōng dào” (SwissFlexfPass)， zài 1 gè yuè zhōng lǚ xíng 3 zhì 9 tiān。 rú guǒ xié dài 6 zhì 16 suì de hái zǐ yī qǐ lǚ xíng， zé kě yǐ suǒ qǔ ruì shì jiā tíng lǚ xíng miǎn fèi kǎ (freeSwissFamilyCard)， zhè yàng hái zǐ kě yǐ miǎn fèi shǐ yòng ‘ ruì shì tōng dào”。 rú guǒ liǎng gè hǎi wài lǚ yóu zhě ( chéng nián rén ) yī qǐ lǚ xíng， dì 'èr wèi lǚ yóu zhě shǐ yòng‘ ruì shì tōng dào” kě yǐ xiǎng shòu 40% de zhé kòu。
　　
　　 fēi jī：
　　
　　 ruì shì háng kōng gōng sī hé zhōng guó guó jì háng kōng gōng sī měi zhōu dōuyòu háng bān wǎng fǎn yú sū lí shì hé běi jīng。
　　
　　 huǒ chē：
　　
　　 ruì shì huǒ chē de tè zhēng shì kuài jié、 kě kào、 shū shì hé zhěng jié， yīn 'ér shòu dào yóu kè de huān yíng， ér qiě shì shí shàng， huǒ chē yě shì ruì shì zhī lǚ zhōng de zhòng yào gōng jù。 zài sū lí shì hé rì nèi wǎ de rù jìng jī chǎng dōuyòu zhù yào huǒ chē zhàn。 ruì shì de tiě lù xì tǒng zǒng cháng dá 5000 gōng lǐ， kě yǐ shuō zhè shì shì jiè shàng zuì mì jí de tiě lù jiāo tōng wǎng。 chē xiāng nèi yòu cān chē huò liú dòng yǐn liào chē mǎn zú kè rén xū yào。
　　
　　 ruì shì gè dà chéng shì jī běn dū bǎo zhèng měi xiǎo shí yòu yī bān chē。
　　
　　 qì chē：
　　
　　 ruì shì de gōng lù yùn shū xiàn lù sì tōng bā dá， yī bān chē liàng de xiàn sù wéi： gāo sù gōng lù wéi měi xiǎo shí yī bǎi 'èr shí gōng lǐ； yī bān gōng lù wéi měi xiǎo shí bā shí gōng lǐ； chéng zhèn wéi měi xiǎo shí wǔ shí gōng lǐ。 gāo sù gōng lù yòu lǜ sè zhǐ shì biāo zhì shí bié。 chú fēi lìng yòu biāo zhì， kào yòu biān xíng shǐ de sī jī yòu yōu xiān tōng xíng quán。 kào yòu biān xíng shǐ， cóng zuǒ biān chāo chē， jìn zhǐ cóng yòu biān chāo chē。 xiàng suǒ yòu shǐ yòng gāo sù gōng lù de chē liàng hé mó tuō chē zhēng shōu měi nián dào lù tōng xíng shuì sì shí ruì shì fǎ láng。“ yóu zhèng gōng gòng qì chē” néng ràng lǚ kè shū shì fāng biàn dì dào dá gè gè ruì shì lǚ yóu jǐng diǎn。 zài ruì shì chéng chē chuān yuè gāo shān guān 'ài kě yǐ tǐ yàn dào bié chù tǐ yàn bù dào de lǚ xíng gǎn shòu。
　　
　　 jiāo tōng gōng jù zū lìn
　　
　　 zài ruì shì dā jì chéng chē xiāng dāng guì， chē zī jì suàn fāng shì gè dì jūn yòu suǒ bù tóng。 ruò yòu 'é wài fú wù ( xíng lǐ děng )， zé yòu gù dìng jiā jià jià gé， zhāng tiē zài jì chéng chē nèi。 tōng cháng quán 'é chē zī yǐ bāo kuò xiǎo fèi zài nèi。
　　
　　 zài ruì shì chú liǎo kě yǐ zū qì chē wài， hái néng zū lìn fēi jī。 dāng rán， yóu kè bù néng chéng wéi jià shǐ yuán。 dàn bèi zū lìn de zhí shēng jī kě yǐ gèng biàn jié dì bāng zhù yóu kè dào dá mùdì dì。
　　
　　
　　
　　
　　 ruì shì de jīng jì fā zhǎn
　　
　　1. zì rán zī yuán
　　
　　　 shuǐ lì zī yuán fēng fù , lì yòng shuài dá 95%。 sēn lín miàn jī 120 wàn gōng qǐng , fù gài shuài wéi quán guó miàn jī de 25%。
　　
　　　　 2. jīng jì jiǎn shǐ
　　
　　　　 dì 'èr cì shì jiè dà zhàn hòu , ruì shì xiān hòu cān jiā 'ōu zhōu jīng jì hé zuò zǔ zhì , ōu zhōu zì yóu mào yì lián méng、 jīng jì hé zuò yǔ fā zhǎn zǔ zhì děng xǔ duō guó jì xìng huò dì qū xìng de jīng jì zǔ zhì。 ruì shì zài 2002 nián jiā rù liǎo lián hé guó zhè yī mù qián shì jiè shàng zuì dà de zhèng zhì zǔ zhì， qí zhōng yòu xiē jī gòu jiù shè zài ruì shì。 1992 nián 12 yuè 6 yuē , ruì shì gōng mín duì 'ōu zhōu jīng jì qū xié yì jìn xíng tóu piào biǎo jué , jiēguǒ gōng mín tóu piào wèi néng tōng guò , cóng 'ér shǐ ruì shì chǔyú 'ōu zhōu jīng jì qū zhī wài。
　　
　　　　 zhàn hòu yǐ lái , ruì shì jīng jì shì zài tōng huò péng zhàng shuài jiào dī de qíng kuàng xià shí xiàn jiào wéi xùn sù de zēngzhǎng de。 zài zhàn hòu jīng jì fā zhǎn guò chéng zhōng , jì yòu wǔ liù shí nián dài de xùn sù zēngzhǎng jiē duàn , yě yòu 70 nián dài chū qī yǐ lái de tíng zhì jiē duàn； suī rán zài cǐ qī jiān , ruì shì bào fā guò liǎng cì zhù chǎn guò shèng de jīng jì wēi jī , jīng jì zēngchánglǜ yòu 3 nián jué duì xià jiàng , qí zhōng 1975 nián shèn zhì xià jiàng liǎo 1.3%, rán 'ér cóng zǒng tǐ shàng kàn , zhàn hòu zhì jīn , ruì shì jīng jì de zēngzhǎng hái shì bǐ jiào xùn sù de。 cóng 1950 nián dào 1986 nián , ruì shì de guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí zēngzhǎng 2.1 bèi , měi nián píng jūn zēngzhǎng 3.2％。 1986 yī 1990 nián , nián píng jūn zēngchánglǜ wéi 2.86％。 rán 'ér ,1990 nián yǐ lái , ruì shì jīng jì yě shòu xī fāng jīng jì shuāi tuì de yǐng xiǎng ,1991 hé 1992 nián lián xù liǎng nián chū xiàn fù zēngzhǎng ,1992 nián guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí bǐ 1990 nián xià jiàng liǎo 0.8%。 shī yè yán zhòng kùn rǎo xī 'ōu gè guó , xǔ duō guó de shī yè shuài dá dào liǎng wèi shù , gè bié guó jiā shèn zhì chāo guò 20% de shí hòu , ruì shì de shī yè shuài réng cháng qī chǔyú 1% yǐ xià ,80 nián dài yǐ lái cái lüè wēi chāo guò 1%。 1991 nián ruì shì shī yè rén shù wéi 39200 rén , shī yè shuài wéi 1.3%； ér shàng nián de shī yè rén shù wéi 18100 rén , shī yè shuài wéi 0.6%。
　　
　　　　 ruì shì zài yì zhì tōng huò péng zhàng fāng miàn yě shì hěn tū chū de , suī rán zài 70 nián dài zuì chū jǐ nián , xiāo fèi wù jià de shàng zhǎng shuài jiào zhī yú wǔ liù shí nián dài gāo , gè bié nián fèn（ 1974 nián） shèn zhì dá dào 9.8%, dàn zǒng de lái kàn ,1987 nián de xiāo fèi wù jià zhǐ bǐ 1950 nián shàng zhǎng 2.3 bèi , píng jūn měi nián shàng zhǎng 3.3%。 1988 nián yǐ lái , chú gè bié nián fèn wài , xiāo fèi wù jià shàng zhǎng shuài jūn chéng fù shù。 mù qián ruì shì yǐ jīng chéng wéi gāo dù fā dá de zī běn zhù yì gōng yè guó , jù《 ōu zhōu guǎn lǐ lùn tán》 de diào chá , jìn xiē nián lái , ruì shì de guó jì jìng zhēng néng lì jǐn cì yú rì běn , zài fā dá zī běn zhù yì guó jiā zhōng jū dì 'èr wèi ,1988 nián ruì shì rén jūn guó mín shēng chǎn zǒng zhí 27260 měi yuán , chāo guò měi guó hé rì běn , jū shì jiè dì yī wèi。
　　
　　　　 3. jīng jì gài kuàng
　　
　　　　 gāo dù fā dá de zī běn zhù yì gōng yè guó。 shí xíng zì yóu jīng jì zhèng cè , zhèng fǔ jìn liàng jiǎn shǎo gān yù , xī shōu dà liàng wài jí gōng rén cóng shì gōng zī jiào dī de láo dòng。 duì wài zhù zhāng zì yóu mào yì , fǎn duì mào yì bǎo hù zhù yì zhèng cè。 shòu shì jiè jīng jì xiāo tiáo de yǐng xiǎng , zì 1991 nián kāi shǐ , ruì shì jīng jì yǐ lián xù 6 nián tíng zhì hé shuāi tuì , xiàn rù 30 nián lái zuì yán zhòng de wēi jī： shī yè shuài chí xù shàng shēng , guó jiā cái zhèng zhuàng kuàng 'è huà。 jīng jì fù sū bù lǚ wéi jiān。
　　
　　　　 4. hángyè gài kuàng
　　
　　　　（ 1） nóng yè gài kuàng
　　
　　　　 nóng yè chǎn zhí yuē zhàn guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí de 4%, nóng yè jiù yè rén shù yuē zhàn quán guó jiù yè zǒng rén shù de 6.6%。 cháng qī yǐ lái , ruì shì zhèng fǔ xiāng dāng zhòng shì nóng yè shēng chǎn de fā zhǎn。 duì nóng yè cháng qī shí shī bǔ tiē zhèng cè , zhū rú fā fàng bǔ zhù jīn , duì shān qū tí gōng tè bié bǔ zhù , duì zhù yào nóng chǎn pǐn tí gōng jià gé bǔ tiē； xiàn zhì hé jiǎn shǎo shū cài hé shuǐ guǒ de jìn kǒu； duì nóng mín tí gōng wú xī dài kuǎn； zhī chí nóng yè de jī xiè huà hé zhuān yè huà； jiā qiáng nóng yè kē xué yán jiū hé jì shù péi xùn；
　　
　　　　 zhòng shì nóng yè zhī shí pǔ jí。 yīn cǐ , nóng yè shēng chǎn huò dé xùn sù fā zhǎn , nóng yè láo dòng shēng chǎn shuài hé nóng chǎn pǐn zìjǐ shuài yòu liǎo hěn dà tí gāo . mù qián ròu lèi jī běn zìjǐ , nǎi zhì pǐn zìjǐ yòu yú , gǔ wù néng mǎn zú guó nèi xū qiú liàng de 1/3 yǐ shàng。 ruì shì nóng yè yǐ xùmù yè wéi zhù , xùmù yè de chǎn zhí zhàn nóng yè chǎn zhí de 3/4 dào 4/5, zhù yào sì yǎng niú、 zhū、 yáng hé mǎ pǐ。 zhù yào nóng zuò wù yòu xiǎo mài、 dà mài、 mǎ líng shǔ、 tián cài hé shuǐ guǒ。
　　
　　　　 nóng chǎn pǐn chǎn liàng tǒng jì
　　
　　　　（ 2） gōng yè gài kuàng
　　
　　　　 gōng yè shì ruì shì guó mín jīng jì de zhù tǐ , gōng yè chǎn zhí yuē zhàn guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí de 50%。 ruì shì de zhù yào gōng yè bù mén bāo kuò : zhōng biǎo、 jī xiè、 huà xué、 shí pǐn děng bù mén。 ruì shì sù yòu " zhōng biǎo wáng guó " zhī chēng。 cóng 1587 nián rì nèi wǎ shēng chǎn shǒu biǎo qì jīn de 400 duō nián zhōng , yī zhí bǎo chí zhe zài shì jiè zhōng biǎo yè de lǐng xiān dì wèi。 jìn jǐ nián , ruì shì zhōng biǎo chū kǒu liàng dà fú dù zēng jiā。 jī xiè zhì zào yè zhù yào shēng chǎn fǎng zhì jī xiè hé fā diàn shè bèi。 jī chuáng、 jīng mì yí qì、 yí biǎo、 yùn shū jī xiè、 nóng yè jī xiè、 huà gōng jī xiè、 shí pǐn jī xiè、 yìn shuà jī xiè yě hěn zhòng yào , jìn xiē nián lái , dǎ zì jī、 jì suàn jī、 zhàoxiàng jī hé diàn yǐng shè xiàng jī shēng chǎn de fā zhǎn shí fēn xùn sù。 shí pǐn gōng yè de chǎn pǐn zhù yào gōng guó nèi xū yào , dàn nǎi lào、 qiǎo kè lì、 sù róng kā fēi hé nóng suō shí pǐn zài shì jiè yě xiǎng yòu shèng yù。 huà xué gōng yè yě shì ruì shì gōng yè de zhòng yào zhī zhù。 mù qián , yào pǐn yuē zhàn huà xué gōng yè chǎn zhí de 2/5, rǎn liào、 nóng yào、 xiāng zhī、 xiāng jīng zài guó jì shì chǎng shàng de dì wèi yě hěn zhòng yào。
　　
　　　　（ 3） fú wù yè gài kuàng
　　
　　　　 ruì shì lǚ yóu yè fā dá , yòu wàng dé dào jìn yī bù fā zhǎn。 ruì shì shì shì jiè jīn róng zhōng xīn , yínháng yè hé bǎo xiǎn yè shì zuì dà de bù mén , lǚ yóu yè cháng qī bǎo chí wěn dìng hé qiángjìng de fā zhǎn shì tóu , wéi lǚ yóu xiāng guān hángyè de fā zhǎn tí gōng liǎo shì chǎng。
　　
　　　　 5. zhù yào jīng jì zhǐ biāo
　　
　　　　 guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí (1995 nián )： 3620 yì ruì lǎng；
　　
　　　　 rén jūn guó mín shēng chǎn zǒng zhí (1995 nián )： 51275 ruì lǎng；
　　
　　　　 guó nèi shēng chǎn shí jì zēngchánglǜ (1996 nián )： -0.7%；
　　
　　　　 huì shuài (1998 nián 5 yuè 1 rì )： 1 měi yuán =1.4916 ruì shì fǎ lǎng；
　　
　　　　 tōng huò péng zhàng shuài (1996 nián )： 0.8%；
　　
　　　　 shī yè shuài (1996 nián )： 4.7%；

　　Switzerland (German: Schweiz, French: Suisse, Italian: Svizzera, Romansh: Svizra), officially the Swiss Confederation (Confoederatio Helvetica in Latin, hence its ISO country codes CH and CHE), is a landlocked alpine country of roughly 7.5 million people in Western Europe with an area of 41,285 km². Switzerland is a federal republic consisting of 26 states. These states are called cantons. Berne is the seat of the federation and de facto capital, while the country's economic centres are its two global cities, Geneva and especially Zürich. Switzerland has high degrees of economic freedom, immigrants, and globally-oriented business. Switzerland is one of the richest countries in the world.
　　
　　It is bordered by Germany, France, Italy, Austria and Liechtenstein and has a long history of neutrality — it has not been at war since 1815 — and hosts many international organizations, including the Red Cross, the World Trade Organization and one of the U.N.'s two European offices. Switzerland is multilingual and has four national languages: German, French, Italian and Romansh. The country's Latin formal name, Confoederatio Helvetica is derived from the Helvetii, an ancient Celtic people in the Alpine region. It is rendered in German as Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, in French as Confédération suisse, in Italian as Confederazione Svizzera and in Romansh as Confederaziun svizra. The establishment of Switzerland is traditionally dated to August 1, 1291; the first of August is the national holiday.
　　
　　The earliest known tribes of the area were members of the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age from around 450BC, possibly under some influence from the Greek, and Etruscan civilisations. One of the most important tribal groups in the Swiss region was the Helvetii. In 15 BC, Tiberius I, who was destined to be the second Roman Emperor, and his brother, Drusus, conquered the Alps, integrating them into the Roman Empire. The area occupied by the Helvetii first became part of Rome's Gallia Belgica Province and then of its Germania Superior Province, while the eastern portion of modern Switzerland was integrated into the Roman province of Raetia.
　　
　　In the Early Middle Ages, from the 4th Century AD, the western extents of modern day Switzerland was part of the territory of the Kings of the Burgundiuns. The Alemanni settled the Swiss plateau in the 5th Century AD and the valleys of the Alps in the 8th Century AD, forming Alemannia. Modern Day Switzerland was therefore then divided between the Kingdoms of Alemannia and Burgundy. The entire region became part of the expanding Frankish Empire in the 6th Century, following Clovis I's victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504 AD, and later Frankish domination of the Burgundians.
　　
　　By 561 AD, the Merovingian King Guntram, Clovis I's grandson, had inherited the Frankish Kingdon of Burgundy, which stretched East nearly as far as the Rhine. East of this, the Alamanni were ruled under a nominal dukedom within Frankia, as the Franks filled the vacuum caused by the declining Western reach of Roman Byzantium. By this time Frankia was beginning to form the tripartite character that would characterise the rest of its history. The territories were subdivided into Neustria in the West (referred to simply as Frankia at the time; the name Neustria did not appear in writing until some 80 years later), Austrasia in the North East and Burgundy.
　　
　　Throughout the rest of the 6th and early 7th Centuries AD the Swiss regions continued under Frankish hegemony, with the Franks largely occupied with infighting about issues of succession amongst the Frankish sub-kingdoms (whose Kings were close blood relatives). In 632 AD, following the death of Chlothar II, the entire Frankish realm was briefly united under Dagobert, who is described as the last Merovingian king able to exercise real power. Under Dagobert, the Austrasians agitated for self governance as a means of countering the influence of the Neustrians, who dominated royal court. Dagobert was forced by the strong Austrasian aristocracy to appoint his infant son, Sigebert III, as sub-king of Austrasia in 633 AD. The weakness of the realm became clear, and this led to those subjucated by the Franks considering the risks and benefits of rebellion. After Sigebert III suffered a military defeat at the hands of Radulf, King of Thuringia in 640 AD, the Alemanni also revolted against Frankish rule. The period of Allemani independence that followed lasted more or less continuously until the middle of the 8th Century AD.
　　
　　Mayors of the Palace had been appointed by the Frankish Kings as court officials since the early 7th Century AD to act as mediators between the king and the people. However following Dagobert's death in 639 AD, with infants on the throne in both Neustria (Clovis II - a babe in arms in 639 AD) and Austrasia (Sigebert III - about 4 years old in 639 AD), these court appointees assumed greater power, eventually to such an extent that they ended the rule of the Merovingian monarchs, and took over the Frankish throne themselves. The first step was taken by the Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, Grimoald I, who convinced the childless Sigebert III to adopt his own son, Childebert as heir to the throne.
　　
　　Meanwhile in the Neustrian palace, the Mayors of the Palace, Erchinoald, and his successor, Ebroin, were likewise increasing their hold on power behind Clovis II, and his successor Chlothar III. Ebroin reunited the Frankish kingdom by defeating and removing Childebert (and Grimoald) from Austrasia in 661 AD.
　　
　　Chlothar III's younger brother, Childeric II, was then installed as King of the Austrasians, and together they ruled the empire. When Chlothar III died in 673 AD, Childeric II became king of the entire realm, ruling from Austrasia, until he was assassinated two years later by members of the Neustrian elite. After his death, Theuderic III, son of Clovis II, ascended to the throne, ruling from Neustria. He and his Mayor of the Palace, Berthar, declared war on Austrasia, which was ruled by Dagobert II, son of Sigebert III, and Pepin of Heristal (Pepin II), the Arnulfing Mayor of Austrasia. Theuderic and Berthar were defeated by Peppin at the Battle of Tertry in 687 AD, whereafter Peppin was appointed the sole Mayor of all Frankia, nominating himself as Duke and Prince of all the Franks. Peppin was the product of the marriage of two very powerful houses; that of the Pippinids and the Arnulfings. His success at Tertry was to mark the end of Merovingian power.
　　
　　Peppin again tasted military success in his campaign to bring the Frisians, of Europe's north coast, back under Frankish control. Between 709 AD and 712 AD he fought a similar campaign against the Alemanni, including those within the borders of present day Switzerland, and succeeded in re-imposing Frankish rule, the first since the Alemannian revolt of 640 AD. However Frankish control of this and other outlying areas was again lost when a Frankish civil war of succession followed Peppin's death in 714 AD.
　　
　　The war was a continuation of the ageless Neustrian/Austrasian rivalry. Peppin's illegitimate son, Charles Martel (who was the son of Peppin's mistress Alpaida), had been proclaimed Mayor of Austrasia by the Austraian nobility in defiance of Peppin's widow, Plectrude, who preferred that her 8 year old grandson, Theudoald, be appointed. Neustria invaded Austrasia under Chilperic II who had been appointed by the Neustrians without the agreement of the rest of the Frankish peoples. The turning point of the war came at the Battle of Ambleve, when Charles Martel, using brilliant and unconventional tactics, defeated combined Neustrian and Frisian forces under Chilperic II and Mayor Ragenfrid. Charles struck when The Neustrians were marching home after triumphing at Cologne over Plectrude and the child Theudoald.
　　
　　By 717 AD, Charles had confirmed his supremacy, with victory over the Neustians at the Battle of Vincy, thereby marking the beginning of Carolingian rule over the Frankish empire.
　　
　　After 718 AD, Charles, who was a brilliant commander, embarked upon a series of wars to strenthen Frankish dominion over Western Europe. This included bringing the Alemannians back under Frankish hegemony, and even, in the 720's AD, forcing some Alemannian elements to participate in his wars against their Eastern neigbours, the Bavarians.
　　
　　Alemannia, however, remained restless, with Duke Lantfrid in the late 720's AD, expressing independence by issuing revisions of the laws of the Alemans. Charles invaded again in 730 AD and subjugated the Alemannis by force.
　　
　　Charles is perhaps best known for stopping the Arab advance into Western Europe at the Battle of Tours in 732 AD, in a military stand that arguably halted Islamist expansionism into the European homeland.
　　
　　When Charles died in 741 AD, the dominion over Frankia was divided between his two sons from his first marriage; namely Peppin the Short and Carloman. Carloman was given Austrasia, Alemannia and Thuringen, while Peppen took control of Neustria, Provence and Burgundy (including present day Western Switzerland).
　　
　　By 743 AD, Carloman was vowing to impose a greater degree of control over Alemannia, and this resulted ultimately in the arrst, trial and execution of several thousand Alemanni nobleman at the Blood court at Cannstatt in 746 AD.
　　
　　Carloman retired to a monastery in 747 AD, leaving Peppin to assume the Frankish crown (after a vote of nobles) in 751 AD. Peppen further strengthened his position by forming an alliance, in 754 AD, with Pope Stephen II, who then came all the way to Paris to anoint him King in a ceremony at St Denis's Basilica. In return Peppin subdued the Lombards and donated the Exarchate of Ravenna and captured territry around Rome to the church. This was a turning point in the history of the Roman Catholic Church and Western Europe, as it foreshadowed later events under Charlemagne leading to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire. It is claimed that Pope Stephen II tabled the forged Donation of Constantine during his negotiations with Peppin. The Donation is a falsified imperial order purported to have been issued by Constantine to gift to Pope Sylvester I and all his successors dominion over not only the Western Roman empire, but also all of Judea, Greece, Asia, Thrace and Rome.
　　
　　Upon Peppen's death in 768 AD, the Frankish empire was passed to his sons Charles and Carloman I. Carloman withdrew to a monastery and died shortly afterwards, leaving Charles, later known as the legendary Charlemagne, the sole ruler of the Franks. Charles expanded Frankish sovereignty to include the Saxons, Bavarians, and the Lombards in Northern Italy and he expanded the empire into today's Austria and parts of Croatia. He offered the Papacy the promise of enduring Frankish protection, and he patronised monastic centres of learning.
　　
　　Charles therefore emerged as the leader of Western Christendom
　　
　　By 1200 AD, the Swiss plateau comprised the dominions of the houses of Savoy, Zähringer, Habsburg and Kyburg. When the Kyburg dynasty fell in 1264 AD, the Habsburgs under King Rudolph I (Emperor in 1273) extended its territory to the eastern Swiss plateau.
　　
　　The house dominions that existed around AD 1200:
　　 Savoy Zähringer Habsburg Kyburg
　　Old Swiss Confederacy
　　
　　Further information: Growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy, Reformation in Switzerland, and Early Modern Switzerland
　　The Old Swiss Confederacy was an alliance among the valley communities of the central Alps. The Confederacy facilitated management of common interests (free trade) and ensured peace on the important mountain trade routes. The Federal Charter of 1291 agreed between the rural communes of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden is considered the confederacy's founding document; even though similar alliances are likely to have existed decades earlier.
　　
　　A view of Zug in 1548.By 1353 the three original cantons had joined with the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the Lucerne, Zürich and Berne city states to form the "Old Confederacy" of eight states that existed until the end of the 15th century. The expansion lead to increased power and wealth for the federation. By 1460, the confederates controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine to the Alps and the Jura mountains. particularly after victories against the Habsburgs (Battle of Sempach, Battle of Näfels), over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s, and the success of the Swiss mercenaries. The Swiss victory in the Swabian War against the Swabian League of Emperor Maximilian I in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire.
　　
　　Federal charter of 1291The Old Swiss Confederacy had acquired a reputation of invincibility during these earlier wars, but expansion of the federation suffered a setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano. This ended the so-called "heroic" epoch of Swiss history. The success of Zwingli's Reformation in some cantons led to inter-cantonal wars in 1529 and 1531 (Kappeler Kriege). It wasn't until more than one hundred years after these internal wars that, in 1648, under the Treaty of Westphalia, European countries recognised Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality (ancien régime).
　　
　　During the Early Modern period of Swiss history, the growing authoritarianism of the patriciate families combined with a financial crisis in the wake of the Thirty Years' War led to the Swiss peasant war of 1653. In the background to this struggle, the conflict between Catholic and Protestant cantons persisted, erupting in further violence at the battles of Villmergen in 1656 and 1712.
　　
　　Napoleonic era
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　　The Act of Mediation was Napoleon's attempt at a compromise between the Ancien Régime and a Republic.In 1798 the armies of the French Revolution conquered Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution. This centralised the government of the country and effectively abolished the cantons. The new regime, known as the Helvetic Republic, was highly unpopular. It had been imposed by a foreign invading army and destroyed centuries of tradition, making Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state. The fierce French suppression of the Nidwalden Revolt in September of 1798 is an example of the suppressing presence of the French army and the local population's resistance to the occupation.
　　
　　When war broke out between France and its rivals, Russian and Austrian forces invaded Switzerland. In 1803 Napoleon organised a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides in Paris. The result was the Act of Mediation which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 cantons. Henceforth much of Swiss politics would concern balancing the cantons' tradition of self-rule with the need for a central government.
　　
　　In 1815 the Congress of Vienna fully re-established Swiss independence and the European powers agreed to permanently recognise Swiss neutrality. The treaty marked the last time that Switzerland fought in an international conflict. The treaty also allowed Switzerland to increase its territory, with the admission of the cantons of Valais, Neuchâtel and Geneva – this was also the last time Switzerland's territory expanded.
　　
　　Federal state
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　　The restoration of the power to the patriciate was only temporary. After a period of unrest with repeated violent clashes such as the Züriputsch of 1839, civil war broke out between some of the Catholic and most of the other cantons in 1847 (the Sonderbundskrieg). The war lasted for less than a month, causing fewer than 100 casualties; most of which were through friendly fire. However minor the Sonderbundskrieg seems to be when compared with other European riots and wars in the 19th century, it nevertheless had a major impact on both the psychology and the society of the Swiss and of Switzerland. The war made all Swiss understand the need for unity and strength towards its European neighbours. Swiss people from all strata of society, whether Catholic, Protestant, or from the liberal or conservative current, realised that the cantons would profit more if their economic and religious interest were merged. Credit to those who favored the power of the cantons (the Sonderbund Kantone), the national assembly was divided among an upper house (the Swiss Council of States) and a lower house (the National Council of Switzerland). Thus, the interests of the Federationalists were accounted for. Switzerland adopted a federal constitution and the use of referenda (mandatory for any amendment of this constitution) in 1848. This constitution provided for a central authority while leaving the cantons the right to self-government on local issues. In 1850 the Swiss franc became the Swiss single currency. The constitution was amended extensively in 1874 in order to take into account the rise in population and the Industrial Revolution. It introduced the facultative referendum for laws at the federal level. It also established federal responsibility for defence, trade, and legal matters.
　　
　　In 1891, the constitution was revised with unusually strong elements of direct democracy, which remain unique even today. Since then, continued political, economic, and social improvement has characterised Swiss history.
　　
　　Modern history
　　
　　The Zmutt Valley and the Mischabelhörner (or Mischabel) mountains in the canton of Valais. The image is from a photochrom postcard (circa 1890).Switzerland was not invaded during either of the World Wars. During World War I, Switzerland was home to Vladimir Illych Ulyanov (Lenin) and he remained there until 1917. Swiss neutrality was seriously questioned by the Grimm-Hoffmann Affair in 1917, but it was short-lived. In 1920, Switzerland joined the League of Nations, and in 1963 the Council of Europe.
　　
　　During World War II, detailed invasion plans were drawn up by the Germans, but Switzerland was never attacked. Switzerland was able to remain independent through a combination of military deterrence, economic concessions to Germany, and good fortune as larger events during the war delayed an invasion. Attempts by Switzerland's small Nazi party to cause an Anschluss with Germany failed miserably. The Swiss press vigorously criticised the Third Reich, often infuriating its leadership. Under General Henri Guisan, a massive mobilisation of militia forces was ordered. The Swiss military strategy was changed from one of static defence at the borders to protect the economic heartland, to a strategy of organised long-term attrition and withdrawal to strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps known as the Réduit. Switzerland was an important base for espionage by both sides in the conflict and often mediated communications between the Axis and Allied powers.
　　
　　Switzerland's trade was blockaded by both the Allies and by the Axis. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the Third Reich varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion, and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached an apex after a crucial rail link through Vichy France was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis. Over the course of the war, Switzerland interned over 300,000 refugees, 104,000 of which were foreign troops, interned according to the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers outlined in the Hague Conventions. 60,000 of the refugees were civilians escaping persecution by the Nazis. Of these, 26,000 to 27,000 were Jews. However, strict immigration and asylum policies as well as the financial relationships with Nazi Germany raised controversy.
　　
　　
　　The Grossmünster cathedral and waterfront in modern day Zürich.Women were granted the right to vote in the first Swiss cantons in 1959, at the federal level in 1971, and after resistance, in the last canton Appenzell Innerrhoden in 1990. After suffrage at the federal level women quickly rose in political significance, with the first woman on the seven member high council being Elisabeth Kopp from 1984–1989. The first female president was Ruth Dreifuss, elected in 1998 to become president during 1999. (The Swiss president is elected every year from those among the seven member high council). The second female president is Micheline Calmy-Rey who held the 2007 Swiss high office. She is originally from the French-speaking western area of canton Valais (Wallis in German). She is presently joined on the seven member cabinet/high council by two other women, Doris Leuthard, from the canton of Aargau and Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, from the canton of Graubünden.
　　
　　In 1979 areas from inside the previous borders in the canton of Bern attained independence from the Bernese, forming the new canton of Jura. On April 18, 1999 the Swiss population and the cantons voted in favour of a completely revised federal constitution.
　　
　　In 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations, leaving the Vatican as the last widely recognized state without full UN membership. Switzerland is a founding member of the EFTA, but is not a member of the European Economic Area. An application for membership in the European Union was sent in May 1992, but not advanced since the EEA was rejected in December 1992 when Switzerland was the only country to launch a referendum on the EEA. There have since been several referenda on the EU issue, with a mixed reaction to these from the population, the membership application has been frozen. Nonetheless, Swiss law is gradually being adjusted to conform with that of the EU and the government has signed a number of bilateral agreements with the European Union. Switzerland, together with Liechtenstein, has been completely surrounded by the EU since Austria's membership in 1995. On 5 June 2005, Swiss voters agreed by a 55% majority to join the Schengen treaty, a result that was regarded by EU commentators as a sign of support by Switzerland, a country that is traditionally perceived as independent, neutral, or isolationist.
　　
　　Politics
　　
　　The Federal Palace in the canton of Berne is the name of the building in which the Federal Assembly of Switzerland (federal parliament) and the Swiss Federal Council (executive) are housed.The Federal Constitution adopted in 1848 is the legal foundation of the modern federal state. A new Constitution was adopted in 1999, but did not introduce notable changes to the federal structure. It outlines basic and political rights of individuals and citizen participation in public affairs, and divides the powers between the Confederation and the cantons and defines federal jurisdictions and authorities. There are three main governing bodies on the federal level: the bicameral parliament (legislative), the Federal Council (executive) and the Federal Court (judicial).
　　
　　The Swiss Parliament consists of two houses: the Council of States which has 46 representatives (two from each canton and one from each half-canton) who are elected under a system determined by each canton, and the National Council, which consists of 200 members who are elected under a system of proportional representation, depending on the population of each canton. Members of both houses serve for 4 years. When both houses are in joint session, they are known collectively as the Federal Assembly. Through referendums, citizens may challenge any law passed by parliament and through initiatives, introduce amendments to the federal constitution, making Switzerland a direct democracy.
　　
　　The Swiss Federal Council in 2008. The current members of the council are (from left to right): Widmer-Schlumpf, Leuenberger, Calmy-Rey, Couchepin, Schmid, Leuthard, Merz. The Federal Chancellor of Switzerland, Casanova, is also pictured.The Federal Council constitutes the federal government, directs the federal administration and serves as collective Head of State. It is a collegial body of seven members, elected for a four-year mandate by the Federal Assembly which also exercises oversight over the Council. The President of the Confederation is elected by the Assembly from among the seven members, traditionally in rotation, for a one-year term, in order to chair the government and assume representative functions. However, the president is a primus inter pares with no additional powers, and remains the head of a department of the administration.
　　
　　The Swiss government has been a coalition of the four major political parties since 1959, each party having a number of seats that roughly reflects its share of electorate and representation in the federal parliament: currently there are 1 Christian Democrat (CVP/PDC), 2 Social Democrats (SPS/PSS), 2 Liberal Democrats (FDP/PRD), and 2 representatives of the Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC) in the government. This traditional distribution of seats is called the "magic formula", and is not backed up by any law. The original distribution of 2 CVP/PDC, 2 SPS/PSS, 2 FDP/PRD and 1 SVP/UDC lasted from 1959 to 2003, until the CVP/PDC lost their second seat to the SVP/UDC, which had become the strongest party in Switzerland's legislative following the 2003 parliamentary elections.
　　
　　The function of the Federal Supreme Court is to hear appeals against rulings of cantonal or federal courts. The judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for six-year terms.
　　
　　Direct democracy
　　Swiss citizens are subject to three legal jurisdictions: the commune, canton and federal levels. The 1848 federal constitution defines a system of direct democracy (sometimes called half-direct democracy since it is added by the more commonplace institutions of a parliamentary democracy). The instruments of Swiss direct democracy at the federal level, known as civil rights (Volksrechte, droits civiques), include the right to submit a constitutional initiative and a referendum, both of which may overturn parliamentary decisions.
　　
　　By calling a federal referendum a group of citizens may challenge a law that has been passed by Parliament, if they can gather 50,000 signatures against the law within 100 days. If so, a national vote is scheduled where voters decide by a simple majority whether to accept or reject the law. Eight cantons together can also call a referendum on a federal law.
　　
　　Similarly, the federal constitutional initiative allows citizens to put a constitutional amendment to a national vote, if they can get 100,000 voters to sign the proposed amendment within 18 months. Parliament can supplement the proposed amendment with a counter-proposal, with voters having to indicate a preference on the ballot in case both proposals are accepted. Constitutional amendments, whether introduced by initiative or in Parliament, must be accepted by a double majority of both the national popular vote and a majority of the cantonal popular votes.
　　
　　Cantons
　　
　　The Swiss Confederation consists of 26 cantons:
　　
　　Aargau
　　Appenzell Innerrhoden*
　　Appenzell Ausserrhoden*
　　Basel-Stadt*
　　Basel-Landschaft*
　　Bern
　　Fribourg
　　Genève
　　Glarus
　　Graubünden
　　Jura
　　Lucerne
　　Neuchâtel
　　 Nidwalden*
　　Obwalden*
　　Schaffhausen
　　Schwyz
　　Solothurn
　　St. Gallen
　　Thurgau
　　Ticino
　　Uri
　　Valais
　　Vaud
　　Zug
　　Zürich
　　
　　
　　*These cantons, called half-cantons, are represented by one councillor (instead of two) in the Council of States and only count half (instead of one) in national votes on constitutional amendments.
　　
　　Their populations vary between 15,000 (Appenzell Innerrhoden) and 1,253,500 (Zürich), and their area between 37 km² (Basel-Stadt) and 7,105 km² (Graubünden). The Cantons comprise a total of 2,889 municipalities. Within Switzerland there are two enclaves: Büsingen belongs to Germany, Campione d'Italia belongs to Italy.
　　
　　In a referendum held in the Austrian state of Vorarlberg on 11 May 1919 over 80% of those voting supported a proposal that the state should join the Swiss Confederation. However, this was prevented by the opposition of the Austrian Government, the Allies, Swiss liberals, the Swiss-Italians (persons of Swiss nationality who live in Italian Switzerland – see map) and the Romands (Swiss nationals living in the French-speaking regions of Switzerland – see map).
　　
　　International institutions in Switzerland
　　An unusual number of international institutions have their seats in Switzerland, in part due to its policy of neutrality. The Red Cross was founded there in 1863 and still has its institutional centre in the country. Switzerland is not a member of the European Union; the Swiss people rejected membership in a referendum in the early 1990s. Switzerland is one of the most recent countries to have joined the United Nations, in 2002, even though Geneva is the second biggest centre for the United Nations after New York, and Switzerland was a founding member of the League of Nations.
　　
　　Geography
　　
　　A winter view of Sent in the canton of Graubünden.
　　The Matterhorn (or Cervino) near the Swiss village of Zermatt in the canton of Valais.With an area of 41,285 square kilometres (15,940 sq mi), Switzerland is a relatively small country. The population is about 7.5 million, resulting in an average population density of 182 people per square kilometer (472/sq mi). However, the more mountainous southern half of the country is far more sparsely populated than this average, while the northern half has a somewhat greater density, as it comprises more hospitable hilly terrain, partly forested and partly cleared, as well as several large lakes.
　　
　　Switzerland comprises three basic topographical areas: the Swiss Alps, the Swiss plateau or "middleland", and the Jura mountains along the northwestern border with France. The Alps are a high mountain range running across the central-south of the country, comprising about 60 % of the country's total area. Among the high peaks of the Swiss Alps, the highest of which is the Dufourspitze at 4,634 metres (15,203 ft), countless valleys are found, many with waterfalls and glaciers. From these the headwaters of several major European rivers such as the Rhine, Rhône, Inn, Aare, and Ticino flow finally into the largest Swiss lakes such as Lake Geneva (Lac Léman), Lake Zürich, Lake Neuchâtel, and Lake Constance.
　　
　　The most famous mountain is the Matterhorn (4,478 m) in Valais and Pennine Alps bordering Italy. The highest mountain, the Dufourspitze (4,634 m) of Monte Rosa, is close to the Matterhorn. The section of the Bernese Alps above the deep glacial Lauterbrunnen Valley containing 72 waterfalls is also well known for the Jungfrau (4,158 m), Mönch, Eiger group of peaks, and the many picturesque valleys in the region. In the southeast the long Engadin Valley, encompassing the St Moritz area in canton Graubünden, is also well known; the highest peak in the neighbouring Bernina Alps is Piz Bernina (4,049 m).
　　
　　Morcote in the warmer southern canton of Ticino.
　　The canton of Schwyz in the center of Switzerland.The more populous northern part of the country, comprising about 30 % of the country's total area, is called the Middle Land. It has greater open and hilly landscapes, partly forested, partly open pastures, usually with grazing herds, or vegetables and fruit fields, but it is still hilly. There are large lakes found here and the biggest Swiss cities are in this area of the country. This region, particularly the west, is also referred to as the "Seeland" (the land of lakes) and the largest lake is Lake Geneva (also called Lac Léman), in the West of Switzerland. The Rhone River is the main tributary to Lac Léman.
　　
　　The Swiss National Park in the canton of Graubünden.
　　A sunset in the Swiss Alps. View from Bettmeralp, Valais.The Swiss climate is generally temperate, but can vary greatly between the localities, from glacial conditions on the mountaintops to the often pleasant Mediterranean climate at Switzerland's southern tip. Summers tend to be warm and humid at times with periodic rainfall so they are ideal for pastures and grazing. The winters in the mountains alternate with sun and snow, while the lower lands tend to be more cloudy and foggy in winter. A weather phenomenon known as the Föhn can occur at all times of the year, even in winter, and is characterized by a wind with warm Mediterranean air crossing the Alps from Italy. The driest conditions persist in the southern valleys of the Wallis/Valais above which valuable saffron is harvested and many wine grapes are grown, Graubünden also tends to be drier in climate and slightly colder, yet with plentiful snow in winter. The wettest conditions persist in the high Alps and in the Ticino canton which has much sun yet heavy bursts of rain from time to time. The east tends to be colder than the west of Switzerland, yet anywhere up high in the mountains can experience a cold spell at any time of the year. Precipitation tends to be spread moderately throughout the year, with minor variations across the seasons depending on locale. Autumn frequently tends to be the driest season, yet the weather patterns in Switzerland can be highly variable from year to year, and difficult to predict.
　　
　　Switzerland's eco-systems can be particularly vulnerable, due to the many delicate valleys separated by high mountains, often forming unique ecologies. The mountainous regions themselves are also vulnerable, with a rich range of plants not found at other altitudes, and experience some pressure from visitors and grazing. The tree line in the mountains of Switzerland has advanced down 1000 ft over the years, largely due to the increasing absence of herding and grazing pressures.
　　
　　Economy
　　
　　Tourism is important in the Engadin valley. St. Moritz, pictured above, is in the canton of Graubünden.Switzerland has a stable, modern, and some of the most capitalist economies in the world, having the 2nd highest European rating (after Ireland) in the Index of Economic Freedom 2008 edition. Public sector has always been minimal and overall taxation amounted to just 29.2% of GDP in 2007, about the same as United States, Ireland, or Estonia. The nominal per capita GDP that is higher than those of the larger western European economies, Japan ranking 6th behind Luxembourg, Norway, Qatar, Iceland and Ireland. If adjusted for purchasing power parity it ranks 15th. The World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report currently ranks Switzerland's economy as the second most competitive in the world. For much of the 20th century, Switzerland was the wealthiest country in Europe by a considerable margin. In 2005 the median household income in Switzerland was an estimated 95,000 CHF, the equivalent of roughly 55,000 USD in purchasing power parity, which is similar to wealthy American states like California and Vermont.
　　
　　Cheese making and dairying is a famous and extraordinary Swiss industry, which was liberalized in 2007.Switzerland is home to several large multinational corporations. Notable among these are Nestlé, UBS AG, Zurich Financial Services, Credit Suisse, Novartis, Roche, ABB, Swiss Re, and The Swatch Group. Switzerland is ranked as one of the most powerful economies in the world.
　　
　　Chemicals, health and pharmaceuticals, instruments, real estate, banking and insurance, and tourism are important industries in Switzerland. The manufacturing of precision instruments for engineering is important, as is watch-making, and the biological sciences industries all enjoy a high place in the Swiss economy. The many international organizations in Switzerland contribute to the Swiss economy and labour market. The largest exported goods are chemicals (34% of exported goods or 62 billion USD in 2006), machines/electronics (20.9%), and precision instruments/watches (16.9%). Pharmaceuticals are the largest high-technology export category at around 30 billion USD in 2006, followed by instruments at around 20 billion USD. Exported services amount to a third of exported goods.
　　
　　Switzerland has relatively free labor market compared to neighboring countries. Switzerland's unemployment rate increased from a low of 1.7% in June 2000 to a peak of 3.9% in September 2004. Partly due to the economic upturn which started in mid-2003, the unemployment rate is currently 2.8% as of February 2008. Average household size is a typical 2.2 persons. Net immigration is quite high at 0.52% of population in 2004, compared to 0.76% in Austria, 0.34% in UK and 0.1% in Germany. 21.8% of residents were foreigners in 2004, higher than any major Western country. According to Credit Suisse, only about 37 percent of residents own their own homes. Ownership rates are among the lowest in Europe. Housing and food price levels were 171% and 145% of the EU-25 index in 2007, compared to 113% and 104% in Germany. Food prices are particularly affected by agricultural protectionism, which keeps more competitive imports outside and swallows comparatively a lot resources.
　　
　　Switzerland is relatively easy place to do business, ranking 16th in the Ease of Doing Business Index. Among others, Switzerland has relatively low taxation and relatively free job market. However, OECD argues that the product market reform is still lagging behind most OECD countries. The slow growth Switzerland experienced in the 1990s and the early 2000s has brought greater support for liberalization and harmonization with the European Union. In 2004, the government launched a “growth package”, including a series of measures aimed at boosting productivity, and legislative changes are slowly taking place.
　　
　　Science, technology, and education
　　
　　Education in Switzerland is very diverse, because the constitution of Switzerland delegates the authority for the school system to the cantons. There are both public and private schools, including many private international schools.
　　
　　The minimum age for primary school is about six years in all cantons. Typically children choose their school depending on whether they want to speak French, German or Italian. Primary school continues until grade four or five, depending on the school. At the end of primary school (or at the beginning of secondary school), pupils are separated according to their capacities in several (often three) sections. The fastest learners are taught advanced classes to be prepared for further studies and the matura, while students who assimilate a little bit more slowly receive an education more adapted to their needs.
　　
　　The first university in Switzerland was founded in 1460 in Basel, with a faculty of medicine. This place has a long tradition of chemical and medical research in Switzerland. Other large universities are the ETHZ in Zürich and the EPFL in Lausanne. There are 14 Universities in Switzerland, 10 of which are maintained at cantonal level and usually offer a range of non-technical subjects. Switzerland has the second highest rate of foreign students in tertiary education, after Australia.
　　
　　Many Nobel prizes were awarded to Swiss scientists, for example to the world-famous physicist Albert Einstein or more recently to Heinrich Rohrer also in the field of physics. Geneva host the world's largest particle physics laboratory, the CERN. An other important research center is the Paul Scherrer Institute which belongs to the ETHZ.
　　
　　Switzerland and the European Union
　　
　　In recent years, the Swiss have brought their economic practices largely into conformity with those of the European Union in many ways, in an effort to enhance their international competitiveness. The economy has been growing most recently at around 3% per year. Full EU membership is a long-term objective of some in the Swiss government, but there is considerable popular sentiment against this supported by the conservative SVP party. The western French-speaking areas and the urban regions of the rest of the country tend to be more pro-EU.
　　
　　The government has established an Integration Office under the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Department of Economic Affairs. To minimise the negative consequences of Switzerland's isolation from the rest of Europe, Bern and Brussels signed seven bilateral agreements to further liberalise trade ties. These agreements were signed in 1999 and took effect in 2001. This first series of bilateral agreements included the free movement of persons. A second series covering nine areas was signed in 2004 and has since been ratified. The second series includes the Schengen treaty and the Dublin Convention. They continue to discuss further areas for cooperation. Switzerland most recently (2006) approved a billion francs supportive investment in the poorer eastern European countries in support of cooperation and positive ties to the EU as a whole. A further referendum will be needed to approve 300 million francs to support Romania and Bulgaria and their recent admission. The Swiss have also been under EU and sometimes international pressure to reduce banking secrecy and to raise tax rates to parity with the European Union. Preparatory discussions are being opened in four new areas: opening up the electricity market, participation in the European GNSS project Galileo, cooperating with the European centre for disease prevention and recognising certificates of origin for food products. Switzerland voted against membership in the European Economic Area in December 1992 and has since maintained and developed its relationships with the European Union and European countries through bilateral agreements. In March 2001, the Swiss people refused in a popular vote to start accession negotiations with the EU.
　　
　　Infrastructure and environment
　　
　　The Leibstadt Nuclear Power Plant is located in the canton of Aargau.See also: Transport in Switzerland, Nuclear power in Switzerland, and Waste management in Switzerland
　　Electricity generated in Switzerland is 53% from hydroelectricity and 42% from nuclear power, with 5% of the electricity generated from conventional power sources (thermal etc.) resulting in a nearly CO2-free electricity-generating network.
　　
　　On 18 May 2003, two anti-nuclear initiatives were turned down: Moratorium Plus, aimed at forbidding the building of new nuclear power plants (41.6% supported and 58.4% opposed), and Electricity Without Nuclear (33.7% supported and 66.3% opposed). The former ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants was the result of a citizens' initiative voted on in 1990 which had passed with 54.5% Yes vs. 45.5% No votes. A new nuclear plant in the Canton of Bern is presently planned. The Swiss Federal Office of Energy (SFOE) is the office responsible for all questions relating to energy supply and energy use within the Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (DETEC). The agency is supporting the 2000-watt society initiative to cut the nation's energy use by more than half by the year 2050. See also SwissEnergy.
　　
　　Swiss private-public managed road network is funded by road tolls and vehicle taxes. The Swiss autobahn/autoroute system requires the purchase of a vignette (toll sticker) - which costs 40 Swiss francs - for one calendar year in order to use its roadways, for both passenger cars and trucks. The Swiss autobahn/autoroute network has a total length of 1,638 km (as of 2000) and has, by an area of 41,290 km², also the one of the highest motorway densities in the world. Zürich Airport, managed by Unique Airport, is Switzerland's largest international flight gateway, which handled 20.7 million passengers in 2007. The second largest Geneva Cointrin International Airport handled 10.8 million passengers and the third largest EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg 4.3 million passengers, both airports being shared with France.
　　
　　Switzerland is heavily active in recycling and anti-littering regulations and is one of the top recyclers in the world with 66% to 96% of the different recyclable materials being recycled. In many places in Switzerland, household rubbish disposal is charged for. Garbage (except dangerous items, batteries etc.) will only be collected if it is in bags which either have a payment sticker attached, or in official bags with the surcharge paid when the bags are purchased. This gives a financial incentive to recycle as much as possible, since recycling is free. Swiss health officials and police often open up garbage for which the disposal charge has not been paid. They search for evidence such as old bills which connect the bag to the household/person they originated from. Fines for not paying the disposal fee range from CHF 200–500.
　　
　　Demographics
　　
　　Official languages in Switzerland:
　　 Swiss German (62.7%; 72.5%)
　　
　　 French (20.4%; 21.0%)
　　
　　 Italian (6.5%; 4.3%)
　　
　　 Romansh (0.5%; 0,6% )
　　
　　Switzerland lies at the crossroads of several major European cultures that have heavily influenced the country's languages and culture. Switzerland has four official languages: German (63.7% total population share, with foreign residents; 72.5% of residents with Swiss citizenship, in 2000) in the north, east and centre of the country; French (20.4%; 21.0%) to the west; Italian (6.5%; 4.3%) in the south. Romansh, a Romance language spoken locally by a small minority (0.5%; 0.6%) in the southeastern canton of Graubünden, is designated by the Federal Constitution as a national language along with German, French and Italian (Article 4 of the Constitution), and as official language if the authorities communicate with persons of Romansh language (Article 70), but federal laws and other official acts do not need to be decreed in this language. The federal government is obliged to communicate in the official languages, and in the federal parliament simultaneous translation is provided from and into German, French and Italian. The German spoken in Switzerland is predominantly a group of Alemannic dialects collectively known as Swiss German, but written communication typically use Swiss Standard German, whilst a the majority of radio and TV broadcast is (nowadays) in Swiss German as well. Similarly, there are some dialects of Franco-Provençal in rural communities in the French speaking part, known as "Suisse romande", called Vaudois, Gruérien, Jurassien, Empro, Fribourgeois, Neuchâtelois, and in the Italian speaking area, Ticinese (a dialect of Lombard). Also the official languages (German, French and Italian) borrow some terms not understood outside of Switzerland, i.e. terms from other languages (German Billette from French), from similar term in another language (Italian azione used not as act but as discount from German Aktion). Learning one of the other national languages at school is obligatory for all Swiss, so most Swiss are supposed to be at least bilingual.
　　
　　Resident foreigners and temporary foreign workers make up about 21% of the population. Most of these are from European Union and EFTA countries. Italians are the largest single group of foreigners with 18,9% of total foreign population, while people from the various nations of former Yugoslavia make up 21%, there are also many ethnic Albanians[citation needed]. Immigrants from Sri Lanka, most of them former Tamil refugees, are the largest group among people of Asian origin.
　　
　　
　　Religion
　　
　　Cathedral Notre-Dame de Lausanne in the canton of Vaud.Switzerland has no official state religion, though most of the cantons (except Geneva and Neuchâtel) recognise official churches, in all cases including the Catholic Church and the Swiss Reformed Church. These churches, and in some cantons also the Old Catholic Church and Jewish congregations, are financed by official taxation of adherents.
　　
　　Christianity is the predominant religion of Switzerland, divided between various Protestant denominations (42.5% of the population) and the Catholic Church (41%). Immigration has brought Islam (4.3%, predominantly Albanians mostly from Kosovo) and Eastern Orthodoxy (1.8%) as sizeable minority religions. The 2005 Eurobarometer poll found 48% to be theist, 39% expressing belief in "a spirit or life force", 9% atheist and 4% agnostic.
　　
　　
　　Notre Dame de Valère in the canton of Valais.The country is historically about evenly balanced between Catholic and Protestant, with a complex patchwork of majorities over most of the country. One canton, Appenzell, was officially divided into Catholic and Protestant sections in 1597. The larger cities (Bern, Zürich and Basel) are predominantly Protestant. Central Switzerland, as well as the Ticino, is traditionally Catholic. The Swiss constitution of 1848, under the recent impression of the clashes of Catholic vs. Protestant cantons that culminated in the Sonderbundskrieg, consciously defines a consociational state, allowing the peaceful co-existence of Catholics and Protestants. A 1980 initiative calling for the complete separation of church and state was clearly rejected, with only 21.1% voting in support.
　　
　　
　　Culture
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　　The culture of Switzerland is influenced by its neighbours and its international sentiment, but over the years a distinctive culture with some regional differences and an independent streak has developed. In particular, French-speaking regions have tended to orient themselves slightly more on French culture and tend to be more pro EU. In general, the Swiss are known for their long standing humanitarian tradition as Switzerland is the birth place of the Red Cross Movement and hosts the United Nations Human Rights Council. Swiss German speaking areas may perhaps be seen more oriented on German culture, although German-speaking Swiss people identify strictly as Swiss because of the difference between High German, and the Swiss German dialects. Italian-speaking areas can have more of an Italian culture. A region may be in some ways strongly culturally connected to the neighbouring country that shares its language. The linguistically isolated Rhaeto-Romanic culture in the eastern mountains of Switzerland is also robust and strives to maintain its rare linguistic tradition. Switzerland's entry to the Eurovision Song Contest of 1989 was in Romansh.
　　
　　Many mountain areas have a strong highly energetic ski town culture in winter, and a hiking/wandering culture in summer. Some areas throughout the year have a recreational culture that caters to tourism, yet the quieter seasons are spring and autumn when there are fewer visitors and a higher ratio of Swiss. A traditional farmer and herder culture also predominates in many areas, and this connection to the land and agriculture is a strong glue holding all the Swiss together. Even though most no longer actually farm themselves, the small farms are omnipresent outside the cities, and as well many Swiss at least have a small garden plot or many window boxes with geraniums and other flowers.
　　
　　Sport
　　
　　A game of Hornussen.Like many European nations the Swiss are big fans of football and the national team or 'Nati' is widely supported. Switzerland's most well known football clubs include Grasshoppers Zurich, Neuchatel Xamax and Basle.
　　
　　Swiss wrestling or "Schwingen" is an old tradition from the rural central cantons and considered the national sport.
　　
　　Hornussen is another indigenous Swiss sport, which is like a cross between baseball and golf.
　　
　　Steinstossen is the Swiss variant of stone put, a competition in throwing a heavy stone. Practiced among the alpine population since prehistoric times, it is recorded to have taken place in Basel in the 13th century. It is also central to the Unspunnenfest, first held in 1805, with its symbol the 83.5 kg Unspunnenstein.
　　
　　Floorball is a new sport in Switzerland that grows every year in popularity. A main factor is the professional league called Nationalliga A that draws many famous players from other countries.
　　
　　Over the last few years several Swiss tennis players, like Roger Federer and Martina Hingis, have been multiple Grand Slam singles champions. One of the world's best current ice skaters is Swiss Stéphane Lambiel. Many Swiss also follow hockey and support one of the 12 clubs in the league A. Two clubs are from the French speaking part, and two other from the Italian part. The canton Graubünden has HC Davos as its own club which won the 2006–2007 Swiss championship. The German speaking part of Switzerland has 7 clubs. The most known Swiss club is SCBerne. Switzerland is also the home of the successful sailing team Alinghi. Other sports where the Swiss have been successful include fencing (Marcel Fischer), whitewater slalom (Ronnie Dürrenmatt – canoe, Mathias Röthenmund – kayak), ice hockey (Swiss National League), beach volleyball (Sascha Heyer, Markus Egger, Paul and Martin Laciga), and skiing (Bernhard Russi, Pirmin Zurbriggen, Didier Cuche). Motorsport racecourses were banned in Switzerland following the 1955 Le Mans disaster, however the country has produced successful racers such as Clay Regazzoni and Jo Siffert, and leading drivers such as Michael Schumacher, Kimi Räikkönen, Fernando Alonso and now Lewis Hamilton all live there. Switzerland is also the joint venue following Austria in the Euro 2008 football tournament.

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